ENME615

Week 5
 Last week: DT Frequency Response

• The frequency response of a DT LTI system is the value of the

system function evaluated on the unit circle.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 Comparision of CT and DT Frequency Responses

• CT frequency response: H(s) on the imaginary axis, i.e., s = jω.

• DT frequency response: H(z) on the unit circle, i.e., 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑗Ω .

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 In-class exercise

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 In-class exercise

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 In-class exercise

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 Effects of Phase

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 Effects of Phase

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 How does phase shift sound like?

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1pJOkhPTpLo&t=43s

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 Last week: DT frequency response periodicity

• DT frequency responses are periodic functions of Ω, with period 2π.

• The periodicity of 𝐻(𝑒 𝑗Ω ) results because 𝐻(𝑒 𝑗Ω ) is a function of 𝑒 𝑗Ω ,

which is itself periodic in Ω. Thus DT complex exponentials have many
“aliases.”

• Because of this aliasing, there is a “highest” DT frequency: Ω = π.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 Last week: Periodic Sinusoids

• There are (only) N distinct complex exponentials with period N. (There

were an infinite number in CT!)

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 Last week: DT Fourier Series

• DT Fourier series represent DT signals in terms of the amplitudes and

phases of harmonic components.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 Last week: DT Fourier Series

• DT Fourier series have simple matrix interpretations.

• These matrices are inverses of each other.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 Scaling

• DT Fourier series are important computational tools. However, the DT

Fourier series do not scale well with the length N.

• Number of multiples increases as 𝑁 2 .

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 Fast Fourier “Transform”

• Exploit structure of Fourier series to simplify its calculation. Divide FS of

length 2N into two of length N (divide and conquer).

• 8 × 8 = 64 multiplications
Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 FFT

• Divide into two 4-point series (divide and conquer).

• Even-numbered entries in x[n]:

• Odd-numbered entries in x[n]:

• Sum of multiplications = 2 × (4 × 4) = 32: fewer than the previous 64.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 FFT

• Break the original 8-point DTFS coefficients 𝑐𝑘 into two parts:

𝑐𝑘 = 𝑑𝑘 + 𝑒𝑘
• where 𝑑𝑘 comes from the even-numbered x[n] (e.g., 𝑎𝑘 ) and 𝑒𝑘
comes from the odd-numbered x[n] (e.g., 𝑏𝑘 )

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 FFT

• The 4-point DTFS coefficients 𝑎𝑘 of the even-numbered x[n]

• contribute to the 8-point DTFS coefficients 𝑑𝑘 :

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 FFT

• The 4-point DTFS coefficients 𝑎𝑘 of the even-numbered x[n]

• contribute to the 8-point DTFS coefficients 𝑑𝑘 :

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 FFT

• The 4-point DTFS coefficients 𝑎𝑘 of the even-numbered x[n]

• contribute to the 8-point DTFS coefficients 𝑑𝑘 :

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 FFT

• The 4-point DTFS coefficients 𝑎𝑘 of the even-numbered x[n]

• contribute to the 8-point DTFS coefficients 𝑑𝑘 :

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 FFT

• The 𝑒𝑘 components result from the odd-number entries in x[n].

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 FFT

• The 𝑒𝑘 components result from the odd-number entries in x[n].

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 FFT

• The 𝑒𝑘 components result from the odd-number entries in x[n].

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 FFT

• The 𝑒𝑘 components result from the odd-number entries in x[n].

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 Scaling of FFT algorithm

• How does the new algorithm scale?

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 Fourier Transform: Generalize to Aperiodic Signals

• An aperiodic signal can be thought of as periodic with infinite period.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 Fourier Transform

• Represent 𝑥𝑁 [𝑛] by its Fourier series.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 Fourier Transform

• Doubling period doubles # of harmonics in given frequency interval.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 Fourier Transform

• As N → ∞, discrete harmonic amplitudes → a continuum E(Ω).

