COASTS

Definition of terms
 Coast – this is land beside or near the sea.
 Coastline – this the edge of the land on the coast.
 Shore- this is land along the edge of the sea or ocean.
 Shoreline – this is the edge of the sea or ocean.
 Wave – this is a line of water that moves across the surface of the sea or
ocean.
 High Water Mark(HWM) - the level to which the sea’s high tide reaches.
 Low Water Mark(LWM)- the low tide level of the sea.
 Lagoon – a lake of sea water that is separated from the sea by a reef or
area of rock or sand.
 Peninsula – land that is almost surrounded by water but is joined to the
larger piece of land.
Causes of waves
 Wind
 Earthquakes which cause the movement of the seabed
 Very large ships passing too frequently near the coast
Factors influencing wave size
1. Wind speed- High wind speed gives large size waves
2. Fetch of the wave (the length of sea over which the wind bows) –the
bigger the fetch, the bigger the wave
3. The length of time during which the wind blows in the same direction – the
longer the time the bigger the wave
NB: As water rises, it forms the wave crest. As it falls, it forms the
wave trough.
 crest is the top of a wave
 trough is the lowest part of a wave
Wave characteristics

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a) Wavelength- it is the distance between two successive/nearby
crests/troughs
b) Wave height- it is the distance between trough and crest
c) Wave frequency- it is the number of waves per minute
d) Wave velocity- it is the speed of a wave.
Swash- it is the movement of water up the beach Backwash- it is the
movement of water down
the beach.
There are two forms of waves and these are:
1. Destructive waves These are waves that have a weak
swash and a strong backwash which pulls sand and pebbles back down the
beach when the water retreats to the sea. They are destructive because they
remove material from the beach and somewhat destroy beach formation.
They are often steep.

2. Constructive waves These have very strong swash and weak backwash.
They are constructive because they build up beaches because they push
sand and pebbles up the beach and leave them behind when water retreats.
Backwash is not strong enough. They are often gentle.

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Question: Differentiate between destructive (erosional) and constructive
(depositional) waves?

Destructive waves (erosional) Constructive waves

(depositional)
Backwash greater than swash Swash greater than
backwash
Higher in height (above 1 m) Lower height (less than 1
m)
Shorter wavelength (less than 20metres) Longer wavelength (up to
100metres)
Higher frequency (10-12 per minute) Lower frequency (6-8 per
minute)
Have steeper gradient/steeper beach profile Have gentle gradient/gentle
beach profile
Higher energy waves Lower energy waves
Gives erosional features Gives depositional features

Wave erosional processes

Marine waves perform several processes of erosion. These processes are the
same as those performed by rivers. These are hydraulic action, abrasion,
attrition and solution.
1. Hydraulic action- this occurs when waves hit or break against a cliff face.
Air is trapped in cracks and put under great pressure. The crack is further
forced apart. The pressure is then released with explosive force and the cliff

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breaks up. This is common especially in well-jointed limestone, sandstone
and granite rocks.
2. Abrasion- it is when the material/load carried by a wave like sand,
pebbles/shingle hit and rub against a cliff and the cliff is scratched or eroded.
3. Attrition- material transported collide against each other and is worn down
to form smaller, rounded beach material.
4. Solution/corrosion- acidic water dissolves soluble salts or calcium
carbonate found in limestone or chalks.
Features of wave erosion
Headland- It is a highland on the coast with cliffs on its sides. It is made of a
hard resistant rock projecting into the sea eg limestone.
2. Bay- It is a semi-circular shape of sea extending into the land. This occurs
where there is a soft rock which is vulnerable to erosion (eg, Walvis bay in
Namibia)
NB: Headlands and bays are formed in areas characterised alternate hard
and soft rocks along the coast. Because of differences in hardness of rocks,
there is differential erosion taking place. The various processes of erosion
such as hydraulic action, abrasion and corrosion exploit the joints or bedding
planes on the rocks. The soft rocks are eroded faster forming bays whereas
hard rocks which are resistant to erosion form headlands.
3. Cliff- it is a vertical/ steeply sloping rock on the coastline or on the
headland. 4. Wave –cut notch- this is an indent at
the base of the cliff. It is formed due to undercutting of the cliff by wave
attack.
5. Wave-cut platform- this is a gently sloping rock atthe base of the cliff.
NB: Cliffs are formed due to hydraulic action and abrasion which occur when
waves hit against
the coastline. When waves continue to attack the base of the cliff,
undercutting occurs forming a wave cut notch. The rock above becomes
unsupported and collapses
and as the process continues, the cliff is steadily worn back. This retreat
leaves a wave-cut platform.
6. Cave- this is a hole on the side of a headland. It is formed due to wave
erosion which exploits any weaknesses on the headland. Hydraulic action,
abrasion and solution create the cave.
7. Arch- It is a natural bridge-like feature formed on a headland. It is formed
when a cave reaches both sides of the headland.
8. Stack –It is an isolated upstanding rock pillar separated from the headland
by coastal erosion. When the arch is eroded further going upwards, the roof
becomes too heavy and collapses to form a stack.

