Introduction to Geotechnical

Engineering and Site Investigation

Dr. Iman Youssefi
 Key Disciplines in Geotechnical Engineering
• Soil Mechanics
• Utilizes principles of soil mechanics.
• Studies soil properties: strength, stiffness, permeability, compressibility.
• Rock Mechanics
• Examines mechanical properties of rocks: strength, deformation, durability.
• Critical for foundation, tunnel, and slope design in rock formations.
• Foundation Engineering
• Designs foundations to support structures safely.
• Analyzes soil and rock conditions for appropriate foundation type.
• Slope Stability
• Assesses stability of slopes to prevent landslides.
• Evaluates soil type, slope geometry, groundwater, external loading.
• Earth Retaining Structures
• Designs structures like retaining walls to support soil and prevent erosion.
• Considers soil properties, water pressures, structural stability.
 Introduction to Site Investigation

• Fundamental Role: Site investigation is crucial for understanding ground conditions, informing
the design and construction of civil engineering projects.
• Risk Assessment: It assesses ground-related risks and gathers vital information for the
development of construction projects.
• Techniques Employed: Employs a variety of methods to thoroughly assess subsurface
conditions and potential challenges.
• Informing Design: Provides essential data that influence design decisions, ensuring projects are
built on a solid foundation.
• Mitigation of Risks: Early identification of potential issues allows for effective risk mitigation
strategies, enhancing project safety and viability.
• Planning and Execution: Facilitates better project planning and execution by offering critical
insights into ground conditions.
 Objectives of the Site Investigation

• Understanding Historical Development: Investigate a site's past use, including previous

constructions and incidents, to identify potential issues affecting new developments.
• Identifying Ecological and Environmental Risks: Assess ecological and environmental risks
like endangered species, wetlands, and contamination that may impact the project.
• Obtaining Geotechnical Design Parameters: Gather critical data on soil, rock, and
groundwater conditions to inform the design of foundations and structural elements, focusing on
material strength, density, and composition.
• Evaluating the Need for Further Investigations: Determine if initial findings necessitate
detailed studies, such as deep drilling and laboratory analysis, to ensure a comprehensive
understanding of the site’s geotechnical characteristics.
 Considerations Prior to Site Investigation

• Layout of the Proposed Development: The development's layout influences exploratory hole
placements, with considerations for buildings, roads, and natural surroundings (hillside,
lakeside, city center) affecting investigation methods and locations.
• Assessment of Geological Maps: Utilizing geological maps to understand subsurface
conditions helps in selecting suitable investigation methods like trial pits, percussive drilling, or
rotary coring based on geological assessments.
• Type of Development: The development type dictates the required depth and extent of
exploration, influencing whether a broad shallow investigation, a focused deep investigation, or
a combination is needed, tailored to specific projects like roads, slopes, or tunnels.
• Minimum Depth of Boring and Spacing: Establishing minimum boring depth and
approximate spacing is essential for a comprehensive investigation, with boreholes serving as
key tools for retrieving subsurface samples and informing geotechnical and environmental
assessments.
 Site investigation process
• Services Search: Initial step involving the identification and mapping of existing utilities and services to
avoid conflicts or damage during construction.
• Site Visit: Conducting a physical inspection to observe the site's current conditions and collect
preliminary data, crucial for early planning stages.
• Topographical Survey: Measuring land features and elevations, providing essential data for planning
and design, ensuring accurate representation of the physical site.
• Desk Study: Reviewing historical records, geological maps, and other relevant documents to gather
background information on the site, aiding in risk assessment and design decisions.
• Ecology Survey: Assessing the site's ecological features and potential impacts on local wildlife, ensuring
environmental considerations are integrated into the project planning.
• Non-intrusive and Intrusive Surveys: Utilizing a variety of methods to explore underground conditions
both without (non-intrusive) and with (intrusive) direct access, gathering critical subsurface data.
• Reporting: Compiling the findings from all stages into comprehensive reports to inform and guide the
subsequent stages of project development, ensuring a solid foundation for construction planning and
execution.
 Service Search

• A services search is critical to avoid damaging underground utilities during construction. It

involves identifying the positions of:
• Buried Services Identification: Identify gas and power cables, fiber optic and telephone cables,
utility pipes, drainage lines, CCTV lines, and street lighting power cables to prevent accidents,
service disruptions, and additional costs during construction.
• Sources and Methods: Obtain maps of existing services from utility companies; conduct
geophysical surveys and use intrusive methods like inspection pits and trenches to visually mark
service locations, ensuring comprehensive risk mitigation.
• Risk Mitigation: Utilize a comprehensive approach to account for and mitigate risks associated
with underground utilities during construction, avoiding damages and service disruptions.
 Site Visit (Site Walkover Survey)

• A site visit is crucial for effective planning, involving:

