Lecture

Taylor series
recop : A function f :*, K , holomorphic
some set D &K be written series
over
open , can as a
power

f(z) = Cn(z -
zo)

around zo where z is
"sufficiently close" to zo
The coefficients satisfy
f(z)
atiSo
*

Cn =
f (z0) =
↓z
+
n ! -zogn
Where I
*
is a closed differentiable simple curve around zo within

Laurent scries:LetbesimplyBr(70)
connected and leto
holamoshic
,
ifRyo is a radius such that < D,
↓ hen VzE
Br(zo) 1[z(

f(z) = Cn(z -
z0)"

The coefficients satisfy

f(z)
Cr =

etiSo -zognt
de

Here
again
within *
,
I is a closed
simple differentiable curve around
to
The coefficient [ is called the residue of fat to
1

A
It sufficient that R small
* is is

·
h so that the ball Balzo]
enoug * open
fits into
We think of the Laurent series
as a
may eneralization of the T lor
9 ay
Series around pointszo where f has
> got a
singularity
The Laurent Taylor include
*
series is like a series but
may negative
↑owers : / 1z 1 . . . .

*
One can show that the coefficients in the Laurent series of f
zo
unique
around is
like
#
Any holomorphic function
within its domain
looks
and it looks
a
Taylor
like
series

laurent
around
any
point ,
a series around
isolated
any singularity
Definition Any Laurent Series
splits into a
singular part
and a
regular part
f(z) = z0)"

z
(t -
=.. +

p
-
part
Singular Laurent
Remark The Taylor singular part
series is a series whose
is zer
o = <. = . -
= 0

Examples
1) The e
has
function f : k , kf(z) =

=eies -
T

F(z) around too that conve

wheris
every
2) The function f :
K13 % - k f(z) = /z @ =
K
has a Carrent series

f(z) C (7-z0]around to 0 that

converges
=
,

where except
every po)
3) Consider f :
KI90S-K and find its Laurent series

1n

1) Cn(z-z)"with
=
- 2

9 f(z) = Cn =

30 other white
+
2 if - 2
=
n -
n =

z0)"with
b)
f(t) E 2 = [r(t En
E 1
If =
-

= + n
.
=

* otherwise
4) The
function
1
G : 130 -19 ,
< f(z) =

z(z + 1)

is
holomorphic over
$130 -19 What ,
is its Laurent series around
any
point zEK ?
=> we make case distinctions :

Case zo E
K)\0 ,
-
15

TheLaurentpearoundanyonchisaTaylor Seea
n

-
· · Yi .
L
1 +
1/2i

-
2

1
a
-

-----
 Case zo We observe
= 0
z(z +
1
= -

zi
↑

1 + z = = z for 114

The lutter is a
Taylor series
of ( 1) "around
+ zo = o

We combine
f(z) =
1-1)
Z
z

=
Case z =
-1 We use
f(z) =
!
+
1
C

and
=
.
z -

( 1)
-
Z

/z = 1)( +
12" [Taylor series of 12 out-1
convergent for 12-1-1)1/1
fence f(z) = -(z + 1)" + (+ )( +
1)
1ny 1

3
- -

= (1) (2) En =

- otherwise

The Laurent series around zo 0 and zo -1

converge
=
=

where within radius R 1 around the respective

every a =

development points
Definition We that
say f has a
point atzo if
regular consists
the Laurent at the
series
of zo
only of
part
regular that =
We
say f has a
pole of order m at to
if the coefficient
of the laurent series
off at to satisfycn = w
for n<-m

Example pote
L

F(z) =
/z has a of order t at zo = 0

f(z) =
I has a
pote of orders at zo = +
(z 5)3
-

f(z) =
( 1) -
+ 2 15
-
+
( 457 +

as a pood u

laurent series
If f has a
pote of order m at zo ,
then its
around to has the form m+ 1

70)
-

f(z) -m(z 2)
m
2ma(z zo) [0 [i(t
-

=
C -

+
-
- - + +
-

+ ...

saythathuan ential angularity

Definition
Laurent .
a

If the
coefficients
In with no
**
Example
the Laurent
The
series
function f :
<160 -K . f(z) =
e has
f(z) =