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9.Stump- this is an eroded stack that is exposed only at low tide. It is usually
below the high water mark level.

Marine/coastal transport processes Waves are involved in transport of

eroded material. They transport 3 main forms of load namely sand, shingle
and boulders. Shingle is rounded beach material of intermediate size
between sand and boulders size. The transport processes are suspension,
saltation, traction and solution.
1. Suspension- fine sediments are carried while floating in water. They are
entrained in the wave current. The water looks muddy due to suspended
material.
2. Saltation- Small pebbles are bounced along the sea bed in a hopping

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motion.
3. Traction- Large boulders or cobbles are rolled/dragged along the sea bed.
4. Solution- It is when soluble material is dissolved and carried in solution.
Eg, limestone or chalk. You can’t see the load.
Longshore drift
This refers to the lateral shift of material on the beach due to waves. The
movement is due to on onshore winds moving at an oblique angle. The
swash of the wave carries the pebble at an oblique angle up the beach. The
backwash of the wave brings the pebble straight down the beach under the
influence of gravity. The movement of water and material is along the shore
hence longshore drift. As the process is repeated, the pebble is moved along
the beach. The direction of the longshore drift is from left to right in the
example shown below.

Groyne : this is a wooden or concrete wall built at right angles to the beach
to trap the sediments and reduce longshore drift.
Marine deposition
 Wave deposition takes place when wave tides lose energy to continue
transporting its load in a swash.
 The largest material is deposited at the upper limit reached by the swash.
 The backwash carries smaller material back down the beach.
 Because of this, material on a beach is therefore sorted by wave deposition
according to size i.e fine sand…………coarser sand …………….largest shingle
deposited at the top of the beach.
Depositional features
Several coastal depositional features are formed when waves deposit load.
1. Beach- Refers to the accumulation of material deposited between the

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High Water Mark (HWM) and Low Water Mark(LWM). Beaches are composed
of sand or shingle or both. When both sediments are present, the shingle
forms a steep slope at the highest parts of the beach and sand a gentle slope
on the lower parts. On a purely sand beach ,the coarse sand will be at the
top and the finest particles will be by the sea. All beach materials has been
eroded from further along the coast and transported by longshore drift.
Often sand is deposited in the relatively calm waters of the bay.
2. Coastal sand dune- this is a ridge formed when shrubs trap sand
transported by wind. Marram
grass and sea couch will grow because they are halophytes(salt tolerant) and
these reduce wind speed and this helps to trap fresh sand.

Protection of sand dunes from damage by tourists

 Educate tourists through notice boards, posters or flyers.
 Create more footpaths.
 Fence off areas.
 Make barriers to prevent vehicle access.
 Provide guides to monitor or advise tourists.
 Designate picnic sites.
3. Spit- It is a beach of sand or shingle linked at one end to land. It usually
forms in a sheltered area where headlands and bays are common and near
river mouths. The longest spit in the world is the 112km Arabat spit in the
sea of Azov, between Russia and Ukraine. A spit is formed due to longshore
drift along the coast. Onshore winds move towards the coast at an oblique
angle. Swash carries materials to the coast at an oblique angle. Backwash

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moves the materials straight down the beach. These sediments accumulate
to form a spit. A short term change in wind and wave direction (refraction)
leads to formation of a small hook at one end of a spit.
4. Tombolo- It is a bar that links an island to the mainland. It is a long ridge
of sand or pebbles formed by deposition. A tombolo, just like a spit, is formed
by longshore drift. Good examples of tombolos include the Cape Verde
Peninsula in Senegal and The Cape Peninsula in South Africa.

