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Unit-7 vijayanagar Empire

B.A program (University of Delhi)

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Political Formations
Unit 7 EVOLUTIONOF INSTITUTIONS:
KINGSHIP AND THE NAYAKA
SYSTEM*
Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Nature of the Vijaynagara State
7.3 Local Administration under the Vijaynagara Empire
7.3.1 The Nayankara System
7.3.2 The Ayagar System
7.4 Economy of the Vijaynagara Empire
7.4.1 Land and Income Rights
7.4.2 Economic Role of Temples
7.4.3 Foreign Trade
7.4.4 Internal Trade and Urban Life
7.5 Society
7.6 Summary
7.7 Keywords
7.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
7.9 Suggested Readings
7.10 Instructional Video Recommendations

7.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:
• construe the nature of the Vijayanagara state,
• understand the administrative set-up with special reference to nayankara and
ayagar system,
• evaluate the economy of the Vijayanagara empire.
• analyze the foreign and internal trade and mercantile activities, and
• appraise the social structure of the Vijayanagara empire.

7.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Unit, we discussed the process of the emergence, expansion and
consolidation of the Vijaynagara power in the South Indian macro-region. In the
present Unit our focus would be to analyse various approaches pertaining to the
nature of the Vijayanagara state, its various institutions, economy and society.

* Dr. Sangeeta Pandey, School of Social Sciences, Indira Gandhi National Open University,
New Delhi. The present Unit is taken from Indria Gandhi National Open University, New
140 Delhi. Course EHI-03: India from 8th to 15th Century, Block 7, Units 27.

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Evolution of Institutions:
7.2 NATURE OF THE VIJAYNAGARA STATE1 Kingship and the
Nayaka System
There are various approaches – feudal, segmentary and integrative – with respect
to evaluating the Indian polity. Let us analyze the nature of the Vijaynagara polity
within this model.
Segmentary State
Burton Stein regards the Vijaynagara state as a segmentary state. For him, in the
Vijaynagara state, absolute political sovereignty rested with the centre, but in the
periphery ‘ritual sovereignty’ (symbolic control) was in the hands of the nayakas
and the Brahman commanders. The relationship of these subordinate units –
segments – in relation to the central authority was pyramidally arranged. The more
far removed a segment was from the centre, the greater its capacity to change
loyalty from one power pyramid to another.
Feudal Model
Some scholars try to explain the character of the Vijaynagara state in the backdrop
of feudal structure. They argue that the practice of giving fresh land grants to
Brahmans was an important factor which led to the rise of feudal segments. The
frequency of such land grants enhanced the position of the Brahmans. As a result,
they enjoyed a large measure of autonomy, possessed administrative powers and
controlled revenue resources within their settlements. Scholars further argue that
since the rulers of Vijaynagara proposed to protect Hindu dharma, it led to the
emergence of new Brahman settlements.
Further, the military need to expand into Tamil region created feudal territories
under the control of amaranayakas (warriors) and other high officials.
Amaranayakas were hereditary holders of land. They paid tribute and rendered
military service to the king (like the samantas of north India).
The vassals in turn started giving land grants to their subordinates, thus giving
way to sub-infeudation. The large extent of the empire and the absence of adequate
means of transport and communication made it necessary for the rulers to entrust
power to these feudal segments for the governance of the empire. In the process of
conquest and consolidation, recalcitrant chieftains were subdued and their territory
distributed among new chiefs. Nevertheless, some old chiefs were also permitted
to continue in the new scheme.
Other Interpretations
N.K. Sastri sees the Vijaynagara state in the light of essentially a Hindu kingdom
performing the ideological (religio-political) role of the defender of Hindu culture
against the Muslims of the Bahmani kingdom and its successor states. From this
stems the theory of the militaristic character of the Vijaynagara state. For him, the
Vijaynagara state was a ‘war’ state.

7.3 LOCAL ADMINISTRATION UNDER THE

VIJAYNAGARA EMPIRE
During the Vijaynagara period, the institutions of nadu (territorial assembly) and

1
This section is taken from IGNOU Course EHI-03: India from 8th to 15th century, p. 63. 141

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Political Formations sabha and ur (village assemblies) did not completely disappear when the nayaka
and ayagar systems came into prominence.

