1.

Indian Knowledge System (IKS)

What is Indian Knowledge System (IKS)?
Indian Knowledge System refers to the ancient and traditional knowledge that originated in
the Indian subcontinent. It includes a vast body of philosophical, scientific, artistic, cultural,
and spiritual knowledge passed down through texts like the Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas,
classical literature, and oral traditions.
It covers:

●​ Sciences (mathematics, astronomy, metallurgy, medicine)

●​ Arts (music, dance, sculpture, architecture)
●​ Spiritual knowledge (yoga, dharma, moksha)
●​ Governance and ethics
●​ Environmental sustainability (agriculture, water management)

IKS represents holistic, integrated knowledge where science, spirituality, and nature coexist.

Why do we need to study the Indian Knowledge System?

1.​ Cultural Identity & Pride:
Revives awareness of India’s rich contributions to world civilization.
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Builds national confidence and cultural rootedness.
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2.​ Ancient Wisdom for Modern Problems:
Sustainable living from Vedic ecology.
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Health systems like Ayurveda and Yoga.
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Ancient math and science techniques still relevant today.
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3.​ Decolonization of Education:
o​Shifts the focus from a Eurocentric syllabus to India’s indigenous systems.
o​Recognizes contributions ignored by colonial narratives.
4.​ Interdisciplinary Learning:
o​IKS encourages linking science, ethics, art, and spirituality.
o​Promotes a more holistic form of education.
5.​ Inspiration for Innovation:
o​ Historical innovations in metallurgy, mathematics, medicine, and agriculture can
inspire modern R&D.
Organisation of the Indian Knowledge System
Indian knowledge was classified systematically in ancient texts. Key domains include:
A. Major Sources of Knowledge

●​ Śruti (heard): Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads

●​ Smṛti (remembered): Dharmaśāstras, Manusmriti, Puranas, Epics (Mahabharata,
Ramayana)
●​ Darśanas: Six schools of Indian philosophy (Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga,
Mimamsa, Vedanta)
●​ Lokavidya: Folk knowledge, oral traditions

B. Domains of IKS
C. Teaching and Transmission

●​ Guru-Shishya Parampara (Teacher-disciple tradition)

●​ Oral transmission with strict memorization (especially Vedas)
●​ Later evolved into written texts (Palm leaves, birch bark)

2. The Vedas: Introduction, Classification, Messages & Vedic Life

Introduction to the Vedas

The Vedas are the oldest and most authoritative scriptures of Hinduism.
Derived from the Sanskrit root “Vid” meaning “to know”.
They are considered apauruṣeya (not of human origin), and were revealed to ancient seers (ṛṣis).
Composed in Sanskrit, dated roughly between 1500–500 BCE.
Transmitted orally for generations before being written down.

Sub-classifications of the Vedas

There are four Vedas, and each has four components:
A.​ The Four Vedas
1.Rigveda – Hymns to various deities; oldest Veda.
2.Yajurveda – Prose mantras used in rituals.
3.Samaveda – Melodic chants for ceremonies.
4.Atharvaveda – Spells, incantations, healing, daily life matters.
B.​ Four Parts of Each Veda
Each Veda serves ritual, moral, and spiritual purposes.
Messages in the Vedas
1.​ Unity of Creation:
Belief in cosmic order (ṛta) and oneness of all life.
Example: “Ekam sat viprā bahudhā vadanti” – Truth is one, sages call it by many names.

2.​ Harmony with Nature:

Vedic hymns praise natural elements like fire (Agni), wind (Vayu), sun (Surya), water (Apas).
Encouragement of eco-centric living.
3.​ Ethics and Duties:
Concepts of Dharma (righteousness) and Yajna (sacrifice) as ways to sustain the universe.
Charity, truthfulness, and respect for elders emphasized.
4.​ Self-Knowledge and Liberation:
Upanishads teach Atman = Brahman (soul equals universal consciousness).
Goal is moksha (liberation from the cycle of birth and death).

Vedic Life: Key Features

In summary, the Vedas offer a comprehensive worldview that integrates spirituality, science,
ethics, and ecology. They are not just religious texts but manuals for holistic living.

3. Number Systems in Ancient India & Contributions to Mathematics

A.​ Number Systems in Ancient India

India contributed significantly to the development of numerals and number systems:
1.​ Decimal System (Base-10):
First evidence found in Vedic texts and Jain literature.
Concept of place value (units, tens, hundreds) was fully developed by 5th century CE.
Used by Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, and later spread to the Islamic world and Europe.
2.​ Concept of Zero (0):
One of India’s greatest contributions to mathematics.
First clearly mentioned by Brahmagupta in 628 CE in Brahmasphutasiddhanta.
Treated zero as a number with its own properties: addition, subtraction, and even division rules.
3.Large Numbers:
Vedic texts used terms for very large numbers: laksha (100,000), koti (10 million).
Yajurveda mentions numbers up to 10^12 (paraardha).
3.​ Unique Numerical Notation.
Ancient Indian scripts (like Brahmi) included numeral symbols.
Bakhshali Manuscript (3rd–7th century CE) uses placeholders and decimal values.

