Operant/Instrumental Conditioning

 Operant conditioning is a form of learning where voluntary actions are strengthened or

weakened based on the positive or negative outcomes they produce. It emphasizes
environmental consequences, influencing whether a voluntary response will be repeated.
 Unlike classical conditioning, which deals with natural, biological responses, operant
conditioning applies to intentional, voluntary actions aimed at achieving desired results.
 The term "operant" highlights that organisms operate on their environment to produce
favorable outcomes. For example, operant conditioning is evident when individuals learn
that hard work leads to praise or that studying diligently results in good grades.
 B.F. Skinner, a prominent advocate of operant conditioning, emphasized understanding
behavior by focusing on external causes and consequences, rather than internal factors. In
his analysis, a response (operant) can result in three types of consequences: neutral,
reinforcement, or punishment.
1. Neutral Consequence: This doesn't alter the response.
2. Reinforcement: Strengthens the response, making it more likely to recur. Primary
reinforcers satisfy biological needs (food, water), while secondary reinforcers (money,
praise) are associated with primary stimuli. Both can be positive or negative.
 Positive Reinforcement: Presentation of a stimulus increases the likelihood of
behavior occurring again.
 Negative Reinforcement: Termination of an aversive stimulus increases the
likelihood of behavior occurring. This involves escape learning, where a response
stops an unpleasant stimulus, or avoidance learning, where one learns to avoid a
painful stimulus before exposure. For instance, if someone stops nagging you
when you study, your studying is likely to increase, as you avoid the nagging.
In operant conditioning, the schedules of reinforcement determine the timing and frequency of
rewards or punishments, influencing the persistence of learned behavior. Initially, continuous
reinforcement, where each response is rewarded, promotes rapid learning. However, for long-
term retention, intermittent reinforcement, reinforcing only some responses, is more effective.
There are four types of intermittent schedules:
1. Fixed-ratio schedules: Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses, often used for
increasing productivity.
2. Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforcement after an average number of responses, leading
to high and steady response rates.
3. Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforcement after a fixed time interval has passed since the
previous reinforcer.
4. Variable-interval schedule: Reinforcement after a variable time interval has passed. The
basic principle is that intermittent reinforcement sustains responses better than continuous
reinforcement.
3. Punishment: is a stimulus that weakens a response or reduces its recurrence. Punishers,
like reinforcers, can be primary or secondary. The positive-negative distinction applies to
 punishment, where something unpleasant may follow a behavior (positive punishment) or
something pleasant may be removed (negative punishment).
Pros and Cons of Punishment:
 Immediacy: Prompt punishment after the behavior enhances effectiveness.
 Consistency: Inconsistent punishment makes the behavior resistant to extinction.
 Intensity: Severe punishments are generally more effective, but even less intense
punishments can work if applied immediately and consistently.
When punishment fails, several issues arise:
1. Inappropriate Administration: Punishment is often applied thoughtlessly, covering
irrelevant behaviors and leading to mindless reactions.
2. Emotional Responses: Punished individuals may react with anxiety, fear, or rage.
Through classical conditioning, these emotions may generalize to the entire situation,
worsening problems. Severe punishment, especially in childhood, can be a risk factor for
depression, low self-esteem, and violent behavior.
3. Temporary Effectiveness: Punishment's effectiveness is often temporary, relying
heavily on the presence of the punishing person or specific circumstances.
4. Difficulty in Immediate Application: Most behaviors are challenging to punish
immediately.
Limited Information Conveyed: Punishment may convey little information and,
paradoxically, can reinforce behavior by drawing attention to the punished action.
Shaping in Operant
 Conditioning:Definition: Shaping is an operant conditioning technique where
successive approximations of a desired response are reinforced.
 Example: Training a child to use utensils properly, behaviors unlikely to occur
spontaneously.
 Process: Start by reinforcing any behavior in the right direction, then gradually require
responses more similar to the final desired behavior.

Implications in Classroom Learning:

1. Conditioning Study Behavior:

 Teachers arrange effective reinforcement for self-learning, including incentives like
prizes, medals, praise, or higher marks.
2. Conditioning Classroom Behavior:
 Unpleasant experiences during learning can become conditioned to the teacher, subject,
or classroom, leading to student disliking.
3. Managing Problem Behavior:
 Operant conditioning shapes student behavior. Positive contingencies like praise are
effective, while negative ones, like punishment, may lead to avoidance.
4. Dealing with Anxieties:
  Fear and anxieties developed through conditioning can be addressed through
desensitization techniques, gradually exposing students to stimuli.
5. Conditioning Group Behavior:
 Reinforcement can shape group behavior, discouraging undesired actions. Positive
interactions lead to a more effective teaching-learning process.
6. Conditioning Cognitive Processes:
 Reinforcement, in the form of feedback, supports knowledge progress. Program
instruction breaks down subject matter into steps, ensuring immediate reinforcement for
correct responses.
7. Shaping Complex Behavior:
 Extended learning through shaping is essential for controlling complex behaviors, which
often consist of chains of small behaviors.