7.3.1 The Nayankara System

The nayankara system was an important characteristic of the Vijaynagara political
organization. The military chiefs or warriors held the title of nayaka or
amaranayaka. It is difficult to classify these warriors on the basis of definite office,
ethnic identity, set of duties or rights and privileges.
The institution of nayaka was studied in detail by two Portuguese – Fernao Nuniz
and Domingo Paes, who visited India during the reigns of Krishnadeva Raya and
Achyut Raya of Tuluva dynasty during the sixteenth century. They regard the
nayakas simply as agents of Rayas (central government). The evidence by Nuniz
for the payments made by the nayakas to the Rayas brings up the question of
feudal obligations. The Vijaynagara inscriptions and the later Mackenzie
manuscripts refer to the nayakas as territorial magnates with political aspirations
which at times conflicted with the aims of the rulers.
N. K. Sastri (in 1958) drew a distinction between the nayakas before 1565 and
those after 1565. The former were totally dependent upon the rulers while the
latter were semi-independent. However, later he modified his views by pointing
out that the nayakas before 1565 were military leaders holding military fiefs. In a
more recent work (Sources of Indian History), he views the Vijaynagara empire as
a military confederacy of many chieftains co-operating under the leadership of the
biggest among them. He emphasized that the growing threat from Islam led the
Vijaynagara rulers to adopt a military and religious stance. Krishnaswami considers
the nayaka system as feudal. But Venkataramanayya feels that important features
of European feudalism such as fealty, homage and sub-infeudation were absent in
the nayaka system. D. C. Sircar similarly refutes the feudal theory, instead he
explains it as a kind of landlordism – a variant of feudalism in which land was
allotted to the amaranayakas for military services rendered by them to the king.
Thus, D. C. Sircar, and T.V. Mahalingam consider the nayakas of Vijaynagara as
warriors holding an office (kara) bestowed on them by the central government on
the condition of rendering military service. Amaranayankara was a designation
conferred on a military officer or chief (nayaka) who had under his control a
specified number of troops. These nayakas possessed revenue rights over land or
territory called amaram (amaramakara or amaramahali). In the Tamil country
and also in the Vijaynagara empire, the area of land thus alienated under this tenure
was about 3/4th. The obligations and activities of the nayakas were among others,
giving gifts to temples, repair and building of tanks, reclamation of wasteland and
collection of dues from temples. The Tamil inscriptions, however, do not refer to
dues given to the king or his officials by the nayakas.
Krishnaswami, on the basis of Mackenzie manuscripts, opines that the commanders
of Vijaynagara army (formerly under Krishnadeva Raya) later established
independent nayaka kingdoms. To guard against such dangers, the Vijaynagara
kings tried to establish greater control over coastal markets dealing in horse trade.
They attempted to monopolize the purchase of horses of good quality by paying a
high price for them. They also built strong garrisons fortified with trustworthy
soldiers. Thus, on the one hand, the Telugu nayaks were a source of strength for
142 the Vijaynagara empire and, on the other, they became its rivals.

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7.3.2 The Ayagar System Evolution of Institutions:

Kingship and the
During the Vijaynagara period, autonomous local institutions, especially in the Nayaka System
Tamil country, suffered a set-back. In pre-Vijaynagara days, in Karnataka and
Andhra, local institutions possessed lesser autonomy as compared to Tamil country.
During the Vijaynagara period, in Karnataka too, local territorial divisions
underwent a change but the ayagar system continued and became widely prevalent
throughout the macro-region. It spread in the Tamil country during 15th -16th century
as a result of the declining power of nadu and nattar. The ayagars were village
servants or functionaries and constituted of groups of families. These were headmen
(reddi or gauda, maniyam), accountant (karnam senabhova) and watchmen
(talaiyari). They were given a portion of or plot in a village.
Sometimes they had to pay a fixed rent, but generally these plots were manya or
taxÑfree as no regular customary tax was imposed on their agricultural income. In
exceptional cases, direct payments in kind were made for services performed by
village functionaries. Other village servants who performed essential services and
skills for the village community were also paid by assigning plots of land (like
washerman and priest). The village servants who provided ordinary goods and
services were leather workers whose products included leather bags used in lift-
irrigation devices (kiapila or mohte), potter, blacksmith, carpenter, and waterman
(niranikkar: who looked after the maintenance of irrigation channels and supervised
bankers and money-lenders). The distinguishing feature of the ayagar system is
that special allocation of income from land and specific cash payments were for
the first time provided to village servants holding a particular office.
Check Your Progress-1
1) Explain the nature of polity of the Vijaynagara empire.
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2) Discuss the nayankara system under the Vijaynagara empire.
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3) Write a note on the ayagar system under the Vijaynagara empire.
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7.4 ECONOMY OF THE VIJAYNAGARA EMPIRE

