Chapter 2 – A Spatial Way of Thinking

1. Introduction
In the late summer of 1854, a highly contagious disease called cholera struck a
neighborhood in London, England. People suddenly began suffering cramps, vomiting, and
terrible thirst. So severe was the disease that many people died within hours of their first
symptoms. In just 10 days, the disease killed about 500 people. Wagons groaned under
the weight of corpses being taken away for mass burial.

No one knew how cholera spread or had any idea how to contain the outbreak—except a
doctor named John Snow. Snow convinced officials to remove the handle from a water
pump on Broad Street so that no one could draw water from the well there. As the cholera
outbreak slowed, Snow knew he had correctly identified the source of infection: polluted
drinking water.
Snow had, in effect, solved the mystery by using the skills of the geographic inquiry
process. First he asked a question: How was cholera spread? Next he acquired information
by going door to door to find out where people were dying. He then organized his information on a neighborhood map,
marking the house of each cholera death. His next step was to analyze his map. Thus he was able to answer his
question: The Broad Street pump must be spreading the disease, because most of the deaths were clustered around it.
John Snow's map is an example of a thematic map. A thematic map presents information related to only one theme, or
topic. In this chapter, you will learn how to identify and read different types of thematic maps. In addition, you will see how
geographers use these tools to make sense of Earth's physical and human features.
 2. The Geographic Setting
Thematic maps are all around us. Tune in to a news program and
you're likely to see a weather map with the high and low
temperatures for towns in your area. To find your way on the local
bus system, you might use a map showing bus routes. By focusing
on a specific topic, or theme, maps like these show information
about some aspect of physical or human geography.
Thematic Maps Can Show Physical Geography
Some thematic maps focus on physical geography. For instance,
they may display Earth's physical features, or the natural parts of
Earth's surface. Such features include landforms like mountains,
valleys, plains, and plateaus. Physical features also include
bodies of water such as oceans, seas, rivers, and lakes.

Thematic maps can also illustrate other aspects of the physical

environment. For example, some maps focus on climate, or long-
term weather patterns. Climate maps show how much rainfall
different areas receive. They also show how hot or cold various
places tend to be in winter and summer.

Climate has a tremendous effect on the types of vegetation, or

trees and other plants, that will grow in an area. You can see this
by comparing a climate map of Earth with a vegetation map. A
vegetation map shows the kinds of trees and other plants that grow
in various places. In many ways it looks like a climate map,
although other factors also affect what will grow where.

Thematic Maps Can Show Human Geography

Thematic maps can also focus on human geography. John Snow's
map of the cholera deaths near the Broad Street pump is a good
example. Another example is a political map. The political map on
the next page shows the borders of the 50 U.S. states. Political
maps of larger areas show the borders between countries. In
addition to borders, political maps also show important cities, such
as the capitals of states and countries.

Another type of thematic map shows population density. This is

the average number of people living in a unit of area, such as a
square mile. The higher the number, the more crowded an area
is. A population density map reveals where large numbers of
people cluster.

Besides showing where people live, a thematic map can show

what they do. A map of economic activity focuses on the ways
people produce, buy, and sell goods and services. This kind of
map might show the main types of business and industry in an
area. It might also show the natural resources that fuel the area's
economy. Natural resources are useful items found in nature, such
as wood, coal, and oil.

A Map's Title and Legend State Its Theme

To read a thematic map, first look at a map's title. The title
usually states the topic of the map. Then look at the map legend
to determine how to read the map's symbols. On the U.S.
political map, the legend shows the symbols for the national and
state capitals. A map legend may also explain how the map
uses colors. For instance, a thematic map might use colors to
show differences in elevation or population density.
3. Mapping Earth’s Physical Features
In the winter, snowboarders look for a snowy mountain to
practice their sport on. In the summer, vacationers seek to
cool off by a lake or river. These are just three of the
landforms and bodies of water that you might see on a
physical features map.

