A BRIEF HISTORY

Gregor Mendel a monk that came

up with the theory of inheritance

through a series of experiments on breeding of pea

plants and as a result he is known as the father of
genetics.
 A BRIEF HISTORY

Gregor Mendel concluded that genes existed in pairs

and are transmitted from parent to offspring.
 POLLINATION – a recap

Pollination

The transfer of ripe pollen from a ripe anther to the

stigma of a flower.
 POLLINATION – a recap

Self-pollination

The transfer of pollen between

the anther and the stigma of
the same flower.
 POLLINATION – a recap
Cross-pollination

The transfer of pollen from the ripe anther of one

flower to the ripe stigma of another flower.
 GENETICS
The study of heredity and variation in living organisms
 INHERITANCE
The set of characteristics that have been passed from
parent to offspring
 HEREDITY
The transmission of characteristics from parents to
their offspring
GENES AND CHROMOSOMES

1. Chromosome

2. Locus

3. Allele

4. Gene
GENES AND CHROMOSOMES

2. Locus

The position of alleles on a chromosome

 GENES AND CHROMOSOMES

3. Allele

Two or more alternative forms of a gene at the same locus

Alternate forms of a gene situated on corresponding

positions of homologous chromosomes and influencing
the same characteristic
 GENES AND CHROMOSOMES

4. Gene

Specific lengths of DNA which carry the codes for

characteristics of organisms
 GENOME
The complete set of genes of a particular organism
 GENES AND CHROMOSOMES
*The allele in the diagram of a chromosome below has the allele
T. The gene represented is height of an individual. Therefore the
alleles for height are;

Tall which will be represented by the

letter T

Short which will be represented by

the letter t
PATERNAL CHROMOSOMES

T
TT
Tall

Homozygous

same
MATERNAL CHROMOSOMES

t
tt
short

homozygous

same
OFFSPRING’S CHROMOSOMES

T and t
Tt
Tall

heterozygous

different
 OFFSPRING’S CHROMOSOMES
The offspring’s phenotype is tall even
though he/she has the allele t because:

the allele T is able to mask the expression

of the allele t

therefore the allele T is dominant and the allele t is

recessive
 GENOTYPE
The genetic make-up of an organism in respect of the
alleles it possesses
 PHENOTYPE
The physical and functional expression of a gene

OR
The appearance of an organism because of its genetic
make-up
 DOMINANT
An allele that influences the phenotype whether in the
homozygous or heterozygous condition
 RECESSIVE
An allele that does not influence the phenotype when
found in the heterozygous condition

OR
An allele whose trait is visible in the phenotype only if
it is homozygous

OR
A condition of a phenotypical characteristic when it is
not expressed in a heterozygous individual
 HOMOZYGOUS
Organisms that have two identical alleles for a
particular characteristic

OR
An individual having two alleles that influence a
characteristic in the same way

Pure breed True breed

 HETEROZYGOUS
A genotype consisting of different alleles for a specific
trait at a given locus

OR
An individual that has one dominant and one recessive
allele for a particular characteristic
 MENDEL’S LAW OF DOMINANCE

In heterozygous condition the dominant allele

expresses itself in the phenotype, masking the effect of
the recessive allele
 MENDEL’S LAW OF DOMINANCE
When two individuals with pure breeding contrasting
characteristics are crossed, the F1 generation all
display the dominant characteristic
MENDEL’S PRINCIPLE OF SEGREGATION

During gametogenesis /meiosis the two alleles of a

gene separate so that each gamete will receive one
allele of a gene for a specific characteristic/trait
 MENDEL’S PRINCIPLE OF SEGREGATION

During gametogenesis/meiosis

two alleles of a gene separate

so that each gamete will

receive one allele of a gene for
a specific characteristic
 MONOHYBRID CROSS
A cross where only one hereditary characteristic is
investigated at a time
MONOHYBRID CROSS