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 Fourier Transform

• As N → ∞, synthesis sum → integral.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 Fourier Transform

• Replacing E(Ω) by 𝑋 𝑒 𝑗Ω yields the DT Fourier transform relations.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 Relation between Fourier and Z Transforms

• If the Z transform of a signal exists and if the ROC includes the unit circle,
then the Fourier transform is equal to the Z transform evaluated on the
unit circle.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 Relation between Fourier and Z Transforms

• Fourier transform “inherits” properties of Z transform.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec18/
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 Sampling

• We would like to sample in a way that preserves information, which may

not seem possible.

• Information between samples is lost. Therefore, the same samples can

represent multiple signals.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Sampling and Reconstruction

• To determine the effect of sampling, compare the original signal x(t) to the
signal 𝑥𝑝 (𝑡) that is reconstructed from the samples x[n].

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Reconstruction

• Impulse reconstruction maps samples x[n] (DT) to 𝑥𝑝 (𝑡) (CT).

• Resulting reconstruction 𝑥𝑝 (𝑡) is equivalent to multiplying x(t) by impulse

train.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Sampling

• Multiplication by an impulse train in time is equivalent to convolution by an

impulse train in frequency.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 In-class exercise

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 In-class exercise

• DTFT:

• CTFT of 𝑥𝑝 (𝑡):

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 In-class exercise

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
41
 In-class exercise

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Sampling

• The high frequency copies can be removed with a low-pass filter (also
multiply by T to undo the amplitude scaling).

• Impulse reconstruction followed by ideal low-pass filtering is called

bandlimited reconstruction.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 The Sampling Theorem

• If signal is bandlimited → sample without loosing information.

• If x(t) is bandlimited so that

• then x(t) is uniquely determined by its samples x(nT) if

• The minimum sampling frequency, 2𝜔𝑚 , is called the “Nyquist rate.”

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Summary of Sampling

• Three important ideas:

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 In-class exercise

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 In-class exercise

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
47
 In-class exercise

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 CT Model of Sampling and Reconstruction

• Sampling followed by bandlimited reconstruction is equivalent to

multiplying by an impulse train and then low-pass filtering.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Aliasing
𝜋
• What happens if X contains frequencies 𝜔 > 𝑇 ?

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Aliasing
𝜋
• What happens if X contains frequencies 𝜔 > 𝑇 ?

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Aliasing
𝜋
• What happens if X contains frequencies 𝜔 > 𝑇 ?

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Aliasing
𝜋
• What happens if X contains frequencies 𝜔 > 𝑇 ?

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Aliasing

• The effect of aliasing is to wrap frequencies.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Aliasing

• The effect of aliasing is to wrap frequencies.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Aliasing

• The effect of aliasing is to wrap frequencies.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Aliasing

• The effect of aliasing is to wrap frequencies.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 In-class exercise

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 In-class exercise

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 In-class exercise

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 In-class exercise

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 In-class exercise

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 In-class exercise

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Aliasing

• High frequency components of complex signals also wrap.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Aliasing

• High frequency components of complex signals also wrap.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Aliasing

• High frequency components of complex signals also wrap.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Aliasing

• High frequency components of complex signals also wrap.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Aliasing

• Aliasing increases as the sampling rate decreases.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Aliasing

• Aliasing increases as the sampling rate decreases.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Aliasing

• Aliasing increases as the sampling rate decreases.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Aliasing

• Aliasing increases as the sampling rate decreases.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Anti-Aliasing Filter

• To avoid aliasing, remove frequency components that alias

before sampling.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Aliasing

• Aliasing increases as the sampling rate decreases.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Aliasing

• Aliasing increases as the sampling rate decreases.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Aliasing

• Aliasing increases as the sampling rate decreases.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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 Aliasing

• Aliasing increases as the sampling rate decreases.

Reference: https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-003-signals-and-systems-fall-2011/resources/mit6_003f11_lec21/
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