In this Section, we will discuss the various land and income rights and the
economic role of temples. We will also take into account aspects related to
foreign and internal trade and urban life.
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Political Formations 7.4.1 Land and Income Rights

Rice was the staple crop. Both black and white variety of rice was produced from
Coromandel to Pulicat. Besides, cereals like gram and pulses were also cultivated.
Spices (specially black pepper), coconut and betel-nuts were other important items
of production. Land-revenue was the major source of state’s income. Rate of revenue
demand varied in different parts of the empire and in the same locality itself according
to the fertility and regional location of the land. It was generally 1/6th of the produce,
but in some cases it was even more ranging up to 1/4th. But on Brahmans and temples
it was 1/20th to 1/30th respectively. It was payable both in cash and kind. We find
references to three major categories of land tenure: amara, bhandaravada and manya.
These indicate the way in which the village income was distributed. The bhandarvada
was a crown village comprising the smallest category. A part of its income was
utilised to maintain the Vijaynagara forts. Income from the manya (tax-free) villages
was used to maintain the Brahmans, temples, and mathas. The largest category was
of the amara villages given by the Vijaynagara rulers to the amaranayakas. Their
holders did not possess proprietary rights in land but enjoyed privileges over its
income only. The amara tenure was primarily residual in the sense that its income
was distributed after deductions had been made for support of the Brahmans and
forts. Three-quarters of all the villages came under this category. The term amaramakni
is considered by most historians as referring to an ‘estate’ or a ‘fief’, but it literally
means one-sixteenth share (makani). Thus, it points to the fact that the amaranayakas
could claim only a limited share of village income. The manya rights underwent a
transformation during this period. Land tenures continued to be given by the state to
individual (ekabhogan) Brahmans and groups of Brahmans as well as to mathas
including the non-Brahman Saiva Siddhanta and Vaishnava gurus. But there was a
great increase in devadana grants (conferred on temples) made by the state as
compared to other grants.
Besides land-tax, many professional taxes were also imposed. These were on
shopkeepers, farm-servants, shepherds, washermen, potters, shoemakers, musicians
etc. There was also tax on property. Grazing and house taxes were also imposed.
Villagers were also supposed to pay for the maintenance of the village officers.
Besides, sthala dayam, margadayam and manula dayam were three major transit
dues.
Another category of land right through which income was derived was a result of
investment in irrigation. It was called dasavanda in Tamil country and kattu-kodage
in Andhra and Karnataka. This kind of agrarian activity concerning irrigation was
undertaken in semi-dry areas where hydrographic and topographic features were
conducive for carrying out developmental projects. The dasavanda or kattu-kodage
was a share in the increased productivity of the land earned by the person who
undertook such developmental work (e.g. construction of a tank or channel). This
right to income was personal and transferable. A portion of income accruing from
the increased productivity also went to the cultivators of the village where the
developmental work was undertaken.

7.4.2 Economic Role of Temples

During the Vijaynagara period, temples emerged as important landholders.
Hundreds of villages were granted to the deities which were worshipped in the
large temple. Temple officers managed the devadana villages to ensure that the
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grant was utilised properly. The income from devadana villages provided sustenance Evolution of Institutions:
Kingship and the
to the ritual functionaries. It was also utilised to provide food offerings or to purchase
Nayaka System
goods (mostly aromatic substances and cloth) essential for carrying out the ritual
rites. Cash endowments were also made by the state to the temples for providing
ritual service.
Temples took up irrigational work also. Large temples holding devadana lands
had under them irrigation department for properly channelising money grants made
to the temples. Those who gave cash grants to temples also received a share of the
food offering (prasadam) derived from the increased productivity.
In fact, temples in South India were important centres of economic activity. They
were not only great landholders but they also carried on banking activities. They
employed a number of persons. Mahalingam refers to an inscription which mentions
a temple which employed 370 servants. Temples purchased local goods for
performance of ritual services. They gave loans to individuals and village assemblies
for economic purposes. The loans were given against lands whose income went to
the temples. Cash endowments made by the state to the Tirupati temple were
ploughed back in irrigation. The income thus attained was used to carry out and
maintain ritual services. At Srirangam temple, cash grants were used to advance
commercial loans to business firms in Trichnopoly. Temples had their trusts which
utilised its funds for various purposes. Thus, the temples functioned almost as an
independent economic system encompassing persons and institutions that were
bound together by economic links.