B b
Black fur White fur
BB bb
B or B b or b
MONOHYBRID CROSS

B b
Black fur Black fur
BB Bb
B or B B or b
MONOHYBRID CROSS

B b
Black fur White fur
Bb bb
B or b b or b
MONOHYBRID CROSS

B b
Black fur Black fur
Bb Bb
B or b B or b
 MONOHYBRID CROSS

B or B b or b
B B
b Bb Bb

b Bb Bb
 MONOHYBRID CROSS

B or B B or b

B B
B BB BB
b Bb Bb
 MONOHYBRID CROSS

B or b b or b

B b
b Bb bb
b Bb bb
 MONOHYBRID CROSS

B or b B or b

B b

B BB Bb
b Bb bb
 MONOHYBRID CROSS

All Bb

All black fur

MONOHYBRID CROSS

50% BB : 50% Bb

All black fur

 MONOHYBRID CROSS

50% Bb : 50% bb
50% black fur : 50% white fur
 MONOHYBRID CROSS

25% BB : 50% Bb : 25% bb

75% black fur : 25% white fur
ACTIVITY 1 [6 marks]
ACTIVITY 2 [8 marks]
ACTIVITY 3 [4 marks]
ACTIVITY 4 [6 marks]
 TYPES OF DOMINANCE

Complete Incomplete Codominance

COMPLETE DOMINANCE
One allele is dominant and the other is recessive, such that the effect
of the recessive allele is masked by the dominant allele in the
heterozygous condition

Black fur White fur

BB bb

B or B b or b

All Bb
All black fur
COMPLETE DOMINANCE
COMPLETE DOMINANCE
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
None of the two alleles of a gene is dominant over the other,
resulting in an intermediate phenotype in the heterozygous condition

Black fur White fur

BB WW

B or B W or W

All BW
All grey fur
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
CODOMINANCE
Both alleles of a gene are equally dominant whereby both alleles
express themselves in the phenotype in the heterozygous condition

Black fur White fur

BB WW

B or B W or W

All BW
All roan fur/black and white fur
CODOMINANCE
CODOMINANCE
TYPE OF DOMINANCE

INCOMPLETE

CODOMINANCE
 TYPES OF DOMINANCE

In heterozygous None of the alleles Both alleles are

condition the are dominant over equally dominant
dominant allele will each other
mask the recessive Both alleles are
allele No recessive alleles
equally expressed
The recessive allele The offspring in the phenotype
is only expressed in phenotypes will be
the phenotype only a mixture of both No recessive allele
in the homozygous parents phenotypes
condition
ACTIVITY 5 [9 marks]
ACTIVITY 6 [6 marks]
ACTIVITY 7 [12 marks]
ACTIVITY 8 [16 marks]
ACTIVITY 9 [10 marks]
ACTIVITY 10 [5 marks]
 KARYOTYPE
A complete diploid set of chromosomes, arranged
according to their size, shape and number in homologous
chromosome pairs within a somatic cell of an organism
 AUTOSOMES
All chromosomes except sex chromosomes and are
located from position 1 to 22 in humans.
 GONOSOMES
Sex chromosomes that determine gender and are
located on position 23 in humans.

x y

x x
THE HUMAN KARYOTYPE

Male Female
44 44
2 2
SEX DETERMINATION

Male Female
XY XX

X or Y X or X

50% XY : 50% XX
50% male : 50% female
 SEX DETERMINATION
*Explain why the male is said to determine the
gender of the offspring

During spermatogenesis half

of the sperm cells produced
will have the X chromosome
and the other half will have Y
chromosomes.
 SEX DETERMINATION
*Explain why the male is said to determine the
gender of the offspring

While the ovum will always

have an X chromosome
 SEX DETERMINATION
*Explain why the male is said to determine the
gender of the offspring

If a sperm cell that has an X chromosomes fuses

with an ovum, a female offspring will be produced.
 SEX DETERMINATION
*Explain why the male is said to determine the
gender of the offspring
If a sperm cell that has an Y chromosomes fuses
with an ovum, a male offspring will be
produced.
 SEX DETERMINATION
*Explain why the male is said to determine the
gender of the offspring

Therefore there is always a 50% chance of getting a

male or female offspring since the gender depends on
which gonosome the sperm cell carries.