En Cn =

(in) !
n7

n20

-z
I

part Singular part

 Computations with the

Lament Series
Laurent
We have
examples of series

f(z) =
e =
1 + z +
z+ + -
zo = 0

f(z) cz 1
= =
+
z +
22 + -- zo =
0

The last
with
example is obtained from the
first example by substituting
z
% for eny non zero z

Exempte : The Laurent series of z .

el at zo = 0

ze = z +
1
+ -

Suppose that we have two Laurent series at

zo

p(z) = a0 +
a , (z -

zo) + az(z -

zo) + ---

9 (z)
= bo + b1(z zo) b2(z zo) +

?
-
+ -
- -

about the
What do we know
quotient f(z) =
P(z)/9(z) around zo

[Exempt for rational function]

a) If boxo then and continuous the
q(zo) 0 ,
since
g
is
/
denominator does vanish
9 (7)
not near zo. . In particular ,

zo is a
regular point P(zo) av

f (z0) =
=

that
bo
b) If ao = bo = 0 but bi 0

↑ (z 70) az(z zo)

f(z)
-
-
+ ---

b
. (z zo) -

+ b 2(z zo) -
+ -
..

a + ar(z zo) - +...

bi zo)
+ bz(z - + -- -

al az (z to) +

f(z0)
- -

+
-

lim a

b
= =

z1z0b1 + b2(z -

70) + --

= [Regin L'Hopital)
In de
Summary p(to)/q(70) p(to)/g170)
=

Similarly , if as =
a = bo = bi =
0 but br 0 etc...

Example Let z
f(z) = and Z
j
= 0

3
Sin(z)
Recall Sin(t) = z
_
 Chapter 2 Complex integration

fi cFI EcnIiysisaiienteatcun'e
i ci.dfsire we have

SyFdl flF yet g it at Falgethylct E fail82 t It

the integral function
4 tch of a
thetaiiginda.cat define

1 Definition
Let a b EIR be a closed interval a b and suppose
we have a differentiable curve y a b 4

Let P be the image of the curve y

If f P G is a continuousfunction then

ff z dz
fczsdz f 8t codhplexmultiplication

defines the integral of f along the curve

NB Since g is differentiable it has derivative y a b

Example 1 Let be the half circle around 0 with radius 1

8 co eit ie't
fig y Lt
gets
We integrate fizi z

it
fz dz e ie dt ife3itdt if
3
e
Example 2 let be the unit circle
8 0 2n
girl eit y th ieit
Again we integrate feel z2

z dz Éeityieitdt e
it n n 0

C e along a
ftp.ffeintisteetetaaitigstizerof

Example 3 Same P and g but f z

file de 1 if at i2x

iii if it fiiai.iiEiiji
2 Cauchy theorem
let DEC be an open simply connected set and let MEO
be a closed piecewise differentiable curve
Let f d be holomorphic over 0 Then
f z dz O

o for practical computations we are given

f and P and we pick a suitable 0 to verify

µg
the conditions of the theorem
2 Often O C or D unit disk

3 Simply connected means in practice that I has only one

part and no holes
Example 1 Let be theunit circle and fits z
We apply the Cauchy theorem with D and
get
1z dz 0

Example 2 yerele.tt eksthe sit istedefndedfE'Ee

filz dz 2T i 0

Indeed we cannot apply the Cauchy theorem We

cannot find a suitable 0 Any open set DEC over
otetnare
EE EFt e i
Example 3 0 G f z and y 92 1 06
p 2

We can apply the Cauchy theorem

f f fade 0

Possible choice
O ZEE Rez 0

Alternative choices D ZEE 12 21 1,1

We verify this result explicitly

Slade 2 It
log 2 eit logs logs 0

NB This works as expected because the curve avoids the jump

of the logarithm along the negativenumbers
3 An extension of theCauchytheorem
let Dec be open and simply connected

yf
simple
set Eat standftp.reufiable
Assume 82 is contained in int yn
that is the area enclosed by Jn
is a holomorphic function defined over
Iten
So flz dz fyfczsdz
inty
q
Ideaf t is holomorphic over the regions
eyi heaven theorem
f fade 0 fofczsdz

