Environmental Challenges 10 (2023) 100663

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Environmental Challenges
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envc

Insights of smallholder farmers on the trade-offs of eucalyptus plantation

Takele Taye Desta a,∗, Haimanot Teklemariam b, Tewodros Mulugeta a
a
Department of Biology, College of Natural and Computational Science, Kotebe University of Education, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
b
Department of Forest Protection, Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: Eucalyptus is a popular evergreen perennial tree that grows quickly. Due to its diverse economic value and wide
Eucalyptus woodlot plantation range of adaptations, the eucalyptus is commonly grown in tropical and subtropical regions. Eucalyptus is an eco-
Advantages and disadvantages nomically important tree. However, the economic importance of eucalyptus ensued at the expense of undesirable
Adverse impacts on ecosystem health
ecological consequences. This qualitative study reports the advantages and disadvantages of eucalyptus woodlot
Smallholder farmers
establishment on the productivity of arable and grazing lands. In this study, nine knowledgeable farmers were
Economic importance
involved in an in-depth individual interview and four focus group discussions were conducted. Farmers have
frequently reported the negative impact of eucalyptus plantations on the productivity of the agricultural system.
Eucalyptus serves as a refuge for crop pests and pathogens such as aphids and rust. Besides, the shade suppresses
the development of the understory and adjacent crops, pastures, fodder, and other species of native trees and
shrubs if they are planted together. Eucalyptus has increasingly replaced eco-friendly native trees and shrubs
traditionally used as hedges, windbreaks, fodder, shelters for domestic and wild animals, and enhancers of soil
fertility. Besides deteriorating soil fertility, structure, and moisture, it drains wetlands, springs, and streams and
reduces the flow of rivers. Nevertheless, farmers acknowledged the importance of eucalyptus as a construction
material, a source of fuelwood and charcoal, and income. To make the best use of eucalyptus woodlots with-
out imposing adverse effects on agroecology, farmers have suggested that plantation sites should be marginally
suitable for crop and livestock production. The expanded plantation needs to be contracted by removing a signif-
icant proportion of the established eucalyptus woodlots. Plantations of eucalyptus around watering points should
be discouraged. Fast-growing, resilient, and eco-friendly tree species, such as those from Grevillea and Populus
species, and sibling (leguminous) trees and shrubs delivering comparable products and services should be sought
after to replace the significant proportion of the established eucalyptus woodlot.

1. Introduction Eucalyptus consists of about 800 species (Brooker, 2000). This

species richness shows that it is genetically diverse; however,
Eucalyptus is native to Australia. Eucalyptus is an evergreen and distribution-wise, a few species are very important (Stanturf et al.,
popular flowering tree that thrives in tropical and sub-tropical regions 2013). Eucalyptus is widely grown in several parts of the world out-
(Stature et al., 2013). Under ideal conditions, eucalyptus seeds ger- side of its natural home range. Eucalyptus is one of the most im-
minate quickly, and the seedlings grow quickly and straight up — so portant tree species that are used in the pulp and paper industry
they might be utilizing a lot of nutrients and moisture (Jagger & Pen- (Sembiring et al., 2021). To meet growing demand, eucalyptus has been
der, 2003; Columbia Center on Sustainable Development, 2019; Kaur & planted in large woodlots and commercial plantations. However, un-
Monga, 2021). The allopathic characteristic of eucalyptus produces un- der subsistence farmers’ production systems, eucalyptus is established
desirable effects (Columbia Center on Sustainable Development, 2019; in patches of small woodlots on lands that have been used for crop
Kaur & Monga, 2021). Accordingly, it imposes an inhibitory effect on production, grazing, or are known to be wetlands. Inadequate supply
the development of understory vegetation due to the adverse effect of electric power, high demand for cheap houses made of wood prod-
of secondary compounds. Nevertheless, eucalyptus is considered to be ucts due to low living standards, and the pressing need of low-income
drought-tolerant, resilient to diseases, and environmental challenges farmers for extra income and diversification of their means of livelihood
(Valdés et al., 2013), and an efficient utilizer/converter of nutrients (Tadesse & Tafere, 2017) may have caused eucalyptus to spread rapidly
(Bargali, 1995). in the agricultural landscape.