Given that half of the sperm cells produced carry an X

chromosome and the other half a Y chromosome
 CHROMOSOME NUMBER OF OTHER
ORGANISMS
Humans have a diploid number of 46 and a haploid number of
23 but other organisms have their own diploid and haploid
number.

Organism Diploid number

Dog 78
Fruit fly 8
Pea plant 14
Watermelon 22

*if the diploid number varies in organisms this means even

the karyotypes are different.
KARYOTYPES OF OTHER ORGANISMS

*Note: this karyotype is

after DNA replication.

Hence the chromosomes

are double stranded.
KARYOTYPES OF OTHER ORGANISMS

Diploid number: 24

Haploid number: 12
KARYOTYPES OF OTHER ORGANISMS

Autosomes:
22 (position 1 – 11)

Gonosomes:
2 (position 12)
KARYOTYPES OF OTHER ORGANISMS

Gender:
Female
(the chromosomes at
position 12 are of similar
shape and size)
KARYOTYPES OF OTHER ORGANISMS

*Note: this karyotype is

before DNA replication.

Hence the chromosomes

are single stranded.
KARYOTYPES OF OTHER ORGANISMS

Diploid number: 42

Haploid number: 21
KARYOTYPES OF OTHER ORGANISMS

Autosomes:
40 (position 1 – 20)

Gonosomes:
2 (position 21)
KARYOTYPES OF OTHER ORGANISMS

Gender:
Male
(the chromosomes at
position 21 are not
similar shape and size)
ACTIVITY 11 [8 marks]
ACTIVITY 12 [7 marks]
ACTIVITY 13 [4 marks]
 SEX-LINKED INHERITANCE
The inheritance pattern which indicates that some
disorders are carried only on the X chromosomes.
HAEMOPHILIA
 HAEMOPHILIA
A genetic disorder characterised by the absence
of a blood clotting factor
A gene mutation caused by a recessive allele on
the X chromosome.

XHY XhY
Non-haemophiliac Haemophiliac male
male
 HAEMOPHILIA

Non-
haemophiliac
XHXH female XhXh

Non- Haemophiliac
XHXh haemophiliac female
female

but a carrier
RED-GREEN COLOUR BLINDNESS
 RED-GREEN COLOUR BLINDNESS

Visual defect resulting in an inability to distinguish

between certain colours
Also caused by a recessive allele carried on the X chromosome

XDY XdY
male without colour colour blind male
blindness
RED-GREEN COLOUR BLINDNESS

XdXd
female without
XDXD colour blindness
colour blind female
XDXd female without
colour blindness
but a carrier
 HAEMOPHILIA

Haemophiliac male Non-haemophiliac female

XhY XHXH

Xh or Y XH or XH

50% XHY : 50% XHXh

50% Non-haemophiliac male: 50% Non-haemophiliac female
 HAEMOPHILIA

Haemophiliac male Non-haemophiliac female

XhY XHXh

Xh or Y XH or Xh

25% X HY : 25% XhY : 25% XHXh : 25% XhXh

25% Non-haemophiliac male:25% Haemophiliac male:
25% Non-haemophiliac female:25% Haemophiliac female
RED-GREEN COLOUR BLINDNESS

Non-haemophiliac
male Haemophiliac female

XDY XdXd

XD or Y Xd or Xd

50% XdY : 50% XDXd

50% Haemophiliac male : 50% Non-haemophiliac female
 SEX-LINKED DISORDERS
*Explain why males are more likely to inherit haemophilia
than females

Haemophilia is a sex-linked disorder that is caused

by a recessive allele on the X chromosome.