Coral reefs
 Corals are tiny animals called polyps that form reefs when they live in
colonies in their millions.
 Their skeletons are calcareous cup like features which are joined with other
structures in the colony to form a hard, stony mass.
 Therefore, coral reefs are calcium carbonate structures, made of reef
building stony corals.
 As one generation of corals dies, the next grows on top of it, so the reef
grows upwards and outwards.
Requirements for the growth of coral reefs
 Sea temperature -They are only found between latitudes 30° north and 30°
south it is warm and on eastern margins of continents where there are warm
ocean currents. They grow best in warm conditions where the mean
temperature of the water surface is 22-25°c.
 Prevailing wind – corals are found on the windward side because prevailing
wind provides oxygen for the corals. Prevailing wind also promotes high
wave action which is conducive for growth of corals.
 Depth of the sea - Corals are animals, so they can live without sunlight but

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they are not found at great depths. This is because coral cannot live without
single celled algae- and algae need abundant sunlight to survive. So shallow
waters are best.
 Coral reefs run parallel with coasts, but they have breaks in them, usually
at river mouths. Reasons for this include that polyps need clean water in
which to live so they cannot live where sediments enter the sea at the
mouths of rivers.
1. Water clearness - If water is cloudy with sediment in suspension, sunlight
which is essential for the life of the plankton on which polyps feed cannot
penetrate far enough.
2. Salt content of the water- If sediment settles on polyps they are unable to
feed. Corals grow best in conditions of high salinity so breaks in reefs occur
at river mouths because influx of freshwater lowers salinity.
3. Pollution - Rivers can also bring pollutants into sea. Sewage and
phosphorous from fertilisers can cause a population explosion of species of
starfish which feeds on coral.
Types of coral reefs
Fringing reefs : are those found on the edge of a landmass. Many fringing
reefs grow along shores that are protected by barrier reefs and thus
characterised by organisms that are best adapted to low wave energy
conditions.
Barrier reefs: occur at greater distance from the shore and are commonly
separated from the shore by a wide,
deep lagoon. Barrier reefs tend to be broader, older and more continuous
than fringing reefs. The largest barrier reef system in the world is the Great
Barrier Reef, which
extends 1600km along the east Australian coast.
Atoll reefs: these rise from submerged volcanic foundations.
They are similar to barrier reefs in form and species composition except that
they are confined to the flanks of submerged oceanic islands, whereas
barrier reefs may also flank continents.
Coral reef conservation in Fiji
There has been an enormous effort to conserve coral reefs in Fiji – a group of
islands in South Pacific Ocean. All the islands are surrounded by corals reefs,
two thirds of which are at risk.
Importance of Coral reefs to Fiji
The reefs are very important to Fiji for both environmental and economic
reasons. They are very rich ecosystems with great biodiversity. Fiji’s 300
species of coral are home to almost 2000 species of fish,including sharks and
tuna. Endangered turtle species also live there. The reef ecosystem has links

