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Data Analysis Digital Signal and Image Processing 1st
Edition Gérard Govaert Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Gérard Govaert
ISBN(s): 1848210981
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 2.54 MB
Year: 2009
Language: english
Data Analysis

Edited by
Gérard Govaert
This page intentionally left blank
Data Analysis
This page intentionally left blank
Data Analysis

Edited by
Gérard Govaert
First published in France in 2003 by Hermes Science/Lavoisier entitled: Analyse des données
© LAVOISIER, 2003
First published in Great Britain and the United States in 2009 by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as
permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced,
stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers,
or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the
CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the
undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

27-37 St George’s Road 111 River Street
London SW19 4EU Hoboken, NJ 07030
UK USA

www.iste.co.uk www.wiley.com

© ISTE Ltd, 2009

The rights of Gérard Govaert to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in
accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Analyse des données. English.

Data analysis / edited by Gérard Govaert.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-84821-098-1
1. Mathematical statistics. I. Govaert, Gérard. II. Title.
QA276.D325413 2009
519.5--dc22
2009016228

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-1-84821-098-1

Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI/Antony Rowe, Chippenham and Eastbourne.
 Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

Chapter 1. Principal Component Analysis: Application to Statistical

Process Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Gilbert S APORTA, Ndèye N IANG
1.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2. Data table and related subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1. Data and their characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2. The space of statistical units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.3. Variables space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3. Principal component analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.1. The method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.2. Principal factors and principal components . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.3. Principal factors and principal components properties . . . . . . . 10
1.4. Interpretation of PCA results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.1. Quality of representations onto principal planes . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.2. Axis selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.3. Internal interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.4. External interpretation: supplementary variables and individuals . 15
1.5. Application to statistical process control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5.2. Control charts and PCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.7. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Chapter 2. Correspondence Analysis: Extensions and Applications to the

Statistical Analysis of Sensory Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Jérôme PAGÈS
2.1. Correspondence analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
vi Data Analysis

2.1.1. Data, example, notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.1.2. Questions: independence model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.3. Intensity, significance and nature of a relationship between two
qualitative variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1.4. Transformation of the data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1.5. Two clouds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1.6. Factorial analysis of X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.1.7. Aid to interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.8. Some properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1.9. Relationships to the traditional presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.1.10. Example: recognition of three fundamental tastes . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2. Multiple correspondence analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2.1. Data, notations and example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.2.2. Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2.3. MCA and CA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2.4. Spaces, clouds and metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2.5. Properties of the clouds in CA of the CDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2.6. Transition formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.2.7. Aid for interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.2.8. Example: relationship between two taste thresholds . . . . . . . . 46
2.3. An example of application at the crossroads of CA and MCA . . . . . . 50
2.3.1. Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.3.2. Questions: construction of the analyzed table . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.3.3. Properties of the CA of the analyzed table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.3.4. Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.4. Conclusion: two other extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.4.1. Internal correspondence analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.4.2. Multiple factor analysis (MFA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.5. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Chapter 3. Exploratory Projection Pursuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Henri C AUSSINUS, Anne RUIZ -G AZEN
3.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2. General principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2.1. Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2.2. What is an interesting projection? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2.3. Looking for an interesting projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.2.4. Inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.2.5. Outliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.3. Some indexes of interest: presentation and use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.3.1. Projection indexes based on entropy measures . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.3.2. Projection indexes based on L2 distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.3.3. Chi-squared type indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
 Contents vii

3.3.4. Indexes based on the cumulative empirical function . . . . . . . . 75

3.4. Generalized principal component analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.4.1. Theoretical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.4.2. Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.4.3. Some precisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.5. Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.6. Further topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.6.1. Other indexes, other structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.6.2. Unsupervised classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.6.3. Discrete data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.6.4. Related topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.6.5. Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.7. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Chapter 4. The Analysis of Proximity Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Gerard D ’AUBIGNY
4.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.2. Representation of proximity data in a metric space . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.2.1. Four illustrative examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.2.2. Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.3. Isometric embedding and projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.3.1. An example of computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.3.2. The additive constant problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.3.3. The case of observed dissimilarity measures blurred by noise . . . 108
4.4. Multidimensional scaling and approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.4.1. The parametric MDS model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.4.2. The Shepard founding heuristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.4.3. The majorization approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.4.4. Extending MDS to a semi-parametric setting . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.5. A fielded application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.5.1. Principal coordinates analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.5.2. Dimensionality for the representation space . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.5.3. The scree test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.5.4. Recourse to simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.5.5. Validation of results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.5.6. The use of exogenous information for interpreting the output
configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.5.7. Introduction to stochastic modeling in MDS . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.6. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Chapter 5. Statistical Modeling of Functional Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