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (T.T. Desta).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2022.100663
Received 21 September 2022; Received in revised form 18 November 2022; Accepted 3 December 2022
2667-0100/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
T.T. Desta, H. Teklemariam and T. Mulugeta Environmental Challenges 10 (2023) 100663

Fig. 1. Encroachment of Eucalyptus woodlots into

arable and grazing lands.

Eucalyptus’ economic importance causes it to spread across a wide est point in the district is Mount Gugu which is located at 3626 m.a.s.l.
range of land-use systems and agro-ecologies (Khattabi, 1999). This un- The study district covers a total area of 766 square kilometers. The daily
controlled expansion of eucalyptus woodlot has adversely affected crop temperature ranges from 15 to 25°C, making the study district exhibit
production (Bayle, 2019) and productivity, as well as the performance a modest climate. The mean annual rainfall is 1000mm. Chole district
of the livestock sector (Desta et al., 2022). The expansion of eucalyptus exhibits two rainy seasons: the minor one usually occurs between March
has also destabilized the local ecosystem and significantly reduced the and May and the main rainy season lasts from June to September. The
diversity of native flora and fauna species (Lindenmayer & Ough, 2006), main crops that are grown in the eucalyptus growing regions (high-
and perhaps microbial populations that are relying on these biological lands) of the study district include wheat, barley, faba beans, maize,
resources. Eucalyptus woodlot represents the monoculture of plantation peas, and tef (Eragrostis tef). Cattle, sheep, goats, chickens, and equines
forestry, which eliminates the natural scene of the local landscape and (horses, donkeys, and mules) are kept by subsistence farmers engag-
the sphere of local biodiversity. ing in mixed crop-livestock agriculture. Chole is one of Ethiopia’s ma-
Eucalyptus plantation has resulted in a significant change in the land- jor eucalyptus growing and exporting districts; as a result, a significant
use system (Pagella et al., 2013) and it is strongly competing with crop- portion of the arable land has been converted to eucalyptus woodlots
ping and grazing lands, imposing an extra burden on the fragile food (Fig. 1).
security systems of the less developed world. Eucalyptus has also gradu-
ally replaced the mixed flora of native trees and shrubs (Columbia Cen-
2.2. The study design
ter on Sustainable Development, 2019). These undesirable effects make
farmers deeply concerned about the long-term negative impact of euca-
This is a cross-sectional qualitative study that has involved nine face-
lyptus plantations and look for simplification strategies. Nevertheless,
to-face, and in-depth individual interviews of key informants (model
eucalyptus woodlot provides various raw materials for local uses and
farmers) (Fig. 2), four focus group discussions, FGDs (Fig. 3), and ac-
the mainstream pulp and wood industry, and it is a reliable source of
cidental informal talks. Three to seven individuals were involved in fo-
income for smallholder farmers. This exploratory study reports the ad-
cus group discussions. The key informants and focus group discussants
vantages and disadvantages of patchy eucalyptus woodlots and proposes
were selected in consultation with the district’s Office of Agriculture and
strategies for cautious (limited) plantations of eucalyptus in agricultur-
knowledgeable informants. Verbal consent was obtained from each dis-
ally important regions.
cussant ahead of the discussion. The key informants belonged to three
local sites (locally called kebeles, a sort of county) out of six local sites
2. Materials and methods
that are engaged in the plantation of eucalyptus as an important source
of livelihood and utility woodlot (18 local sites are found in the study
2.1. The study site
district).