B.​ Salient Aspects of Indian Mathematics

1.​ Algebraic Methods:
Used equations and rules to solve unknowns.
Early algebra found in works of Aryabhata, Bhaskara I, and Bhaskara II.
2.​ Geometry:
Used in altar construction (Śulba Sūtras).
Knowledge of Pythagorean theorem well before Pythagoras.
Calculated areas and volumes of geometric shapes for ritual purposes.
3.​ Trigonometry:
Aryabhata developed sine tables (jya, kojya).
Introduced concepts of sine, cosine, and versine long before Europeans.
4.​ Infinitesimals and Calculus:
Kerala mathematician Madhava (14th century) developed concepts of infinite series and laid
groundwork for calculus.
 5.​ Mathematics for Astronomy:
Used in planetary calculations, calendars, and eclipses.
Accurate prediction of celestial events with mathematical models.

C.​ Binary System in Ancient India

1.​ Pingala’s Binary System:
Sage Pingala (c. 2nd century BCE) described a system similar to binary in his Chandahsastra
(treatise on prosody).
Used short and long syllables (laghu and guru) to represent combinations, much like 0 and 1.
This is an early example of a binary numeral system used for meter patterns in poetry.
2.Connection to Modern Computing:

Pingala’s binary system uses a base-2 logic that is conceptually similar to modern digital
systems.
Summary of Indian Contributions to Math:
Invented zero as a number.
Developed place-value decimal system.
Advanced algebra, geometry, and trigonometry.
Created early binary logic.
Made foundational contributions to infinite series and calculus.

2.​ Contributions to Algebra, Geometry, and Trigonometry in Ancient India

A.​ Algebra (Bījagaṇita)

1.​ Aryabhata (476–550 CE):

Introduced indeterminate equations, especially the kuttaka method (“pulverizer”) to find integer
solutions.
His work Aryabhatiya includes many algebraic principles.
2.​ Brahmagupta (598–668 CE):
Defined zero, negative numbers, and their operations.
Solved quadratic equations of the form:
Introduced rules for positive and negative numbers and surds (irrational roots).
Gave a solution to Pell’s equation:
3.​ Bhaskara II (12th century):
In Bijaganita, he elaborated on solving equations of second degree and higher.
Used cyclic methods (chakravala method) for solving algebraic equations.
Concept of infinitesimals and zero divided by zero (0/0) – although not fully formalized.

B.​ Geometry (Śulba Sūtras)

The Śulba Sūtras (800–500 BCE) were geometry manuals for altar construction. Key
contributions include:
1.​ Early Geometry:
Practical geometry used for fire altars, requiring exact shapes and proportions.
2.​ Pythagorean Theorem:
Described centuries before Pythagoras.
Baudhayana Śulba Sūtra states:
​ “The diagonal of a rectangle produces both areas which the two sides
produce separately.”
4.Construction Techniques:
Instructions for constructing squares, circles, rectangles, trapeziums, and transforming one shape
into another.
Accurate area calculations of geometric shapes.

D.​ Trigonometry (Trikoṇamiti)

1.​ Aryabhata’s Contributions:

First to introduce the sine function as jya (half-chord).
Developed sine tables for astronomical calculations.
 2.​ Bhaskara I and II:
Introduced cosine (kojya) and other trigonometric ratios.
Calculated values of sine and cosine at different angles.
Used trigonometry for solving eclipse calculations and planetary motions.
3.​ Madhava of Kerala (14th century):
Developed infinite series for:
Π (pi)
Trigonometric functions: sine, cosine, arctangent
Precursor to calculus, predating Newton and Leibniz by centuries.

Summary Table: Key Contributions

These mathematical disciplines were closely linked with astronomy, rituals, and philosophy,
reflecting the integrated approach of Indian knowledge systems.
4.​ Astronomy in Ancient India (Jyotisha)
A.​ Introduction to Indian Astronomy
Indian astronomy, known as Jyotisha, is one of the six Vedangas (auxiliary sciences of the
Vedas).
Initially used to determine ritual times, it evolved into a scientific discipline that studied celestial
bodies, timekeeping, eclipses, and planetary motions.
Deeply integrated with mathematics, astrology, calendar-making, and spiritual practices.

