Bioactive Glasses Materials, Properties and Applications

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 vi Contents

1 3.3 Reaction of cells with glasses and related ceramics 57

2 3.4 Effect of silica on bone formation 66
3 3.5 Future trends 71
4 3.6 References 72
5 3.7 Appendix: list of abbreviations 84
6
4 Regulatory aspects of bioactive glass 85
7
S. LINDGREN, T. PÄNKÄLÄINEN, J. LUCCHESI and F. OLLILA,
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BonAlive Biomaterials Ltd, Finland
9
10 4.1 Introduction 85
1 4.2 General requirements 86
2
4.3 Indication areas 94
4.4 Market approval process in some geographical areas 98
3
4.5 References 103
4
5
6 Part II Applications of bioactive glass 105
7
8 5 Bioactive glass and glass-ceramic scaffolds for
9 bone tissue engineering 107
X. CHATZISTAVROU, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Germany,
20
P. NEWBY, Imperial College London, UK and A. R. BOCCACCINI,
1
University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Germany and Imperial
2
College London, UK
3
4 5.1 Introduction 107
5 5.2 Requirements for bone tissue scaffolds 108
6 5.3 Bioactive glasses and glass-ceramics in bone tissue
7
engineering 109
5.4 Bioactive glass-based scaffolds: fabrication technologies 110
8
5.5 Scaffolds from boron-containing bioactive glass 114
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5.6 Polymer-coated composite scaffolds 119
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5.7 Conclusions 123
1 5.8 References 124
2
3 6 Nanoscaled bioactive glass particles and nanofibres 129
4 M. EROL, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey and
5 A. R. BOCCACCINI, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg and
6 Imperial College London, UK
7 6.1 Introduction 129
8 6.2 Characteristics of nanoscale bioactive glasses 131
9 6.3 Fabrication of bioactive glass nanoparticles and nanofibres 132
40 6.4 Applications of nanoscale bioactive glasses 138
1 6.5 Conclusions 152
2 6.6 Acknowledgement 152
43X 6.7 References 152

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 Contents vii

7 Bioactive glass containing composites for bone 1

and musculoskeletal tissue engineering scaffolds 162 2
S. VERRIER, AO Research Institute Davos, Switzerland, J. E. GOUGH, 3
University of Manchester, UK and A. R. BOCCACCINI, University 4
of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Germany and Imperial College London, UK 5
7.1 Introduction 162 6
7.2 Composite materials approach to tissue engineering scaffolds 165 7
7.3 In vitro and in vivo evaluation 169 8
7.4 Discussion 179 9
7.5 Conclusions and future trends 180 10
7.6 References 181 1
7.7 Appendix: list of abbreviations 188 2
3
8 Use of bioactive glasses as bone substitutes in 4
orthopaedics and traumatology 189 5
J. HEIKKILÄ, Sports Clinic and Hospital Mehiläinen Turku, Finland 6
8.1 Introduction 189 7
8.2 Glass surface reactions 192 8
8.3 The bonding of bioactive glass and bone formation 194 9
8.4 The biocompatibility of bioactive glasses 195 20
8.5 The strength of bioactive glass 196 1
8.6 Bone formation 197 2
8.7 Clinical use for benign bone tumors 200 3
8.8 Bioactive glass and infection 201 4
8.9 Bioactive glass in cancellous bone and
5
metaphyseal fractures 201
6
8.10 Bioactive glass in diaphyseal bone fractures 202
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8.11 Bioactive glass in spinal surgery 202
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8.12 Arthroplasty 203
8.13 Summary of applications in orthopaedics and 9
traumatology 203 30
8.14 Future trends 204 1
8.15 References 204 2
3
9 Bioactive glass S53P4 as a bone graft substitute 4
in the treatment of osteomyelitis 209 5
N. C. LINDFORS, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Finland 6
9.1 Introduction 209 7
9.2 Bone grafts in the treatment of osteomyelitis 210 8
9.3 Antibacterial properties of bioactive glass S53P4 211 9
9.4 Vascularization-promoting properties of 40
bioactive glasses 211 1
9.5 Bioactive glass S53P4 in the treatment of osteomyelitis: 2
a multicentre study 212 43X