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with bigger ecosystems through the food chain. Fiji’s reefs are important
barriers to storm waves – reducing their impacts on the land. The plant and
animals in the ecosystem are being researched as possible future sources of
medicine. Economically, both subsistence and commercial fishing provide a
good living. The colourful reefs and their beautiful marine life also attract
tourists. In Fiji the reefs are also of cultural importance and the local people
hold ceremonies to thank them.
Why reef conservation measures are needed in Fiji
There are both human and natural causes of coral destruction in Fiji. Coral
reefs have been affected by overfishing as well as by boat and anchor
damage. Tourists walking on the coral and diving and snorkelling among the
reefs have also caused damage. The development of settlements around the
coasts has led to harmful sediment, sewage and other pollutants being
washed out into the reefs. Eutrophication has occurred due nitrates and
phosphorous in fertilisers which drain into the sea from farmlands. Naturally,
every three to four years, Fiji is battered by cyclones which generate
destructive waves which break the coral. These storms also lead to more
nitrates and phosphates reaching the reefs, attracting more Crown Of Thorns
starfish which feed on polyps. The El Nino event leads warm water from
Indonesia moving east and warming the sea around Fiji leading to death of
colourful algae hence polyps are deprived of food and also die. Efforts by
Fijian resort to conserve the reef Many hotels and communities are trying to
conserve the coral reefs. The Hide-away Resort is one example. The resort
uses a World Ecotourism coral reef conservation programme known as
‘Integrated Coastal Management’. The fringing reef has been made into a
protected zone. Guided walks are organised along specially provided reef
path. At high tide, guests view the marine life on the reef from the resort’s
glass bottomed boat. There is also a protected coral nursery in the lagoon.
Notices in the garden remind visitors of the importance of the reef.
Mangroves
Mangroves are salt- tolerant forests of trees and shrubs that grow in the tidal
estuaries and coastal zones of tropical areas. Mangroves cover about 25% of
the world’s tropical coastline. Some species of mangrove have stilt roots that
anchor the plant in the soft mud and slow down water movement. Others
have conical breathing roots which stick vertically up out of the mud from
the underground root system.
Conditions which favour growth of mangroves
High salinity;
Between high and low water mark / large tidal range;
Water higher than 20 °C in coldest month;

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Seasonal temperature range lower than 5 °C / small temperature range;
Gentle wave action / sheltered coastline / delta/estuary/bay
The value of the mangroves
Mangroves have many uses such as providing large quantities of food and
fuel, building materials and medicine. A high yield of fish is obtained in
mangrove areas. As mangroves can grow to a height of 15m, they also
protect coastlines by absorbing the force of hurricanes and storms. They are
valuable for protecting the coast from flooding. They also act as filters,
absorbing nutrients from farming and sewage disposal. Mangroves are also
important for recreation – especially for fishing, bird watching, wildlife
photography and boating. Pressures on mangroves
Many mangrove areas have been lost to rice paddies and shrimp (fish)
farms. Already most Caribbean and South Pacific mangroves have
disappeared due to population growth in coastal areas.
Mangroves and coral reefs
Mangroves protect coral reefs from sedimentation from land based sources,
as well as keeping the water clear of particles and nutrients. Mangroves also
provide nursery areas for many animal species that spend their adult lives on
the reefs. In return, the coral reefs provide shelter for the mangroves and
their inhabitants, while the calcium carbonate eroded from the reef provides
sediment in which the mangroves grow.
Coastal Hazards and Opportunities
Coastal areas offer many opportunities to people, for example tourism,
fishing, agriculture, transport and industry. However, actions in coastal areas
may cause new problems such as loss of habitats and species diversity,
water pollution, salt water intrusion into aquifers, eutrophication, overfishing,
litter and oil on beaches, coastal erosion and human health risks.
Case study - Opportunities and impacts Tourism in St Lucia in the
Caribbean
Tourism is extremely important to the economic growth of many countries.
St Lucia in the Caribbean is one such country. The tourist industry generates
a large number of jobs, for example in hotels and restaurants, as tour guides.
The building of the Pointe Seraphine cruise facility has created many jobs for
the people. Others offer supporting services, for example, farmers, retailers
and tax operators. Tourism therefore is an important money earner for the
government, businesses and for individual workers and their dependents.
Environmental problems caused by tourism in St Lucia
There are many conflicts between those who wish to develop tourism and
environmentalists. The construction of buildings has the greatest impact on
the environment. Most of the hotels built in St Lucia are on the beach front