The study site, Chole district, belongs to the Arsi zone, Oromia Na-
tional Regional State, south-eastern Ethiopia. Chole district is a part of 2.3. The types of information gathered and methods of data interpretation
central southeast Ethiopia’s highlands proper. Chole is one of the 180
districts that are found in the Oromia National Regional State. The Oro- The information collected from key informants and FGDs includes
mia region is known for its high potential for agricultural production the advantages and disadvantages of eucalyptus plantations and plau-
and silvicultural practices. The capital of the district that makes up the sible strategies that can be used to reduce the negative impact of euca-
central part of the sampled villages is located at an elevation of ∼2759 lyptus plantations or devise strategies to match eucalyptus plantations
meters above sea level (m.a.s.l) at a point geographic coordinate of 8° with mainstream agricultural production systems. The information is
09’ 60.00” north latitude and 39° 49’ 59.99” east longitude. The high- presented in narrative form and interpreted using facts.

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T.T. Desta, H. Teklemariam and T. Mulugeta Environmental Challenges 10 (2023) 100663

rapid expansion of the eucalyptus plantation. Besides, a disproportional

increase in the price of crop and livestock products has negatively af-
fected the economic feasibility of eucalyptus plantations. In recent years,
the increase in the price of eucalyptus products was marginal compared
to the huge increases observed in crop and livestock products. Conse-
quently, eucalyptus has lost its comparative advantage over crop and
livestock production.
A couple of decades ago, the eucalyptus was established as planta-
tion forestry by the government of Ethiopia. Following this initiative,
besides the expansion of patchy eucalyptus woodlots in the arable lands
of smallholder farmers, state-owned commercial plantations of eucalyp-
tus were established in different parts of Ethiopia. However, regardless
of its high economic value, the negative impact of the eucalyptus wood-
lot on the ecosystem was gradually discovered by smallholder farmers.
The advantages and disadvantages of eucalyptus plantations and the
strategies proposed by the informants to reduce the adverse impact of
eucalyptus plantations on the local ecosystem are presented in the fol-
lowing sections.

3.1. The advantages of eucalyptus plantation

All the respondents acknowledged the economic importance of eu-

calyptus as a source of firewood, charcoal, construction materials, and
fencing posts, to build up assets and improve the quality of life. Eu-
calyptus woodlot is usually established within walking distance of the
homestead. This practice saves the time and labor of farmers that are
otherwise forced to travel far to collect firewood and construction ma-
terials from natural forests. Moreover, eucalyptus plantation has signif-
icantly reduced the deforestation of the natural forest. However, the
respondents complained that a large part of the income generated from
the sale of eucalyptus products is drained by the long chain of middle-
men and the associated traders. For example, when middlemen buy the
Fig. 2. A photograph showing individual interviews conducted at the study site.
eucalyptus poles, they collect 115 but make a payment of only 100. The
well-matured eucalyptus trees produce timber, and the poles are used
in the construction industry and to carry transmission cables for electric
3. Results power and telephone lines.
Respondents added that due to its straight stem, the eucalyptus pole
A couple of years ago, in the study district, eucalyptus was widely is highly commended in the construction industry and is used both as
planted by farmers in a bid to earn a better income, i.e., attributable to a scaffold and building material. The bark of a young pole is used in
an attractive market price obtained from the sale of eucalyptus prod- the construction of thatched huts as a tie belt to fix walls, roofs and
ucts. However, the marginal return has quickly stabilized following the fence posts. Eucalyptus can be established easily and regenerates itself

Fig. 3. A photograph showing a focus group discussion con-

ducted at the study site.