Philippe B ESSE , Hervé C ARDOT
5.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
viii Data Analysis

5.2. Functional framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

5.2.1. Functional random variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.2.2. Smoothness assumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.2.3. Smoothing splines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.3. Principal components analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.3.1. Model and estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
5.3.2. Dimension and smoothing parameter selection . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.3.3. Some comments on discretization effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.3.4. PCA of climatic time series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.4. Linear regression models and extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.4.1. Functional linear models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5.4.2. Principal components regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.4.3. Roughness penalty approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.4.4. Smoothing parameters selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.4.5. Some notes on asymptotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.4.6. Generalized linear models and extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.4.7. Land use estimation with the temporal evolution of remote
sensing data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.5. Forecasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.5.1. Functional autoregressive process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.5.2. Smooth ARH(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.5.3. Locally ARH(1) processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.5.4. Selecting smoothing parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.5.5. Some asymptotic results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.5.6. Prediction of climatic time series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.6. Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.7. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Chapter 6. Discriminant Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Gilles C ELEUX
6.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.2. Main steps in supervised classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.2.1. The probabilistic framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.2.2. Sampling schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6.2.3. Decision function estimation strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.2.4. Variables selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6.2.5. Assessing the misclassification error rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.2.6. Model selection and resampling techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.3. Standard methods in supervised classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.3.1. Linear discriminant analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6.3.2. Logistic regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.3.3. The K nearest neighbors method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
6.3.4. Classification trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
 Contents ix

6.3.5. Single hidden layer back-propagation network . . . . . . . . . . . 199

6.4. Recent advances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.4.1. Parametric methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.4.2. Radial basis functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
6.4.3. Boosting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.4.4. Support vector machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
6.5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.6. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

Chapter 7. Cluster Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Mohamed NADIF, Gérard G OVAERT
7.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
7.2. General principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
7.2.1. The data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
7.2.2. Visualizing clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.2.3. Types of classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
7.2.4. Objectives of clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
7.3. Hierarchical clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
7.3.1. Agglomerative hierarchical clustering (AHC) . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
7.3.2. Agglomerative criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
7.3.3. Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
7.3.4. Ward’s method or minimum variance approach . . . . . . . . . . . 227
7.3.5. Optimality properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7.3.6. Using hierarchical clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
7.4. Partitional clustering: the k-means algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.4.1. The algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.4.2. k-means: a family of methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
7.4.3. Using the k-means algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
7.5. Miscellaneous clustering methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
7.5.1. Dynamic cluster method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
7.5.2. Fuzzy clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
7.5.3. Constrained clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
7.5.4. Self-organizing map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
7.5.5. Clustering variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
7.5.6. Clustering high-dimensional datasets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
7.6. Block clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
7.6.1. Binary data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
7.6.2. Contingency table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
7.6.3. Continuous data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
7.6.4. Some remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
7.7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
7.8. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
x Data Analysis

Chapter 8. Clustering and the Mixture Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

Gérard G OVAERT
8.1. Probabilistic approaches in cluster analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
8.1.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
8.1.2. Parametric approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
8.1.3. Non-parametric methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
8.1.4. Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
8.1.5. Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
8.2. The mixture model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
8.2.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
8.2.2. The model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
8.2.3. Estimation of parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
8.2.4. Number of components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
8.2.5. Identifiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
8.3. EM algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
8.3.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
8.3.2. Complete data and complete-data likelihood . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
8.3.3. Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
8.3.4. Application to mixture models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
8.3.5. Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
8.3.6. EM: an alternating optimization algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
8.4. Clustering and the mixture model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
8.4.1. The two approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
8.4.2. Classification likelihood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
8.4.3. The CEM algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
8.4.4. Comparison of the two approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
8.4.5. Fuzzy clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
8.5. Gaussian mixture model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
8.5.1. The model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
8.5.2. CEM algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
8.5.3. Spherical form, identical proportions and volumes . . . . . . . . . 273
8.5.4. Spherical form, identical proportions but differing volumes . . . . 274
8.5.5. Identical covariance matrices and proportions . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
8.6. Binary variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
8.6.1. Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
8.6.2. Binary mixture model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
8.6.3. Parsimonious model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
8.6.4. Example of application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
8.7. Qualitative variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
8.7.1. Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
8.7.2. The model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
8.7.3. Parsimonious model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
8.8. Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
 Contents xi