Common Landforms
Geographers have given names to the many landforms
found on Earth. Some landforms have distinctive shapes
when viewed from above. A long, narrow peninsula, for
example, juts out from a continent into the ocean and is
surrounded by water on three sides. Other landforms have
distinct shapes when viewed from ground level. Mountain
ranges tower over low, flat plains. A plateau is a raised, flat
area of land. A canyon is a deep, narrow valley with steep
sides.

Physical features maps show the shapes of features as seen

from above. They also show the elevation, or height above
sea level, of various features. These maps typically use
colors and shading to show changes in elevation.

Bodies of Water
Geographers also label bodies of water on physical features maps. Many kinds of water bodies appear on continents. For
instance, rivers flow from mountains and make their way to the sea. Lakes are entirely surrounded by land. Other water
bodies are created where oceans and seas meet continents. A bay is part of an ocean that is enclosed by an inward-curving
stretch of coastline. A gulf is a body of water that cuts deeply into the shoreline and is enclosed by land on three sides.

4. Hot, Cold, Wet, Dry: Earth’s Climates

Do you check a weather report each morning to see what the day will be like? Are most days sunny? Or does it rain a lot
where you live? Such long-term patterns in weather are called climate.

Climate Zones To study climates, geographers divide Earth into climate zones. Each zone has a particular pattern of
temperature and precipitation: rain, snow, or other forms of moisture. This pattern is often shown on a climagraph, like
those you see below.
A climagraph shows the average temperature and precipitation in a place
over a year. The letters at the bottom of the graph stand for the months of
the year. The curved line indicates the average monthly temperatures, while
the bars show the average monthly precipitation.

Location Affects Climate

Many factors affect a location's climate, but none is more important than
latitude. Places in tropical latitudes, near the equator, get the most direct rays
from the sun all year. Most of these places have hot weather year-
round. Places at high latitudes, close to the North and South poles, receive
much less sunlight and remain quite cold all year.

Elevation, or altitude, also affects climate. Places at high elevations have

colder climates than those lower down. Large bodies of water can also affect
an area's climate. In coastal areas, ocean winds and warm-water currents
keep temperatures even year-round. Places farther inland have more
extreme climates, with hotter summers and colder winters. You'll learn more
about the factors that affect climate throughout this book.
 5. Trees and Other Plants: Earth’s
Vegetation
Think about the climate where you live. Now think about the
kinds of trees and other plants that grow nearby. In
an arid climate like a desert, you might see hardy cacti and
scrubby brush. In a humid continental climate, you might
see lofty fir and pine trees that stay green all year. Climate
has a major effect on the kind of vegetation that grows in a
place.

Vegetation Is Adapted to Its Environment

Plants of some kind grow nearly everywhere on Earth. But
in order to survive, plants must adapt to their environment.

Plants have found ways to adapt to even extreme

environments. A tundra climate zone is very cold and dry,
yet small plants and bushes grow there and wildflowers
blossom in the tundra's short summer. In arid climates, cacti
can survive very hot days and go for long periods without
water. Other kinds of vegetation need plentiful precipitation
to thrive.
In addition to climate, other factors affect what plants grow
where. Among them are elevation, amount of sunlight, and
richness of the soil.

Global Vegetation Zones

Geographers study where different plants grow by dividing the world into vegetation zones. In each zone, a certain mix of
plants has adapted to similar conditions.
Like climate zones, vegetation zones are affected by latitude and elevation. They range from the barren ice cap zones at
the poles to the dense broadleaf evergreen forest zones near the equator. Highlands vegetation zones are usually on
mountain slopes.

6. Where People Live: Population Density

In 2007, about 8 million people resided in New York
City. They were jammed into an area of about 300 square
miles. Compare this with the town of Skwentna, Alaska,
where approximately 150 people were spread out over about
450 square miles. When it comes to crowding, these two
places are about as different as they can be. Geographers
show these kinds of differences using population density
maps.
Population Density Measures Crowding
Population density tells us how crowded a place is. To
calculate the density of a place, divide the total number of
people living there by the location's total land area. The
higher the result, the more crowded the place is. In 2007,
New York City had a population density of more than 26,000
people per square mile. In contrast, Skwentna had less than
1 person per square mile.