B.​ Major Contributions and Astronomers

1.​ Vedanga Jyotisha (circa 1200 BCE):
Authored by Lagadha.
Earliest known astronomical text.
Gave rules for lunar and solar calendars and nakshatra (star) tracking.
2.​ Aryabhata (476–550 CE) – Aryabhatiya:
Proposed that the Earth rotates on its axis – a revolutionary idea.
Accurately calculated:
Length of the year: 365.358 days.
Diameter of Earth and planets.
Introduced the sine function in trigonometry.
Explained eclipse scientifically (shadow of Earth/Moon).
3.​ Varahamihira (505–587 CE) – Pancha-Siddhantika:
Summarized five astronomical schools (Siddhantas).
Contributed to planetary movements, weather predictions, and eclipse theory.
Blended astronomy with astrology (Jyotisha Shastra).
4.​ Brahmagupta (598–668 CE) – Brahmasphutasiddhanta:
Improved Aryabhata’s planetary models.
Accurately estimated planetary conjunctions and eclipses.
5.​ Bhaskara II (1114–1185 CE) – Siddhanta Shiromani:
Advanced lunar and planetary calculations.
Recognized Earth’s rotation and used epicyclic models for planetary motion.
6.​ Kerala School (14th–16th centuries):
Founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama.
Used infinite series for sine, cosine, arctangent.
Anticipated principles of calculus.

C.​ Key Concepts in Indian Astronomy

D.​ Instruments and Observatories

Gnomon (Shanku) – Vertical stick used to calculate time and sun’s position.
Sundials and Armillary spheres used for astronomical measurements.
Jantar Mantar (18th century, Jaipur & Delhi) – built by Maharaja Jai Singh II; shows revival of
ancient Indian astronomy.

E.​ Integration with Culture and Spirituality

Jyotisha guided agriculture, festivals, marriages, rituals, and daily routines.
Based on the belief that cosmic rhythms affect earthly life.
Summary
Indian astronomy was:
Mathematically rigorous
Centuries ahead in recognizing Earth’s rotation, eclipses, planetary period.
A blend of science, observation, and philosophy
Influential in both Eastern and Islamic worlds

5.​ Elements of the Indian Calendar & Celestial Coordinate System

A.​ Elements of the Indian Calendar (Pañcāṅga)

The Indian calendar is lunisolar, meaning it accounts for both solar and lunar movements. It is
traditionally used in rituals, festivals, and daily life.
The Pañcāṅga (Five Elements of Timekeeping):
1.​ Tithi (Lunar Day):
The time it takes for the Moon to increase its angle from the Sun by 12°.
There are 30 tithis in a lunar month: 15 in waxing (Shukla Paksha) and 15 in waning (Krishna
Paksha).
2.​ Vāra (Weekday):
7 days: Ravivāra (Sunday) to Shanivāra (Saturday), each ruled by a planet (Sun, Moon, Mars,
etc.).
3.​ Nakṣatra (Lunar Mansion):
The sky is divided into 27 parts (sometimes 28), each 13°20’ long.
Based on the position of the Moon; used for astrology and muhurta.
4.​ Yoga
5.​ Calculated from the sum of the longitudes of the Sun and Moon.
There are 27 yogas, each associated with specific qualities.

6.​ Karaṇa:

Half of a tithi (6° Moon-Sun angle).

Used for determining auspicious times (muhurta).
Lunar and Solar Months
Lunar Month: Based on Moon phases (Amavasya to Amavasya or Purnima to Purnima).
Solar Month: Based on Sun’s transit through one zodiac sign (Rāśi).
Intercalation: To sync both calendars, an extra month (Adhika Māsa) is added every 32.5
months.

B.​ Celestial Coordinate System in Indian Astronomy

To observe and calculate celestial events, ancient Indian astronomers developed a system similar
to modern celestial coordinates.
1.​ Ecliptic System (Bhachakra):
The Sun’s path (apparent motion) is divided into 12 zodiac signs (Rāśis).
Each sign is 30°, making 360° for the full circle.
2.​ Nakṣatra System:
Sky divided into 27 parts, each 13°20′, starting from Ashwini.
Used for calculating Moon’s position.
3.​ Sidereal Coordinates (Nirayana system):
Fixed against the background of stars.
Used in traditional Indian calendars.
4.​ Tropical Coordinates (Sayana system):
Based on the Sun’s equinox position.
Used in some modern Indian astrology schools.
 C.​ Key Astronomical Terms
Summary
The Indian calendar is a sophisticated blend of lunar and solar calculations, used for
timekeeping, festivals, and rituals.
It is supported by a well-developed celestial coordinate system based on accurate astronomical
observations.
The Pañcāṅga elements reflect the deep integration of astronomy into daily Indian life.