8.8.1. Choice of model and of the number of classes . . . . . . . . . . . 282

8.8.2. Strategies for use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
8.8.3. Extension to particular situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
8.9. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
8.10. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

Chapter 9. Spatial Data Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

Christophe A MBROISE, Mo DANG
9.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
9.1.1. The spatial data clustering problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
9.1.2. Examples of applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
9.2. Non-probabilistic approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
9.2.1. Using spatial variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
9.2.2. Transformation of variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
9.2.3. Using a matrix of spatial distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
9.2.4. Clustering with contiguity constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
9.3. Markov random fields as models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
9.3.1. Global methods and Bayesian approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
9.3.2. Markov random fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
9.3.3. Markov fields for observations and classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
9.3.4. Supervised segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
9.4. Estimating the parameters for a Markov field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
9.4.1. Supervised estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
9.4.2. Unsupervised estimation with EM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
9.4.3. Classification likelihood and inertia with spatial smoothing . . . . 310
9.4.4. Other methods of unsupervised estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
9.5. Application to numerical ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
9.5.1. The problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
9.5.2. The model: Potts field and Bernoulli distributions . . . . . . . . . 314
9.5.3. Estimating the parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
9.5.4. Resulting clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
9.6. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

List of Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface

Statistical analysis has traditionally been separated into two phases: an exploratory
phase, drawing on a set of descriptive and graphical techniques, and a decisional
phase, based on probabilistic models. Some of the tools employed as part of the
exploratory phase belong to descriptive statistics, whose elementary exploratory
methods consider only a very limited number of variables. Other tools belong to
data analysis, the subject matter of this book. This topic comprises more elaborate
exploratory methods to handle multidimensional data, and is often seen as stepping
beyond a purely exploratory context.

The first part of this book is concerned with methods for obtaining the pertinent
dimensions from a collection of data. The variables so obtained provide a synthetic
description, often leading to a graphical representation of the data. A considerable
number of methods have been developed, adapted to different data types and different
analytical goals. Chapters 1 and 2 discuss two reference methods, namely Principal
Components Analysis (PCA) and Correspondence Analysis (CA), which we illustrate
with examples from statistical process control and sensory analysis. Chapter 3 looks
at a family of methods known as Projection Pursuit (less well known, but with a
promising future), that can be seen as an extension of PCA and CA, which makes it
possible to specify the structures that are being sought. Multidimensional positioning
methods, discussed in Chapter 4, seek to represent proximity matrix data in low-
dimensional Euclidean space. Chapter 5 is devoted to functional data analysis where a
function such as a temperature or rainfall graph, rather than a simple numerical vector,
is used to characterize individuals.

The second part is concerned with methods of clustering, which seek to organize
data into homogenous classes. These methods provide an alternative means, often
complementary to those discussed in the first part, of synthesizing and analyzing data.
In view of the clear link between clustering and discriminant analysis – in pattern
recognition the former is termed unsupervised and the latter supervised learning
– Chapter 6 gives a general introduction to discriminant analysis. Chapter 7 then
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
Next, seek the nearest cube to the first period; place its root in the
quotient, and its cube set under the first period. Subtract it
therefrom; and to the remainder bring down one figure only of the
next period, which will be a dividend.
Then, square the figure put in the quotient, and multiply it by 3, for
a divisor. Seek how often this divisor may be had in the dividend,
and set the figure in the quotient, which will be the second place in
the root.
Now, cube the figures in the root, and subtract it from the two first
periods of the resolvend; and to the remainder bring down the first
figure of the next period, for a new dividend. Square the figures in
the quotient, and multiply it by 3, for a new divisor; then proceed in
all respects as before, till the whole is finished.”
The following example will, I trust, make it clear to you.

EXAMPLE.

It is required to find the cube root of 15625.