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T.T. Desta, H. Teklemariam and T. Mulugeta Environmental Challenges 10 (2023) 100663

for a couple of decades through coppicing; this regeneration habit will use of manure under the stands of eucalyptus trees significantly reduces
produce multiple harvests. The management and maintenance of an eu- the negative impact of eucalyptus on the development of adjacent crops.
calyptus forest is relatively inexpensive. These attributes have made eu- However, other key informants reported that the use of synthetic fertil-
calyptus plantations preferable to crop and livestock production, and the izer is not sufficient to avoid the negative impact of eucalyptus on the
latter two require routine management practices. However, the initial fertility of the soil. Eucalyptus suppresses the development of adjacent
establishment of a eucalyptus woodlot may incur significant costs. crops and trees through its allopathic effects and by blocking the trans-
The eucalyptus pole is one of the export items in Ethiopia. Industrial mission of sunlight through its wide canopy. The leaves of the eucalyptus
products such as chip wood and plywood, which are usually produced are toxic to the soil, which is detrimental to the growth and development
from eucalyptus, have been serving as foreign exchange earners and they of crops and fodder. Eucalyptus causes the soil in the nearby cropping
have created job opportunities in the rural areas and the industrial belts field to harden and compact, reducing crop productivity and necessitat-
of Ethiopia. Associated uses of eucalyptus include serving as bee forage, ing an unusually high labor input. Those farmers who allotted most of
herbal medicine, and producing animal-drawn farming implements such their arable land to eucalyptus plantations have experienced bankruptcy
as yokes, beams, wooden mouldboard, and braces. Eucalyptus produces and turned out to be net buyers of cereals to feed their families.
a large amount of biomass per unit area of land. Biomass is a commonly Currently, a large proportion of arable land is occupied by eucalyptus
used source of energy, especially in rural areas. Due to its allopathic ef- woodlots, which quantitatively reduce crop yield. Families with small
fect, eucalyptus (leaf) is traditionally used to treat coughs and colds. To plots of land do not usually establish eucalyptus woodlots because the
amplify the scene of traditional ceremonies, freshly cut green eucalyp- harvest cycle of eucalyptus is longer than that of cereals, which reduces
tus leaf is spread on the floor of farmers’ houses or temporary shades their income. Accordingly, families of these types prefer to grow annual
(tents). crops to feed their families, and they have reported that we do not eat
eucalyptus and the price of the crop is rapidly increasing. By-products
3.2. The drawbacks of establishing eucalyptus plantations on arable lands of annual crops such as straw and stover can be used as roughage to feed
animals and to construct the roof coverings of thatched huts, and they
The reported drawbacks of eucalyptus plantations could take differ- can be sold to generate income or used as raw material for composting.
ent forms, and they are presented in the following sections.
3.2.3. The advancement of crop-raiding animals to the agricultural
3.2.1. Eucalyptus plantation turned out to be economically less competitive landscape
From the perspective of economic competitiveness, eucalyptus Eucalyptus plantations host crop-raiding wild animals such as mon-
reaches harvest size within four to five years, which makes it less com- keys and baboons, which have become a standing threat to crop produc-
petitive compared to the rapid increase observed in the price of the tion and a growing cause of human-wildlife conflict. Farmers reported
annual crops (cereals) and livestock products that usually have a har- that areas that had been free from raiding wild animals are now ex-
vesting cycle of a year or less. Recently, compared to crops and livestock, posed to their impact because the widely planted eucalyptus woodlots
the marginal increase in the price of eucalyptus products has decreased. serve as refugees. At least some eucalyptus woodlots serve as trespassing