Population density affects how people live. In Skwentna,

houses are so spread out that people rarely see their
neighbors. There are no roads, so residents use airplanes,
boats, or snowmobiles to get to the local store and the post
office. Skwentna's version of rush hour comes in February,
when dogsled racers speed through town.

Things are far different in New York City. Many people live in high-rise apartments, where they may have hundreds of
neighbors just in their own building. Every day at rush hour, New Yorkers pour into railroads, ferries, and underwater tunnels
to get to their destinations. Millions of “straphangers” hold on tight as they jostle one another in the city's crowded subways.
7. Economic Activity: Land and Resources
Do you like chocolate? This sweet treat comes from cocoa
beans, the fruit of the cacao tree. The cacao tree grows only
in hot, humid tropical areas near the equator. However, the
factories that convert cocoa beans into chocolate are found
mostly in Europe and the United States. The locations of
cacao plantations and chocolate factories are examples of
the kind of information you might see on an economic activity
map.

Land Use Shows How People Make a Living

Economic activity maps often show patterns of land use, or
the way people use the land they live on to meet their
needs. In some areas, for example, people use land for
farming or for grazing large flocks of cattle, goats, and
sheep. In other areas, they may use land for mining.

Natural Resources Affect Economic Activities

Economic activity also depends on a country's natural
resources. Forestry, or the harvesting of trees to produce
wood products, is important in forested areas. Near oceans,
fishing is an important industry.

Some resources lie concealed beneath the ground. This is

true of mineral resources such as iron, copper, and
gold. Fossil fuels such as oil, coal, and natural gas are
extracted from Earth and burned to meet people's energy
needs. Uranium, another underground energy resource,
provides fuel for nuclear power plants. In contrast, moving
water is an easy-to-find energy resource. Dams can be built
on rivers to harness the moving water's energy and convert
it to hydroelectric power.
8. Organizing Earth’s Surface: Regions
As you have learned, geographers use many kinds of maps to
help make sense of the world. Some of these maps focus on
physical geography; others focus on human geography. All of
them reveal interesting patterns to explore.

Geographers use these patterns to organize Earth's surface

into regions. A region is an area with one or more features that
set it apart from other areas. As you will see, the concept of region
allows geographers to divide the world in useful ways.

Unique Features Define a Region

Think about the community in which you live. Does it have a
business district? A shopping mall? An industrial park? A civic or
community center? A residential neighborhood? Each of these
areas has unique features that set it apart from other parts of the
community. You might think of one area as a business region,
another as a shopping region, and still another as a residential
region. Each region looks different, has a different purpose, and
has different requirements.

Geographers define regions in several ways. The Sunbelt is a

region defined by physical, or natural, features. It is a region made
up of states in the southern and southwestern United States, from
Florida to California. What sets the Sunbelt apart from other
regions is its warm, sunny climate. The Corn Belt, in contrast, is a
region defined by human features. It is made up of states in the
center of the country, such as Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa, where
raising corn is an important economic activity.
 Dividing the World into Seven Major Regions
The world is a very large place to make sense of. For this reason,
geographers usually divide it into regions to study. These world regions
are still very large, but each has its own distinct features.

This book divides the world into seven major regions. Each region is
shown in a different color on the world regions map below. These colors
are your guide to finding each region in this book. Your study of a region
will begin with an introduction to its most important physical and human
features. In that introduction, you will begin to see what makes each of
these regions unique.

Summary
Geographers use maps for many different purposes. Thematic maps, which present information related to only one theme,
help geographers make sense of Earth's physical and human features. Because thematic maps focus on one topic,
geographers are able to find out specific information about a place. Thematic maps can tell information about physical
features of a place or even what type of economic activities take place there.
The world is divided into seven major regions. These regions are divided into smaller regions. Because unique features
define a region, different types of maps apply to different places.