. .
15625 (25
8
12) 76
15625
. . . . .
Point every third figure, and the first period will be 15; the nearest
cube to which, in the table I gave you just now, you will find to be 8,
and its root 2; the 8 you must place under the 15, and the 2 in the
quotient: take 8 from 15 and 7 will remain, to which bring down 6,
the first figure of the next period, and you have 76 for a dividend.
The figure put in the quotient is 2, the square of which is 4, which
multiplied by 3 is 12, for a divisor. Now 12 in 76 will be 5 times; cube
25, and you will have 15625, which, subtract from the resolvend,
and nothing will remain; which shews that the resolvend is a cube
number, and 25 its root.
Pupil. You say 12 in 76 is 5 times; I should have said 6 times.
Tutor. In common division it would be so; but as the cube of 26
would be greater than the resolvend from which you are to subtract
it, it can go but 5 times.
Pupil. Now, Sir, I think I have a sufficient knowledge of the rule to
solve a problem.
Tutor. The earth’s period is 365 days, and its mean distance from
the sun 95 millions of miles; the period of Mercury is 88 days—what
is his mean distance?
Pupil. As the distance of the earth is given, I must make the square
of 365 the first term, the cube of 95 the second, and the square of
88 the third term of the proportion.
Tutor. Certainly.—Take your slate, or a piece of paper, prepare your
numbers, and make your proportion.
Pupil. I find the square of 365 = 133225; of 88 = 7744; and the
cube of 95 = 857375.
Then 133225 : 857375 :: 7744 to a fourth term.
I now multiply the second and third terms together, and divide the
product by the first, the quotient 49836 is the cube of the mean
distance of Mercury from the sun in millions of miles, and the fourth
term sought.
Tutor. So far you are right. Now extract the root.
. .
49836 (36 3 36
27 3 36
27) 228 Sq. of 3 = 9 216
46656 Mul. by 3 108
3180 Divisor 27 1296
 36
7776
3888
Cube of 36 = 46656
Pupil. The root I find to be 36, which is the mean distance of
Mercury from the sun, in millions of miles.
Tutor. You now see, that although 27 in 228 will go 8 times, yet here
it will go but 6 times; and, as there is a remainder, it shews you that
the resolvend is not a cube number.
Pupil. I see it clearly.
Tutor. You now seem perfect in the rule; I shall therefore not trouble
you with any more examples, but shall give you the table I promised
you.

TABLE.

Names Diameters, Magnitude, Periods, Mean

Distance
of the in English compared in from the
Sun,
Planets. Miles. with the Years and in Mil. of
Earth. Days. Miles.

[A]
Sun 893522 1435952 — —

Mercury 3261 1/14 0 — 88 36

Venus 7699 5/49 0 — 224 68

 Earth 7920 1 1 or 365 95

Moon 2161 1/49 — —

Mars 5312 1/3 1 and 322 145

Jupiter 90255 1479 11 — 314 494

Saturn 80012 1031 29 — 167 906

Georgian 34217 82 83 — 121 1812

A. The Diameters were taken from Adams’s Lectures, Vol.

IV. p. 39.
Pupil. I shall take the first opportunity of calculating the rest, in
which I am certain I shall have great satisfaction.

Tutor. I have now conducted you through the elementary parts of

astronomy, have given you a general view of the system of the
world, and prepared you to pursue the study with profit and
pleasure.—In your future researches, the more accurate you are, the
more you will discover of regularity, symmetry, and order in the
constitution of the frame of nature.
“Hail, Sov’reign Goodness! all-productive Mind!
“On all thy works thyself inscrib’d we find;
“How various all, how variously endow’d,
“How great their number, and each part how good!
“How perfect then must the Great Parent shine, ⎫
“Who, with one act of energy divine, ⎬
“Laid the vast plan, and finish’d the design!” ⎭
 THE END.

17. By part here I do not mean any specific measure.

18. Young Geometrician’s Companion.

Directions to the Bookbinder.

Plate I. to face the Title.

—— II. — page 40.
—— III. — — 88.
—— IV. — — 131.
 Transcriber’s note:

All instances of ‘disk’ changed to ‘disc’

Errata, instance of ‘disk’ on page 79 added, “—— 79. — 5. ⎭”
Page 11, ‘Years’ changed to ‘years,’ “130 years after Christ”
Page 20, ‘h e’ changed to ‘the,’ “would have as much the
appearance”
Page 24, ‘cannon ball’ changed to ‘cannon-ball,’ “the time a
cannon-ball would”
Page 63, comma changed to full stop after ‘Tutor,’ “Tutor. Why?”
Page 65, ‘a’ changed to ‘a,’ “carry a planet from A to a”
Page 74, ‘itaxis’ changed to ‘its axis,’ “if the earth revolve on its
axis every”
Page 78, ‘Mercury’ struck after ‘Sun,’ “Sun, Venus, Mars, and
Jupiter are known to revolve on their axes”
Page 93, ‘cancer’ changed to ‘Cancer,’ “is the tropic of cancer;
that”
Page 93, ‘capricorn’ changed to ‘Capricorn,’ “the tropic of
capricorn”
Page 115, ‘othes’ changed to ‘other,’ “and other stars rise to his”
Page 115, ‘bnt’ changed to ‘but,’ “out from; but, by going round”
Page 116, ‘it’s’ changed to ‘its,’ “How can its surface be round”
Page 128, full stop inserted after ‘eclipses,’ “explain the cause of
eclipses.”
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STUDY OF
ASTRONOMY, ADAPTED TO THE CAPACITIES OF YOUTH ***

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