Currently, for example, the income generated from the sale of livestock corridors for crop-raiding wild animals. It has also been reported that
products (live animals, milk, and milk products) is higher than that gen- monkeys are difficult to spot once they hide, especially in newly emerg-
erated from the sale of eucalyptus trees per unit area of land. Small ru- ing plantations and the regrowths that have emerged after coppicing,
minants, particularly sheep and goats, reach marketable size within a or once they hide high in the branches of well-established eucalyptus
year. It is estimated that crop production, such as cereals and pulses, woodlots.
generates approximately three times the income generated by eucalyp-
tus harvested once every four years. The eucalyptus has been planted 3.2.4. Eucalyptus-induced loss of native trees and shrubs
widely, which may have increased the supply compared to a couple of Eucalyptus has increasingly replaced native trees and shrubs that
years ago. are otherwise used as hedges (live fences), windbreaks, and forages for
Due to the twisted and stunted growth of recently introduced eu- livestock, including bees, due to its fast growth and high market de-
calyptus cultivars, the construction industry is discarding a significant mand. Besides, native trees can be used to construct beehives, magnify
proportion of the harvested eucalyptus poles, which reduces the income the beauty of farmers’ backyards, and enhance the fertility of the soil.
of smallholder farmers. A twisted eucalyptus pole is difficult to split. Eu- Eucalyptus is a selfish tree that does not allow the growth and devel-
calyptus plantations incur additional production costs for farmers, for opment of adjacent native trees and shrubs; i.e., it suppresses the de-
example, through the purchase of fertilizer to enhance the productivity velopment of mixed-species forestry. Native trees and shrubs that have
of the nutrient-depleted land due to the adverse impact of eucalyptus been planted by farmers or grown naturally and that could attract rain-
woodlots and chemicals to treat eucalyptus-induced diseases such as fall have been gradually replaced by eucalyptus. Farmers believe that
crop rust. eucalyptus does not attract rainfall. Eucalyptus might have contributed
to a recurrent drought because the temperature has raised following the
3.2.2. Adverse impacts of eucalyptus plantation on crop production expansion of the eucalyptus woodlot and the duration, frequency, and
From a crop production perspective, farmers believed that eucalyp- amount of rainfall have gradually decreased. Wild animals that have
tus plantation has increased the incidence of devastating diseases such used native trees and shrubs as shelter have been lost, and at least their
as crop rust and has introduced (or favored the invasion of) pests such population has declined. Unfortunately, eucalyptus does not provide a
as aphids. Farmers reported that before the expansion of the eucalyptus suitable shelter for wild animals.
plantation, the crop usually severely affected by rust was the faba bean;
however, the impact of rust spread to other crops such as peas, barley, 3.2.5. Undesirable impacts of eucalyptus plantation on livestock production
and wheat. Eucalyptus reportedly attracts frost, which is detrimental to Eucalyptus has significantly encroached on the grazing lands, which
the health of crops, livestock, and people. Eucalyptus attracts and holds reduces livestock production and productivity by reducing the available
up clouds and fogs that are detrimental to crop production. grazing lands and drinking water. Those practices that are negatively
Due to its high nutrient and water uptake, eucalyptus reduces crop affecting crop production are also detrimental to livestock production
yield. Although the eucalyptus is shallow-rooted, its roots spread hori- because livestock largely relies upon crop by-products as feed sources.
zontally proportional to its height on the relatively fertile top layer of Cattle that lie under the shade of a tree reportedly lose body condition
the soil. This growth habit leads to stunted crop growth over a signifi- and feel discomfort. Cattle are the most affected animals because sheep
cantly wide plot of land by competing for nutrients and moisture. The and goats, due to their feeding habit, can be fed on a few hardy species