A male has a single X chromosome which means in

order for a male to inherit haemophilia he needs
only a single recessive allele.
 SEX-LINKED DISORDERS
*Explain why males are more likely to inherit haemophilia
than females

A female has two X chromosomes which means in

order for a female to inherit haemophilia she needs
two recessive alleles because she can have a single
recessive allele and still be normal (carrier).
 SEX-LINKED DISORDERS
*Explain why males are more likely to inherit haemophilia
than females

This therefore means there is a greater chance for a

male to inherit haemophilia compared to a female.
ACTIVITY 14 [11 marks]
ACTIVITY 15 [12 marks]
ACTIVITY 16 [10 marks]
BLOOD GROUPING

AOB gene

IA IB i
 BLOOD GROUPS -recap

Can receive Can receive Universal Can only receive

from blood from blood recipient from blood group O
group A/O group B/O
Universal donor
 MULTIPLE ALLELES

When a gene has more

than two possible alleles
to control a hereditary
characteristic at the same
locus.
BLOOD GROUPING

A B AB O

IA IA IB IB IA IB ii
IA i IB i
 BLOOD GROUPING - A
*Describe the inheritance of blood groups

In order to have blood group A the offspring must

inherit IA from each parent and the offspring will IA IA
be homozygous for blood group A.

In order to have blood group A the offspring must

inherit IA from one parent and i from the other IA i
parent. The offspring will be heterozygous for
blood group A.
 BLOOD GROUPING - B
*Describe the inheritance of blood groups

In order to have blood group B the offspring must

inherit IB from each parent and the offspring will IB IB
be homozygous for blood group B.

In order to have blood group B the offspring must

inherit IB from one parent and i from the other
parent. The offspring will be heterozygous for IB i
blood group B.
 BLOOD GROUPING - AB
*Describe the inheritance of blood groups

In order to have blood group AB the offspring

must inherit IA from one parent and IB from the I A IB
other parent.
 BLOOD GROUPING - O
*Describe the inheritance of blood groups

In order to have blood group O the offspring must

inherit i from each parent and the offspring will
be homozygous for blood group O. ii
 BLOOD GROUPING & PATERNITY
*Describe how blood grouping can be used for
paternity testing

Blood samples are collected from the mother, child

and possible father

The blood samples will be analysed and compared

 BLOOD GROUPING & PATERNITY
*Describe how blood grouping can be used for
paternity testing

If the results show that the possible father and

mother can result in an offspring with a particular
blood group.

Then the possible father could be the biological

father
 BLOOD GROUPING & PATERNITY
*Describe how blood grouping can be used for
paternity testing

but it is not conclusive because there are several

other males that can share the same blood group
with him.
 BLOOD GROUPING & PATERNITY
*Describe how blood grouping can be used for
paternity testing

If the results show that the possible father and the

mother can’t produce a child with a particular blood
group then he is definitely not the biological father.
 Blood group B male Blood group A female
I Bi IAi

IB or i IA or i

25% chance that he is

the father

25%IAIB : 25%IAi :25%IBi :25%ii

25% blood group AB: 25% blood group A
Blood group O male Blood group A female
ii IAi

i or i IA or i

0% chance that he is
the father

50% IAi : 50% ii

50% blood group A : 50% blood group O
ACTIVITY 17 [12 marks]
ACTIVITY 18 [11 marks]
ACTIVITY 19 [6 marks]
ACTIVITY 20 [11 marks]
 DIHYBRID CROSS
A genetic cross involving two characteristics

In a Dihybrid cross two characteristics are investigated

and therefore the genotype will have four alleles.
DIHYBRID CROSS

GgRr
DIHYBRID CROSS

3 4
3 4
1 2
3 4

GR Gr gR gr
 MENDEL’S PRINCIPLE OF INDEPENDENT
ASSORTMENT

Alleles of two different genes get sorted into gametes

independently of one another
 MENDEL’S PRINCIPLE OF INDEPENDENT
ASSORTMENT

Characteristics for which the gene pairs occur on

different homologous chromosomes will be inherited
independently of each other
 DIHYBRID CROSS

green rough seeds yellow smooth seeds

GGRR ggrr

GR gr

all GgRr
all green rough seeds
DIHYBRID CROSS

green rough seeds green smooth seeds

GgRR Ggrr

GR, gR Gr, gr

3 G_R_: 1 ggRr
3 green rough : 1 yellow rough
 DIHYBRID CROSS

green rough seeds green rough seeds

GgRr GgRr

GR, Gr, gR, gr GR, Gr, gR, gr

99green
G_R_rough
: 3 G_rr
: 3:green
3 ggR_smooth
: 1 ggrr: 3 yellow
rough: 1 yellow smooth
ACTIVITY 21 [12 marks]
ACTIVITY 22 [18 marks]