• Utilizing Maps: Use survey or street maps and geological maps to understand topography and
subsurface conditions; historical borehole records offer insights into soil properties and
groundwater levels.
• Planning and Observation: Plan a strategic walking route based on map information to verify
features; use maps to guide observations during the visit.
• Photographic Documentation: Take photos to record surface conditions and features; mark
photo locations for precise documentation and future reference.
 Site Visit

• Superficial Ground Characteristics: Identify visible ground conditions and infrastructure

elements to understand the site's current use and potential construction challenges.
• Accessibility and Safety: Evaluate access points, traffic management needs, and site security
measures to ensure project logistics and safety.
• Environmental Observations: Observe surface features such as sloping ground, erosion signs,
and standing water to inform foundation design and structural planning.
• Geotechnical Insights: Assess the presence of invasive plants or contaminated soil to
understand potential impacts on construction and environmental considerations.
• Infrastructure Identification: Identify manholes, drainage, utilities, and service locations to
incorporate into project planning and development.
• Logistics Planning: Use gathered information to plan project logistics effectively, ensuring
smooth construction operations and minimizing risks.
 Topographical Survey

• A topographical survey is pivotal in foundation engineering, serving as the basis for designing
earthworks and foundations by accurately mapping site topography. This process involves:
• Site Levels Determination: Calculate earthwork volumes for design phase; guide material
distribution and volume for site leveling or building.
• Slope Geometry Analysis: Understand existing slope geometry for stability assessments;
evaluate landslide or erosion risks; design countermeasures.
• Service Location Mapping: Map underground services (water, gas, electrical lines) accurately;
ensure foundation designs accommodate critical infrastructures without disruption.
 Desk Study

• A desk study is essential for geotechnical surveys and foundation design, involving:
• Geological Analysis: Understanding superficial deposits and bedrock distribution for foundation
solutions.
• Environmental and Flood Risk Assessments: Evaluating hazards and flood susceptibility for
resilient structures.
• Land Sensitivity Checks: Identifying environmental features to mitigate impact.
• Historical and Land Use Review: Examining records for insights into challenges and
remediation needs.
 Non-intrusive Surveys

• Non-intrusive surveys in foundation engineering gather

ground information without physical disturbance. Two
techniques are:
• Geo-Electrical Resistivity Survey: Pass small electrical
current into the ground via electrodes; measure
resistance to infer ground properties like particle size
and water content. Useful for shallow investigations,
distinguishing surface deposits from bedrock.
• Ground Probing Radar Survey: Use radar waves to
penetrate the ground; detect reflections from buried
features to identify objects or structures without
excavation. Commonly used to locate buried services
like pipelines or cables.
 Intrusive Surveys

Intrusive surveys involve physically disturbing the ground through excavation or drilling to obtain
information about subsurface conditions. These surveys are often conducted to inspect buried
services or existing features like building foundations.
1. Shallow Investigation: Excavations conducted to inspect buried utilities or structures near the
surface. Techniques may include observation pits, trenches, and trial pits, providing insights into
shallow subsurface conditions.
2. Deep Investigation: Involves drilling or excavating to deeper depths to assess subsurface
conditions below the shallow layers. Methods may include boreholes, core sampling, and
geophysical surveys, providing information on deeper geological features and soil properties.
 Shallow Investigation
• Shallow Investigations:
• Observation Pits and Trenches: Excavated to visually confirm buried utilities' location and
depth, minimizing excavation risks.
• Inspection Pits: Designed for closer examination of buried structures or foundations to assess
integrity and identify repairs.
• Trial Pits and Trenches: Excavated to collect samples for analysis, providing insights into
subsurface materials' composition and properties.
 Deep Investigation
Deep investigations involve penetrating the ground to collect samples for detailed analysis.
Various drilling methods are employed based on required depth and sample type:
• Percussion Drilling: This method involves repeatedly striking the ground with a heavy hammer
attached to a sampling rig, dislodging soil or rock fragments for laboratory testing. Common in
geotechnical investigations for sample collection.
• Rotary Drilling: Primarily used for obtaining core samples from rock formations, rotary
drilling extracts cylindrical cores while preserving rock layer integrity. Effective for
sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks, it utilizes a rotating drill bit to retrieve intact core
samples, offering a cross-sectional view of geological strata. Not typically used for soil drilling
due to deformation challenges.
• Sonic (Resonance) Drilling: Utilizes high-frequency vibrations to advance the drill bit through
the ground, producing minimal cuttings and reducing sample contamination risk. Suitable for
various soil and rock types, including unconsolidated sediments and hard rock, sonic drilling
allows collection of high-quality samples while minimizing environmental disturbance.
 Percussion Drilling
Percussion drilling utilizes two main types of rigs:
Windows or Windowless Sampling Rig: Typically used for investigations up to depths of
around 10 meters below ground level, this rig provides continuous disturbed samples suitable for
visual inspection and laboratory classification tests. While undisturbed sampling isn't feasible with
this rig, engineers can visually examine soil and conduct tests to determine its composition,
density, and engineering properties, providing valuable information about subsurface conditions.
Cable Percussion Rig (Shell and Auger): A traditional
and versatile drilling method suitable for various ground
conditions, from soft soils to weak rocks.
• This rig employs a combination of a shell and auger to
collect samples. Notably, it's capable of conducting
undisturbed sampling using shelby tubes, preserving the
structure and composition of subsurface materials for
accurate laboratory analysis.
• Undisturbed samples are valuable for determining
parameters like shear strength, compressibility, and
permeability, crucial for geotechnical design.
• The Cable Percussion Rig offers flexibility for both
disturbed and undisturbed sampling, providing valuable
insights into subsurface conditions for informed
decision-making in civil engineering projects.
 Rotary Drilling