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T.T. Desta, H. Teklemariam and T. Mulugeta Environmental Challenges 10 (2023) 100663

of plants that can grow under the canopy of eucalyptus. Nevertheless,

even for small ruminants, the development of the understory and adja-
cent fodder is significantly suppressed by eucalyptus trees. Following the
expansion of the eucalyptus plantation, livestock numbers have gradu-
ally decreased due to the eucalyptus-induced scarcity of fodder and loss
of watering points.

3.2.6. High uptake of water

Eucalyptus has dried up springs, streams, and wetlands (marshy and
swampy) and reduced the flow of rivers and soil moisture. Eucalyptus
trees take a lot of water, which poses a growing threat to water bod-
ies and wetlands. Eucalyptus plantation is a threat to small-scale tradi-
tional irrigation systems, the development of drinking water facilities
both for humans and livestock, and the wetland ecosystem. Respon-
dents reported that when all these adverse effects are combined with
an ever-increasing reduction in rainfall, they become real challenges to
the normal functioning of the agricultural system.

3.2.7. Associated undesirable attributes of eucalyptus plantation

Fig. 4. Eucalyptus tree infested with aphids.
Aged individuals once seen in the countryside are now not commonly
encountered, and it has been reported that eucalyptus might have re-
duced life expectancy through its adverse effect on weather conditions because the eucalyptus’ shallow roots cannot trespass such structures.
and the local ecosystem. It has been discovered that eucalyptus can If the eucalyptus is planted in the direction of sunrise , i.e., east, the
block the wind that can be otherwise used to winnow trashed crops shade imposes a serious threat to adjacent crops; however, it is safe if
because the eucalyptus either blocks the movement of the wind or at it is planted on the western part of the cropland. This key informant
least slows down the speed of the wind. The expansion of the eucalyp- reported on a special case he encountered. All the farmers adjacent to
tus woodlot has resulted in the loss of the natural beauty of the local my arable land planted eucalyptus on their crop fields, and I was left
landscape, which could be a threat to ecotourism and natural sightings. as the sole crop producer. I have recognized that, given this condition,
The land that has lost its fertility as a result of eucalyptus plantations I would be exposed to crop raiding by wild animals. Thus, in a way
requires an unusually large amount of manure to rehabilitate. Recent that mimics the recently advocated government cluster cropping pro-
experiences show that the eucalyptus becomes less vigorous and it now gram (monocropping of plots of land owned by several farmers shar-
needs additional care, such as harrowing and application of fertilizer; ing borders to ease management), to match with my fellow farmers, I
otherwise, it will take a longer time (five to six years) to reach a har- converted my arable land into a eucalyptus plantation. As the planta-
vestable size. tion of eucalyptus expanded, the wild animals were advancing on the
Farmers have shown an increasing tendency to remove a significant human landscape; therefore, it was difficult to evade crop-raiding wild
proportion of their eucalyptus plantations that had been planted on ar- animals; hence, the credible solution was to convert the arable land into
eas that used to be arable or grazing lands. Some farmers cleared a sig- a eucalyptus plantation. He also reported that eucalyptus has brought a
nificant proportion of their eucalyptus woodlots to use for planting crops perceptible improvement in the lives of farmers; for example, a couple
or as grazing land. Surprisingly, cropping land cleared of eucalyptus has of years ago most of the farmers were living in thatched huts; now they
produced a high crop yield. However, this has been achieved at the ex- have built better homes roofed with corrugated iron sheets.
pense of the heavy labor power invested (which is costly) during the
removal of the stump. 3.4. What has to be done to mitigate the negative impact of eucalyptus
plantations?
3.2.8. Loss of vigor
The previous species of eucalyptus was fast-growing; the stem was
The informants suggested that eucalyptus should be planted in ar-
white; the pole was growing straight, and it was easy to split. The current
eas that are not suitable for crop production and the establishment of
cultivars of eucalyptus grow slowly, the stem is red, the pole is twisted;
pasture, such as hillsides, stony areas, gorges (valley bottoms), and wet-
and it is difficult to split. For example, a significant proportion of new
lands. Degraded and ecologically fragile lands, which are of marginal
regrowth emerges after coppicing trees that unusually dry up or that
importance to crop and livestock production, could be ideal sites for the
survive with stunted growth. The eucalyptus has become susceptible to
establishment of eucalyptus woodlots. However, it was reported by one
newly emerging diseases such as rust (Fig. 4).
of the key informants that eucalyptus can be affected by frost-induced
3.2.9. Eucalyptus has introduced the loss of working habits rust if it is planted in wetlands. Eucalyptus plantations need to be lim-
Inactive farmers and youths who prefer to spend the majority of their ited largely to domestic use, as a source of fuelwood and construction
time in cities usually dedicate their arable land to eucalyptus woodlots materials rather than a source of income. The plantation of eucalyptus
because it does not require routine follow-ups and is not raided by wild should have been limited to a small plot, and the rapid expansion of the
animals. These groups, which are known to be less productive in the eucalyptus woodlot needs to be halted. Finally, the informants called
agricultural sector; consider agriculture a subsidiary activity and earn for the removal of a significant proportion of the eucalyptus woodlot
most of their income from off-farm activities such as petty trading and established on arable land.
casual work. Subsequently, the eucalyptus plantation has negatively af-
fected the work habits of farmers, as it does not require routine follow-up 4. Discussions
to establish and maintain.
In the small-scale farming systems of the less developed world, euca-
3.3. Diverged thoughts lyptus plantation has become one of the means of livelihood for millions
of rural households (Alemayehu & Melka, 2022). Eucalyptus is the pri-
One key informant stated that the negative impact of eucalyptus on mary source of firewood in the countryside, including small villages and
crops can be reduced by digging a ditch adjacent to eucalyptus stands towns without (or with limited) access to electricity. The construction of