BBTT BBTt BbTT BbTt

BBTt BBtt BbTt Bbtt

BbTT BbTt bbTT bbTt

BbTt Bbtt bbTt bbtt

ACTIVITY 22 [18 marks]

GGRR GGRr GgRR GgRr

GGRr GGrr GgRr Ggrr

GgRR GgRr ggRR ggRr

GgRr Ggrr ggRr ggrr
ACTIVITY 22 [18 marks]
If both parents are heterozygous

9
3
3
1

9:3:3:1
ACTIVITY 22 [18 marks]
If both parents are heterozygous

9
3
3
1
9:3:3:1
ACTIVITY 23 [8 marks]
ACTIVITY 24 [6 marks]
ACTIVITY 25 [7 marks]
 PEDIGREE DIAGRAM
A diagram showing the inheritance of characteristics or
genetic disorders over many generations
 PEDIGREE DIAGRAM - AUTOSOMAL
Disorder
Caused by - a Aa
A- normal A A a a

A a A a
 PEDIGREE DIAGRAM - AUTOSOMAL
Disorder
Caused by - a
A- normal
A a A a

Aa

A A a a
PEDIGREE DIAGRAM - AUTOSOMAL

Nn Nn

NN NN
nn nn
Nn Nn
PEDIGREE DIAGRAM - AUTOSOMAL

Hh Hh Hh

HH hh
Hh
PEDIGREE DIAGRAM - AUTOSOMAL

Aa AA aa
Aa
AA AA Aa Aa Aa Aa
Aa Aa
AA aa AA
Aa Aa
PEDIGREE DIAGRAM - AUTOSOMAL

Nn Nn

NN NN NN
Nn Nn Nn nn nn NN nn
Nn Nn
Nn
nn NN Nn Nn
Nn
 PEDIGREE DIAGRAM - AUTOSOMAL
*How to determine which phenotype is controlled by the dominant
allele.

Two parents of the same phenotype

producing a child/children (child 2) with a
different phenotype from their own means
the allele controlling the phenotype of that
child is hidden/masked in both parents.
 PEDIGREE DIAGRAM - AUTOSOMAL
*How to determine which phenotype is controlled by the dominant
allele.

Therefore both parents are heterozygous

dominant and their phenotype is
controlled by the dominant allele.

Child 2 is therefore homozygous

recessive.
ACTIVITY 26 [10 marks]
ACTIVITY 27 [6 marks]
PEDIGREE DIAGRAM – SEX-LINKED

XA Xa XaY

Disorder
Caused by - a
A- normal

XA Xa XA Xa Xa Y
PEDIGREE DIAGRAM – SEX-LINKED

XaXa XAY

Disorder
Caused by - a
A- normal

XA Xa XaY
PEDIGREE DIAGRAM – SEX-LINKED

XAY XA Xa

Disorder
Caused by - a XAXA
A- normal
XA Xa XAY XaY
PEDIGREE DIAGRAM – SEX-LINKED

XHXh XhY

XHXh XHXh XhY XHXh

XHXh XHXh XhY

PEDIGREE DIAGRAM – SEX-LINKED

XDXd XdY

XDXd XDXd XdY XDY XdXd XDY XDY

PEDIGREE DIAGRAM – SEX-LINKED

XHY XHXh

XHY XHXh XHY XhY XhY

XhY Xh Y XHY XHXH XHXH XHY XhXh

XHXh XHXh
ACTIVITY 28 [12 marks]
ACTIVITY 29 [6 marks]
ACTIVITY 30 [9 marks]
 MUTATION
Sudden change in the sequence of nitrogenous bases/
nucleotides on a gene
 MUTATION
*State the causes of mutations

Nuclear radiation

UV light

X-rays
 MUTATION
*Types of mutations :

Gene mutation

Chromosomal mutation
 GENE MUTATION

Sudden change in the nucleotide

sequence of a DNA molecule.
 GENE MUTATION
Leads to faulty protein or missing protein

Affects the structure and function of a protein

 GENE MUTATION
*When it occurs

Transcription

DNA replication

Crossing over
CHROMOSOMAL MUTATION
Change in the number or structure of chromosomes.