• Rotary drilling utilizes different types of rigs which

mainly includes:
Auger Drilling Rig: Auger drilling is a rotary drilling
technique involving rotating a helical screw-like drill bit to
excavate soil or rock fragments from the ground.
• This method is versatile, suitable for both disturbed and
undisturbed sampling based on project requirements.
• Auger rigs can be employed in various soil and rock
conditions, making them popular for geotechnical
investigations and environmental monitoring purposes.
Rotary Mud Drilling:
• Rotary mud drilling involves the use of a
rotating drill bit and circulating drilling fluid
(mud) to penetrate and remove cuttings from
the borehole. The drilling fluid serves multiple
purposes, including lubrication, cooling, and
stabilizing the borehole walls.
• This method is suitable for drilling in various
geological formations, including sands, clays,
and fractured rock. It provides better control of
borehole stability and can reach greater depths
compared to dry drilling methods.
 Sonic Drilling

• Sonic drilling utilizes different types of rigs which

mainly includes:
Single-Pivot Sonic Drilling:
• Single-pivot sonic drilling utilizes a single-axis vibrator
mounted on the drill string near the drill bit.
• The vibrator generates high-frequency vibrations, which
are transmitted down the drill string to the bit, aiding in
the penetration of the subsurface materials.
• This method is suitable for drilling in a wide range of
geological formations, including soil, sand, gravel, and
rock. It provides high drilling speeds and produces high-
quality continuous core samples with minimal
disturbance.
Wireline Sonic Drilling:
• Wireline sonic drilling utilizes a wireline core barrel
system to recover continuous core samples during
drilling operations.
• The wireline system allows for rapid retrieval of core
samples without removing the drill string from the
borehole, minimizing downtime and increasing
productivity.
• This method is commonly used in mineral exploration,
geotechnical investigations, and environmental sampling
projects.
• It provides high sample recovery rates and allows for
efficient data collection in a variety of subsurface
environments.
 Reporting
• A comprehensive reporting process in ground investigation involves various reports at different
stages:
• Geoenvironmental Desk Study Report: Focuses on geological, environmental, and historical
aspects of the site, prepared by an Engineering Geologist or Geotechnical Engineer.
• Ecology Survey Report: Documents biodiversity and ecological value of the site, compiled by
an Ecologist.
• Factual Ground Investigation Report: Presents factual data collected during ground
investigation activities by the Ground Investigation Contractor.
• Ground Investigation Report: Provides interpretative analysis of ground investigation data by
a Geotechnical Engineer.
• Geotechnical Design Report: Maintained by a Geotechnical Designer, capturing evolving
understanding of site's geotechnical behavior for decision-making in design and construction
phases.
 European Standards for Ground Investigations
• European Standards for Ground Investigations play a crucial role in ensuring consistency,
quality, and safety in the planning, execution, and reporting of site investigations. Key standards
include:
• EN 1997-2: Eurocode 7 - Geotechnical Design - Part 2: Ground Investigation and Testing:
Provides comprehensive guidelines for ground investigation and testing procedures, ensuring
systematic and accurate site investigations to support informed decisions in geotechnical design
and construction.
• EN ISO 22475-1: Geotechnical Investigation and Testing - Sampling Methods and
Groundwater Measurements - Part 1: Specifies technical principles for executing sampling
methods and groundwater measurements, ensuring consistent and accurate data collection using
various drilling and sampling techniques.
• EN ISO 22475-2: Geotechnical Investigation and Testing - Sampling Methods and
Groundwater Measurements - Part 2: Focuses on quality assurance aspects of geotechnical
testing and sampling activities, establishing requirements for quality management, equipment
calibration, and data documentation to enhance data reliability.
• EN ISO 22475-3: Geotechnical Investigation and Testing - Sampling Methods and
Groundwater Measurements - Part 3: Specifies conventional methods for soil sampling,
providing detailed procedures for collecting disturbed and undisturbed soil samples effectively
and accurately for laboratory testing and analysis.