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T.T. Desta, H. Teklemariam and T. Mulugeta Environmental Challenges 10 (2023) 100663

houses mainly utilizes eucalyptus, and there is a growing demand for eu- Mwanjalolo Jackson-Gilbert et al., 2015). Eucalyptus is also not an ideal
calyptus logs from the wood industry. Due to a standing demand, small- tree for mixed-species forestry (agroforestry) owing to its allopathic
scale farmers generate a significant amount of income from the sale of effects (Columbia Center on Sustainable Development, 2019) and fast
eucalyptus products (Tadesse & Tafere, 2017). The various products and growth potential. In Kenya, it has also been found that shade trees de-
services provided by the eucalyptus tree might have made the eucalyp- crease the abundance of pests on brassica (Guenat et al., 2019). There-
tus plantation disperse quickly across the world (Turnbull, 1999). fore, the loss of native trees and shrubs is detrimental to the biological
The unmanageable expansion of eucalyptus plantations on arable control of pests and ecological processes.
and grazing lands undoubtedly weakens the fragile food security system Compared to a production cycle of eight years reported somewhere
prevailing in the less developed world (Bene et al., 1977). This chal- (Columbia Center on Sustainable Development, 2019) the short cycle
lenge calls for the cautious allocation of lands that could be used for the of four to five years of harvest shows the disposition of using eucalyp-
establishment of eucalyptus woodlots. These cautions require the devel- tus as a pole in the study site. Eucalyptus is highly preferred by the
opment of plantation forestry policies reframed in line with the local pulp and paper industry (Turnbull, 1999); however; for example, giant
context. Areas that are marginally suitable for crop production and pas- grasses that cover a significant part of the Savanah grasslands, such as
ture development can be used for eucalyptus plantations (Asad et al., “Hyparrhenia rufa (Jaragua grass)” and bamboo, might be used as al-
2018). Areas that are frequently affected by frost (wetlands) can be al- ternative materials for the pulp and paper industry. Exotic and native
ternatively used to establish eucalyptus woodlots. In the meantime, the trees and shrubs (Amazonas et al., 2018) can also serve as alternative
trade-offs of eucalyptus plantations from a negative ecosystem perspec- raw materials for the pulp and paper industry.
tive and the various products and services delivered by eucalyptus plan- Literature often reports conflicting results on the advantages and
tations need to be objectively assessed and quantified. disadvantages of eucalyptus plantations among smallholder farmers
Expansion of rural electricity power supply, preferably using renew- (Tadesse & Tafere, 2017) and between smallholder farmers and white-
able energy sources, searching for alternative construction materials, collar conventional scientists (Liu & Li, 2010). This controversy can be
for example, masonry works, and screening for eco-friendly and fast- resolved through extensive, objective studies covering a wide range of
growing tree species such as those from Grevillea and Populus species geographical regions and stakeholders involved in the management of
may reduce the high dependence on eucalyptus. Although, there is eucalyptus plantations. Although eucalyptus plantation is complained
a standing controversy on the advantages of establishing eucalyptus of as having bad ecological consequences, its rapid expansion across the
woodlots in agriculturally important regions (Tadesse & Tafere, 2017) world shows its importance in the socio-economic lives of communi-
most of the key informants have decided to remove a significant pro- ties engaged in the plantation and use of eucalyptus trees (Alemayehu
portion of their eucalyptus woodlots, and it was noted that some of the & Melka, 2022). It is also imperative to explore further the importance