Caused by non-disjunction.

Occurs during meiosis

 HAEMOPHILIA
Blood does not clot because proteins for blood clotting
factors are not produced

Caused by recessive allele

Is a result of a gene mutation

It is sex-linked
 COLOUR BLINDNESS
The person cannot differentiate between different
colours due to absence of the necessary protein for
photoreception

Caused by recessive allele

Is a result of a gene mutation

It is sex-linked
 ALBINISM
The lack of the pigment in the skin due to absence of
the protein that forms melanin

Is a result of a gene mutation

It is autosomal
 DOWN SYNDROME
The person has an extra copy of chromosome 21 due
to non-disjunction during meiosis

Is a result of a chromosomal mutation

It is autosomal
 SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA
Caused by a mutation that leads to change in amino
acid sequence.

Results in sickle-shaped red blood cells that carry less

oxygen to cells causing decrease in cellular respiration
leading to less energy being generated
 SICKLE CELL ANAEMIA
Is a result of a gene mutation

It is autosomal
 HARMFUL/LETHAL
Causes disorders such albinism and sickle cell anaemia
 HARMLESS/SILENT
Does not affect the structure and functioning of a
protein

Affects non-coding DNA

Mutations can occur but some amino acids are coded

for by more than once codon.
 ADVENTAGEOUS/USEFUL
Mutations that favour survival in an environment and
can also lead to increase in genetic variation
 GENETIC VARIATION
*Describe how mutations contribute to genetic variation

Mutations can cause genetic variation through gene

and chromosomal mutation

Mutations that occur in sex cells are passed on to the

new generations creating new characteristics.
ACTIVITY 31 [6 marks]
 GENETIC ENGINEERING
The manipulation of genes of an organism to satisfy
human needs.
 BIOTECHNOLOGY
The use of biological processes, organisms or systems
to improve the quality of human life.
 STEM CELLS
Unspecialised cells which are capable of giving rise to
any other cells of the same organism.

OR
Cells that are undifferentiated that have the potential
to divide into any cell type.
 STEM CELLS
*Sources of stem cells

Umbilical cord blood

 STEM CELLS
*Sources of stem cells

Foetal blastocyst/embryonic cells

 STEM CELLS
*Sources of stem cells

Bone marrow
 STEM CELLS
*Uses of stem cells

Diabetes

Cancer

Multiple sclerosis

Organ transplant
 GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS
(GMOs)

Organisms that are a result of genetic engineering.

E.COLI TO PRODUCE INSULIN
1. E.coli is used because it
consists of a plasmid.

2. The plasmid is removed

from the E.coli.

3. Restriction enzymes are

used to cut the plasmid
DNA.
E.COLI TO PRODUCE INSULIN
4. A healthy gene for
insulin production is
isolated from a human
cell.

5. DNA ligase (enzyme) is

used to join the
insulin production gene to
the plasmid
E.COLI TO PRODUCE INSULIN
6. The plasmid is now
recombinant DNA.

7. The E.coli bacteria will

divide into numerous
bacteria that will have the
recombinant DNA and will
all be able to secrete
insulin.
 RECOMBINANT DNA
DNA that has been manipulated
 PLASMID
Ring like DNA found bacteria
 GENETIC ENGINEERING
*Advantages/benefits

Can be used to produce medicines

Can be used for organ transplants

Can produce plants with better/larger yields

 GENETIC ENGINEERING
*Advantages/benefits

Can produce plants that are pest/drought resistant

Improve taste of food

Increase the shelf life of foods

Save endangered species

 GENETIC ENGINEERING
*Disadvantages

Can be said to go against God/religious beliefs

Possibility of unknown side effects

Possible unknown effect of a new gene in the

environment
 GENETIC ENGINEERING
*Disadvantages

Cost can be high/expensive

Can decrease biodiversity

ACTIVITY 32 [6 marks]
ACTIVITY 33 [6 marks]
ACTIVITY 34 [7 marks]
 CLONING
The production of genetically identical offspring using
biotechnology
CLONING
1

A somatic cell is extracted from a

donor.