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and the clearing of land has led to slope instability, erosion and
sedimentation of the shallow offshore environment. These developments
have disturbed the nesting grounds of endangered turtles. Over-exploitation
of sand has led to significant increases in beach erosion and environmental
degradation. Although the beaches are artificially replenished, the
introduced sand is rapidly eroded and causes problems for offshore coral
reefs which require clean water. At Gros Inlet, wetlands were destroyed to
make way for buildings and artificial lagoon to expand the Rodney Bay
resort. Local fisheries have declined as the offshore waters became murkier.
Coastal hazards The hazards include the following :
1. tropical storms/ cyclones/ hurricanes/ typhoons eg Cyclone which struck
Burma in 2008, Typhoon Haiyan which hit Philippines in 2013.
2. storm surges caused by cyclones
3. tsunamis caused by tectonic movements in oceans.
4. coastal flooding caused by hurricanes and tsunamis
5. erosion caused by high waves 6. landslides and mudflows caused by
floods
Tropical storms/ Hurricanes (see notes on weather hazards)
A hurricane is one of the most dangerous natural hazards to people and the
environment. Damage is caused by high winds, floods and storm surges and
mudflows.
Case study- Hurricane Katrina, August 2005, New Orleans ( USA)
Hurricane Katrina developed in the Atlantic Ocean due to rise in temperatures leading to low
pressure systems. The hurricane struck the city of New Orleans and caused one of the worst
natural disasters the USA has ever faced. Hurricane Katrina reached category 5 in terms of
intensity and wind speed reached 280 km/hr. The hurricane had a wide range of impacts.
Across Louisiana and Mississippi, 1836 people were killed. One million people were left
homeless because buildings suffered extensive damage. There was lack of clean water, food
and toilet facilities in New Orleans. Nearly everyone in New Orleans became unemployed. The
total economic impact of Hurricane Katrina for Louisiana and Mississippi was estimated to be
over US$150 billion. Communication networks failed, many telephones and mobiles did not
work, internet access and local television stations were damaged. The levees and flood walls
protecting New Orleans were damaged so 80% of the city ended up under water.

Coastal Management

Hard Engineering
This involves placing structures along the coast that are designed to prevent
erosion. These are expensive and ugly eg sea wall, rock groynes, revetment

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and rock armour.
Soft Engineering
These break up the energy of waves and reduce erosion. These solutions are
cheaper and less ugly eg offshore reefs, beach nourishment and managed
retreat

Case study : The Palisadoes Peninsula Shoreline management,

Jamaica Hazards on The PalisadoesPeninsula
The Palisadoes is a 13km feature located just south of Kingston. Over the
years, consistent storm surges which occur as a result of natural disasters
such as flood rains and hurricanes have led to massive erosion of the
Palisadoes peninsula’s sand dunes. In 2004, Hurricane Ivan eroded up to a
metre of off the 2 metre sand dunes. Even normal conditions, summer sea
breezes cause powerful destructive waves which erode the seaward face of
the beach, causing it to become steeper.
Measures to protect The Palisadoes

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Peninsula The Jamaican government partnered with the China Harbour
Engineering
Company (CHEC) to repair and protect the extensively degraded shoreline of
the Palisadoes peninsula. At a cost of over US$65 million, CHEC constructed
rock revetment walls on the seaward side of the peninsula and at the
harbour. The road was raised from about 1 metre to about 2.5 metres above
sea level. Additional drainage facilities were placed along the roadway to
remove excess water from rainfall. A 10m wide boardwalk was constructed
on the harbour side of the peninsula. The works along the peninsula were
designed in such a way that the shoreline is expected to withstand storm
surges that are only anticipated to reoccur once in every 100 years. The
protection scheme has proved to very effective because it was able to
withstand the massive storm surges caused by Hurricane Sandy which struck
Kingstonmin 2012.
Coastal development Case study : Dubai
Coastal reclamation in the United Arab Emirates has been developing on a
large scale since 2001. Two palm-shaped artificial islands, Palm Jumeirah and
Palm Jebel Ali were completed in 2007. Palm Jumeirah became the centre of
world-class hotels, over 200 shopping outlets and a range of luxury housing,
leisure and entertainment developments. An Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) was carried out to investigate likely environmental
impacts. To create the islands for Palm Jumeirah, some 94 million cubic
metres of sediment were dredged from the sea. Such large projects are
changing the ecology, with one of the problems being water circulation.
Water on some parts of the island remains almost stationary for several
weeks. This increases the risks of algal blooms. The fish that have colonised
the new environment are species from outside the area. The Gulf region has
already lost 70% of its coral reefs since 2001.

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