farmers, including some of the key informants, have already started the and drawbacks of the eucalyptus tree in various ecological and socio-
removal of eucalyptus. This clearing is performed in response to the per- economic settings to capture the broad pictureand specificities of the
ceived negative impact of eucalyptus plantations on the productivity of eucalyptus plantation.
the agricultural system and the adverse effects it has introduced to the
local ecosystem. 5. Conclusions
High loss of moisture from eucalyptus plantation sites might be as-
sociated with the high rate of evapotranspiration (Lima, 1984) from the The establishment of eucalyptus woodlots could have both desirable
evergreen leaves of eucalyptus. Eucalyptus is known for its high uptake and undesirable effects. Therefore, the question is: which oneoutweighs
of water (Pagella et al., 2013; Tadesse & Tafere, 2017); although this can the other and under what circumstances? Accordingly, although the eco-
be partly offset by the adequate amount of precipitation the study site nomic importance of the eucalyptus woodlot is indisputable, it poses a
is receiving. Although wetlands are recommended as eucalyptus plan- serious threat to the ecosystem and the agricultural landscape. This chal-
tation sites by some of the key informants, the loss of wetlands that are lenge, however, needs to be validated using extensive empirical studies
otherwise serving as reservoirs of biodiversity (Junk et al., 2006) is detri- and ecological and climatic data. The plantation of eucalyptus requires
mental to the health of the local ecosystem. A scarcity of water may be due attention to reduce its negative impact on limited resources such as
encountered, especially during the dry season, attributable to the planta- arable lands and water resources, and studies need to be carried out to
tion of eucalyptus in wetlands and around watering points (Pagella et al., understand whether the expansion of eucalyptus contributes to global
2013; Columbia Center on Sustainable Development, 2019). This loss of warming. It is also imperative to look after alternative trees and shrubs
water is counterproductive to the emerging small-scale traditional irri- that provide comparable products and services to those delivered by
gation schemes and efforts that are increasingly being made to become eucalyptus woodlots. It is recommended that a similar study on the fea-
self-sufficient in food production. On the other side, eucalyptus can be sibility of eucalyptus plantation need to be conducted in regions with
used to claim waterlogging areas (Daba, 2016) for various purposes, an inherently low potential for crop production to make a comparison
such as the expansion of cropping and grazing lands and the construc- with the study site, which is known for its high potential for crop and
tion of residential units. However, the drainage of wetlands is detri- livestock production.
mental to the normal functioning of the local ecosystem (Usio et al.,
Funding sources
2013). Eucalyptus may destabilize the health of the ecosystem, which is
detrimental to the survival of wildlife and various services provided by
Not applicable.
native trees and shrubs (Alemu, 2016; Columbia Center on Sustainable
Development, 2019) and fauna species.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The top layer of soil that is plowed for crop production represents a
relatively fertile part of the soil (Kononova, 1966); therefore, shallow-
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
rooted eucalyptus can uptake the flavor of the most important nutri-
ents that would be used for the growth of adjacent crops. This high Data availability
uptake of nutrients is unfavorable for the development of crops and pas-
tures in the vicinity of the eucalyptus woodlot. This negative impact is No data was used for the research described in the article.
exacerbated further by the poor decomposition capacity of eucalyptus
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