7.4.3 Foreign Trade

We get information about foreign trade from the Amuktamalyada of Krishnadeva
Raya, Domingo Paes and Nuniz. They give vivid description of horse trade. The
role of the Indians in the overseas carrying trade was minimal. Barbosa mentions
that Indian overseas trade was completely controlled by Muslim merchants. They
used to get special treatment from the rulers. He says that on returning from the
Red Sea the king assigned them a nayar bodyguard, a Chetti accountant and a
broker for help in local transactions. Such was their status that, at Kayal, even
royal monopoly of pearl-fisheries was given to a Muslim merchant. The Arabs and
later the Portuguese controlled horse trade. Horses were brought from Arabia,
Syria and Turkey to the west-coast ports. Goa supplied horses to Vijaynagara as
well as the Deccani Sultanates. Importation of horses was of great military
importance for the southern states as good horses were not bred in India. Besides,
Vijaynagara’s conflict with the northern Deccan Muslim states restricted the supply
of horses from north India that were imported from Central Asia. Besides horses,
ivory, pearls, spices, precious stones, coconuts, palm-sugar, salt, etc. were also,
imported. Pearls were brought from the Persian Gulf and Ceylon and precious
stones from Pegu. Velvet was imported from Mecca and satin, silk, damask and
brocade from China. White rice, sugarcane (other than palm-sugarcane) and iron
were the major exports. Diamonds were exported from Vijaynagara. Nuniz states
that its diamond mines were the richest in the world. The principal mines were on
the banks of the Krishna river and in Kurnool and Anantapur. This led to the
development of a great industry for cutting and polishing precious stones like
diamonds, sapphires and rubies in Vijaynagara and Malabar.
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Political Formations 7.4.4 Internal Trade and Urban Life

The contemporary foreign accounts show that local and long distance trade
increased under the Vijaynagara rulers. Roads and roadside facilities for travellers
between towns were excellent. Carts were used for the transport of grains over
short distances. Riverine shipping especially the backwater-system on the west-
coast has also been referred to. Pack-animals were used for long distance transport.
In some places armed guards for long distance transport were employed. Local
magnates realised the importance of trade, and gave encouragement to town based
trade and auxiliary trade in regular and periodic fairs. Regular and periodic fairs
took place along the main roads leading to big temples during festival times. These
fairs were conducted by trade associations of a nearby town and under the-
supervision of the leader of trade association called pattanaswami. Fairs which
gave impetus to urban trade were also held at the orders of the local magnates, e.g.
gauda or chief of a nadu. The literary and inscriptional evidences of the 14th to 16th
centuries reveal the existence of 80 major trade centres. Some towns were religious;
others were commercial and administrative centres. Inside these towns were many
bazars where business was carried on by merchants. They paid rents to the towns.
There were separate markets for particular commodities. Markets for agricultural
and non-agricultural products were separate in accordance with the left and right
hand caste affiliations. Trade in consecrated food for pilgrims and the sale of the
right of ritual functions and offices were important aspects of temple-related urban
commerce.
The merchants and artisan organisations in Andhra got identified with certain cities,
e.g. the Telugu oil-pressers and merchants were associated with the city of Berwada
(in Krishna district). In these towns, the transit duties, shop and house-rents provided
income to the towns. The temple records refer to the prosperity and prestige of
merchants and artisans. The Vijaynagara state possessed an urban quality which is
not witnessed in any other South Indian state of the time. The capital city integrated
within its precincts markets, palaces, temples, mosques, etc. This urban quality
was, however, completely destroyed by the middle-16th century.