7.​ Rise and Fall of Great Indian Technology: Metallurgy (Zinc, Copper, Iron,
Steel)
A.​ India’s Metallurgical Excellence
India had a long-standing tradition of advanced metallurgy dating back to the Indus Valley
Civilization (c. 2500 BCE) and later periods.
B.​ Zinc Extraction
India was the first in the world to extract zinc by distillation.
The Zawar mines in Rajasthan (12th century CE) had large-scale zinc smelting.
Used a down-draft distillation process centuries before it was known in Europe.
C.​ Copper Technology
Evidence of copper smelting found in Chalcolithic cultures (e.g., Ahar-Banas).
Harappans used copper for tools, ornaments, and utensils.
Bronze alloying (copper + tin) was mastered early.
D.​ Iron & Steel
1.​ Iron Age in India:
Iron tools and weapons in Vedic times (1000 BCE).
Painted Grey Ware Culture is associated with early iron use.
2.​ Wootz Steel:
High-quality steel from South India, known for its sharpness and durability.
Exported to Europe and the Middle East as early as the Roman period.
Basis for the legendary Damascus swords.
3.​ Delhi Iron Pillar:
Erected in the 4th century CE, still rust-free.
Shows high skill in corrosion-resistant iron.
E.​ Decline of Technology
After the 18th century, colonization and industrialization led to:
Suppression of indigenous industries.
Loss of traditional metallurgical knowledge.
Shift to European technology.

8.​ Dice, Art & Perfume Production

A.​ Dice and Games
Games like Chaupar, Pachisi, and dice games were popular in Mahabharata times.
Dice (aksha) made of nuts, ivory, and terracotta found in Harappan sites.
Probability concepts hinted at in game manuals and Sanskrit texts.
B.​ Art and Iconography
Intricate sculpture, painting, and temple art evolved over centuries.
Techniques in stone carving, metallurgy, and painting documented in texts like Shilpa Shastra
and Vishnudharmottara Purana.
C.​ Perfume and Chemistry
Ancient India developed techniques for distillation and extraction of perfumes.
The Gandhayukti and Brihat Samhita document perfume recipes.
Use of attar (essential oil) and incense in rituals and aesthetics.

9.​ Science & Technology in Heritage Temples

Temples were multi-disciplinary centers combining art, architecture, engineering, acoustics, and
astronomy.
Examples:
Sun Temple, Konark: Built like a chariot; aligned with solar movement.
Brihadeeswara Temple, Thanjavur: Massive dome with no binding material.
Virupaksha Temple, Hampi: Optical pinhole effect of inverted shadow
Use of acoustic design, vibration control, and geological planning.

10.​Town Planning & Architecture

Indus Valley Civilization had:
Grid-planned cities (Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro)
Advanced drainage, sewage, and water storage systems
Granaries, public baths, and standard brick sizes
Later periods (Maurya, Gupta) saw development of:
Fortified cities
Palatial architecture
Rock-cut caves (Ajanta, Ellora)
Guided by Vāstu Shastra principles.

11.​Eight Limbs of Vāstu

According to Vāstu Shastra, the eight limbs are:
1.​ Bhūmi (Site selection) – Choosing land based on soil, shape, and direction.
2.​ Āyādi (Measurement) – Proportions and dimensions.

3.​ Dik Nirṇaya (Orientation) – Directional alignment

4.​ Pāda Vinyāsa (Layout) – Division into plots/spaces.

5.​ Śilpa (Architecture) – Construction principles.
6.​ Chandas (Proportions) – Aesthetic ratios.
7.​ Kāla (Timing) – Auspicious time for construction.

8.​ Vastu Puruṣa Maṇḍala – Cosmic energy grid placement.

 12.​The Knowledge Triangle
The Indian Knowledge System is structured in three interconnected domains:
1.​ Science (Jñāna) – Rational inquiry and empirical knowledge.
2.​ Philosophy (Darśana) – Metaphysical and spiritual understanding.
3.​ Arts and Crafts (Kalā and Śilpa) – Expression through aesthetics and applied science.

This triangle reflects holistic learning, where ethics, logic, and creativity are integrated.

13.​Introduction to Linguistics
Sanskrit was one of the earliest languages to be systematically analyzed.
Pāṇini’s Grammar (Aṣṭādhyāyī):
Composed around 500 BCE.
Contains 4,000+ rules of Sanskrit grammar.
Introduced formal grammar structure (similar to modern linguistic theory)

Key Features:
Root-based derivation (Dhātu system).
Concepts of phonetics (Śikṣā), morphology, syntax, and semantics.
Inspired early works in computational linguistics and AI