However
O So fizsdztfofiz.dz fyfczsdzfy.az dz

ffczsdz fyflztdz

Showing the extension of the Cauchy theorem

Iithisuseful
We can often replace the integral along a complicated outer
a simpler curve thus simplifying the
cystipulation integral along
4 Suppose that D E O is an open set and that
f D is holomorphic Let toE D
is a closed simple differentiable curve that encircles zo
Efen

f Zo 2 1 dz

Crofidao the extension of the Cauchytheorem and

we use
replace the integral along g by an integral along thecircle
d 0 2T yet Zo reit
where vs o is the radius of the circle Wehave

S dz
for dz

Now
So dz
I ireit at

Ifczotreit at if
czotreitsdtwfgrg.ee
the
O sufficiently small in limit because f is continuous

i 2T f Zo

As we shrink the circles

the integrals go to 2x if Zo By the
extension of the Cauchy theorem all integrals havethe same
values which hence must be 27 if Zo Showing

1170 if dz
 f czos 2 f n dz

The previous formula emerges forthe case n 0

Example 1 Suppose that Zo and consider f C zo G

f z z

Let g be a simple close diffentiable curve that

encloses then
flzos 2
1 dz

Case 1 if the curve

ill defined
passes over to thenthe integral is

Case 2 t does not enclose zo then the cauchy theorem

yep
fflzsdz 0

Case 3 if y encloses zo then

ffczsdz f zdz 2mi

in accordance with computations earlier this semester

ffzo.dz fEEE.dz with gazi 1

Example 2 Same as previous example but fees z R

Cases 1 and 2 are the same and case 3
 fyfizsdz fztzpdz f.EE dzwithgezt o

fyfczsdz O gezol 1 to 0
g

Case 1 Case 2

Case 3
2.0
 Chapter 3 LaurentSeries

ITaylorSeries
Recall Taylor polynomials Suppose that we have a function f IR IR
with sufficiently many derivatives Then the Taylor polynomial of
degree N around to IR is

Tx fix f Xo f xolcx xoltflxoslzx x.tt ffhtcx x.int

EE cx xoi

ih t e Fnen'in p c c imit set

AKA Laurent
Etayleries forholomorphicfunctions Egf
Let D be a simply connected open set Let z E D
and R 0 st
Balzo ZE iz Zo R D
If f D C is holomorphic then

flzi 1571933 z zyn

Remarks
1 Holomorphic functions have the feature that their Taylor
series always converges inside some ball around thedevelopment
P
yᵗ contrast that is not true for
all derivatives are defined
all functions f IR IR even
if
2 Connection to Cauchy integralformula

f z
É5 z z EgCn x x
 where
c
2
11 7
dz

a closedsimpledifferentiable curve within D that

Endirelet z

1
Example theaufyunqt.is face
With 0 we
Effigor
converges Zo get
et Eg z

Laurentseries let D be simply connected and let zoed

a radius
s RPEnaf is I then phicz.esfczB

fee EE Cu Cz Zo

The coefficients Cn satisfy

Iife un de
Cn

Here again y is a closed simple differentiable curve around to

within D

The coefficient C is called the residue of f at zo

D It is sufficient that R is small
stint P
 We may think of the Laurent series as a generalization of the
Taylor series around points to where f has got a singularity
The Laurent series is liketheTaylor series but may also include
1 I
negative powers e.g
One can show that the coefficients in the Laurentseries
of f around to are unique
Any
bttmohiii.FI a mal Yaniteitaloo'ftp.ieseraieiaui
around fnd9Tries
any isolated singularity

Definition Any Laurent series splits into a

singular part and
a
regular part

f Z
ga z Zo f pt t
2 Co G z Zo C2 z z t

Singularpart Regular part

Remarks TheTaylor series is a Laurent series where the

singular part is zero

Example 1 Thefunction f G fez et has a Taylor

series

fee É ez on

around to 0 that converges everywhere

Example 2 The function f 0 C f z

has a Laurent series
f z C n z 051
around to 0 that converges everywhere 03
Example 3 Consider f G 0 and find its laurentseries
as fees
1
22 8 Catz zos with Cn 5 Finewise
bi fees E n
cncz z.sn with Ca 3 if I
O otherwise

Example4 Thefunction f C 0 13 s e fits z n

is holomorphic over its domain What is its Laurent

series around point to
any
We make case distinctions

Cased Zo G 0 13
The Laurent series around any such zo is the
Taylor series that converges within any Bp Zo that
does not contain 0 or 1