7.5 SOCIETY
The social structure of the South Indian macro-region (Vijaynagara empire) is a
unique variant of the Indian society. The uniqueness of the social structure was
three-fold:
• secular functions of the South Indian Brahmans
• dual division of lower social groups
• territorial segmentation of the society
The Brahmans lived in localities where they controlled land, and their prestige
and power was also derived from their control over those dependent on land. They
also enjoyed prestige due to their sacral functions as a priestly class. The emergence
of a large number of Vedic temples endowed with villages (devadanas) gave the
Brahmans as temple functionaries the power to exercise ritual control over all
other castes and religious institutions. As managers of these religious centres, the
Brahmans enjoyed great secular authority.

146 Territorial segmentation of society implies that social groups in the Tamil country.

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were divided on the basis of natural sub-region and occupational patterns associated Evolution of Institutions:
with them. Social groups in South India had less interaction with groups at some Kingship and the
Nayaka System
distance from their locality. They gave preference to cross-cousin and maternal
uncle-niece marriages.
Another characteristic of the social structure was the dual division of lower castes
referred to by the right hand (valangai) and left-hand (idangai) designations
(Vaishnavas corresponding to the right hand division and the Saivites corresponding
to the left hand castes). In most cases, the right-hand castes were involved primarily
in agricultural production and local trade in agricultural commodities whereas
left-hand castes were engaged in mobile artisan production and extensive trade in
non-agricultural products.
During the Vijaynagara period, the peasant was the basis of the social order on
whom all other sections of the society depended. The satkams, the Tamil poetic
genre, regard the leading peasantry as pure sat-sudras. They claimed ritual purity
and respectable secular rank for them.
Temples played an important role in delineating or determining social space of
groupings who were the participants in the worship of a particular deity. An
important characteristic of lineage in the South Indian kingship is marked by the
common devotion to the lineage tutelary. The non-Brahman priests of the peasants’
tutelary shrines (e.g. amman) also participated in the management of great shrines
of Siva and Vishnu where the Brahman priests predominated. The matha, the seat
of sectarian organisation located at great shrines, consisted of persons of both the
Brahman and non-Brahman orders. Thus, the social organisation of this period
comprised of the Brahmans, the left and right-hand castes which included
respectable agricultural castes, namely Vellals and lower castes like the weavers.
Check Your Progress-2
1) Write a note on the nature of land tenure in the Vijaynagara empire.
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2) Discuss the economic role of temples in the Vijaynagara empire.
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3) Describe the development of trade and commerce under the Vijaynagara rulers
with special reference to foreign trade.
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4) Define the left hand and right hand castes.
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Political Formations .........................................................................................................................

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7.6 SUMMARY
Historians have variously looked at the two major political institutions the
nayankara and ayagar systems which were the backbone of the Vijaynagara power.
Temples were not only the religious centres but also important centres of economic
activity: they performed banking activities and used to undertake irrigational works,
etc. Trade and commerce was in a flourishing state. But, the role of the Indian
merchants in the overseas trade was minimal instead Muslim merchants enjoyed
the monopoly.

7.7 KEYWORDS
Amaram Villages assigned to the local military
chiefs
Bhandaravada Crown villages
Devadanas Villages assigned to the temples
Dasavanda and Kattu-Kodage Income from irrigational investments
Manya tax-free land given to the village function-
aries, Brahmans, temples and mathas
Nadu Peasant assembly or organization
Nayak Warrior chief
Sabha Brahmana assembly

7.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress-1
1) See Section 7.2
2) See Sub-section 7.3.1
3) See Sub-section 7.3.2
Check Your Progress-2
1) See Sub-section 7.4.1
2) See Sub-section 7.4.2
3) See Sub-section 7.4.3
4) See Section 7.5

7.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Mahalingam, T.V., (1969) Administration and Social Life under Vijaynagara
148
(Madras: University of Madras).

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Sastri, Nilakanta, (1958) A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Evolution of Institutions:
fall of Vijaynagara (London: Oxford University Press). Kingship and the
Nayaka System
Stein, Burton, (1999) Peasant State and Society in Medieval South India (Delhi:
Oxford University Press).
Stein, Burton, (1989) The New Cambridge History of India, Vijayanagara: 2
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

7.10 INSTRUCTIONAL VIDEO RECCOMENDATIONS

Vijayanagara Polity
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ywHABSci1js
Socio-Political Formations and Economy of the Vijayanagara Empire
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5T_Q_VWjZGU

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