The nucleus is removed from the

somatic cell because it contains the
desired characteristics.
CLONING
2

An ovum is extracted from a

surrogate mother
CLONING
3

The nucleus of the ovum is

removed as it does not contain the
desired characteristic.
CLONING
4

The ovum without a nucleus is fused

with the nucleus of the somatic cell.
CLONING
5

A diploid zygote is formed with a

nucleus that contains the desired
characteristics of the donor.
CLONING
6

The zygote divides by mitosis to

from an embryo.
CLONING
7

The embryo is implanted in the

uterus of the surrogate mother.
CLONING
8

The resulting offspring will be a

clone of the donor.

Meaning the offspring is identical

to the donor and will have the
desired characteristic.
 CLONING
*Advantages/benefits

Help with infertility

Can be used for organ transplants

Can produce plants with better/larger yields

 CLONING
*Advantages/benefits

Short generation time of crops/livestock

Save endangered species

 CLONING
*Disadvantages

Can be said to go against God/religious beliefs

Possibility of unknown effects on health

Cost can be high/expensive

 CLONING
*Disadvantages

Clones may have weak immune system

Decrease in genetic variation

ACTIVITY 35 [5 marks]
 GENETIC COUNSELLING
Process of advising individuals and families affected by
or at risk of genetic disorders to help them understand
implications of genetic contributions to disease.
 GENETIC COUNSELLING
*Benefits of genetic counselling

Obtaining early diagnosis

Obtaining information about the disorders

Help couple to decide on whether or not to have a child

Obtain information on how to care/support

someone with the disorder
DNA PROFILING VS BLOOD GROUPING

DNA samples are Blood samples are

taken from mother, taken from mother,
child and possible child and possible
father (s). father (s).
DNA PROFILING VS BLOOD GROUPING

DNA bands are Blood groups are

analysed and analysed and
compared compared
DNA PROFILING VS BLOOD GROUPING

DNA is unique Blood groups are not

between individuals unique.
except identical Any two people can
twins. share a blood group.
DNA PROFILING VS BLOOD GROUPING

If most of the child’s Even if it is possible

DNA bands match for the possible
with that of the father to have a child
possible father he is with a particular
definitely the blood group it does
biological father. not mean he is the
biological father.
DNA PROFILING VS BLOOD GROUPING

Can confirm and Mainly used to

exclude an exclude an individual
individual as the as the biological
biological father. father.
DNA PROFILING VS BLOOD GROUPING
*Explain why DNA profiling is better than blood grouping
in paternity testing

DNA profiling is better for paternity testing than blood

grouping because DNA is unique to every individual
(except identical twins)

while any two people can share a blood group making

it difficult to confirm an individual as a biological
father.
 GENETIC LINKS
*Describe how mutations in mitochondrial DNA can be
used to trace female ancestry

In Human reproduction we established that the sperm

cell carries mtDNA in its middle piece but the middle
piece does not form part of the zygote that results
from fertilisation of an ovum.
 GENETIC LINKS
*Describe how mutations in mitochondrial DNA can be
used to trace female ancestry

The ovum also carries

mtDNA and it is this mtDNA
that is found in the zygote.
 GENETIC LINKS
*Describe how mutations in mitochondrial DNA can be
used to trace female ancestry

Therefore all mtDNA of

any offspring is
maternal.
 GENETIC LINKS
*Describe how mutations in mitochondrial DNA can be
used to trace female ancestry

This mtDNA does not go through crossing over and as a

result any variation in this mtDNA is due to mutations.

This means the mtDNA between an offspring, the

mother and grandmother is usually unchanged.
 GENETIC LINKS
*Describe how mutations in mitochondrial DNA can be
used to trace female ancestry

Therefore mtDNA can be studied to trace ancestry by

comparing the nucleotide sequences.

The similarities and differences in the mtDNA has been

used to build phylogenetic trees such the one below.
GENETIC LINKS

A B

A B C
ACTIVITY 36 [36 marks]
ACTIVITY 37 [32 marks]
ACTIVITY 21 [32 marks]