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 viii Contents

1 9.6 Conclusions 213

2 9.7 References 215
3
4 10 Bioactive glass for maxillofacial and dental repair 217
5 M. J. PELTOLA and K. M. J. AITASALO, Turku University
6 Hospital, Finland
7 10.1 Introduction 217
8 10.2 Current materials and requirements in maxillofacial
9 reconstruction 217
10 10.3 Properties of bioactive glass 219
1 10.4 Clinical applications of bioactive glass in maxillofacial
2 reconstruction 220
3 10.5 Clinical applications of bioactive glass in dentistry 223
4 10.6 References 224
5
6 11 Bioactive glass and biodegradable polymer
7 composites 227
T. NIEMELÄ and M. KELLOMÄKI, Tampere University
8
of Technology, Finland
9
20 11.1 Introduction 227
1 11.2 Biodegradable polymers 228
2 11.3 Manufacturing of the composites 229
3 11.4 Bioactive glass particle composites 231
4
11.5 Bioactive glass fiber composites 235
11.6 Coatings 238
5
11.7 Future trends 241
6
11.8 References 241
7
8 12 Bioactive glasses for wound healing 246
9 M. SHAH MOHAMMADI, C. STÄHLI and S. N. NAZHAT,
30 McGill University, Canada
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12.1 Introduction 246
2
12.2 Silicate-based versus phosphate-based bioactive glasses 246
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12.3 Antibacterial properties of bioactive glasses 250
4 12.4 Stimulation of angiogenesis 254
5 12.5 Conclusions 259
6 12.6 References 260
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8 Index 267
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Contributor contact details 3
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(* = main contact) 10
1
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Editor and Introduction Y. Zhou 3
Med-X Research Institute 4
H. O. Ylänen 5
Shanghai Jiao Tong University
Tampere University of Technology 6
1954 Hua Shan Road
Department of Biomedical
Shanghai 200030 7
Engineering
China 8
Hermiankatu 12A
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PL 692
33101 Tampere Chapter 3 20
Finland 1
R. P. K. Penttinen
E-mail: [email protected] 2
Department of Medical
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Biochemistry and Genetics
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Chapter 1 University of Turku
5
Kiinamyllynkatu 10
L. Hupa 6
20520 Turku
Åbo Akademi University 7
Finland
Biskopsgatan 8 8
E-mail: [email protected]
20500 Turku 9
Finland 30
E-mail: [email protected] Chapter 4 1
S. Lindgren*, T. Pänkäläinen, 2
Chapter 2 J. Lucchesi and F. Ollila 3
BonAlive Biomaterials Ltd 4
J. Chang* and Y. L. Zhou
Biolinja 12 5
State Key Laboratory of High
20750 Turku 6
Performance Ceramics and
Finland 7
Superfine Microstructure
E-mail: [email protected] 8
Shanghai Institute of Ceramics
Chinese Academy of Sciences 9
1295 Dingxi Road 40
Shanghai 200050 1
China 2
E-mail: [email protected] 43X

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 x Contributor contact details

1 Chapter 5 Chapter 7
2
X. Chatzistavrou and A. R. S. Verrier
3
Boccaccini* Musculoskeletal Regeneration
4
Institute of Biomaterials AO Research Institute Davos
5 Department of Materials Science 7270 Davos
6 and Engineering Switzerland
7 University of Erlangen-Nuremberg
8 91058 Erlangen J. E. Gough
9 Germany School of Materials
10 E-mail: aldo.boccaccini@ww. University of Manchester
1 uni-erlangen.de Manchester M1 7HS
2 UK
3 P. Newby
4 Department of Materials A. R. Boccaccini*
5 Imperial College London Institute of Biomaterials
6 Prince Consort Road Department of Materials Science
7 London SW7 2BP and Engineering
8 UK University of Erlangen-Nuremberg
9 91058 Erlangen
20 Germany
Chapter 6
1 E-mail: aldo.boccaccini@ww.
2 M. Erol uni-erlangen.de
Department of Chemical
3
Engineering Chapter 8
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Istanbul Technical University
5 J. Heikkilä
Maslak
6 Assistant Professor in Orthopaedics
34469 Istanbul
7 Turkey and Traumatology
8 E-mail: [email protected] Sports Clinic and Hospital
9 Mehiläinen Turku
30 Kauppiaskatu 8
A. R. Boccaccini*
1 Institute of Biomaterials 20100 Turku
2 Department of Materials Science Finland
3 and Engineering E-mail: [email protected]
4 University of Erlangen-Nuremberg [email protected]
5 91058 Erlangen
6 Germany
7 E-mail: aldo.boccaccini@ww.
8 uni-erlangen.de
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Chapter 9 Chapter 11 1
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N. C. Lindfors T. Niemelä and M. Kellomäki*
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Department of Orthopaedic and Department of Biomedical
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Hand Surgery Engineering
Helsinki University Central Tampere University of Technology 5
Hospital PO Box 692 6
Töölö Hospital 33101 Tampere 7
Topeliuksenkatu 5 Finland 8
00260 Helsinki E-mail: [email protected] 9
Finland 10
E-mail: [email protected] 1
Chapter 12
2
M. Shah Mohammadi, C. Stähli and 3
Chapter 10 S. N. Nazhat* 4
M. J. Peltola* and Department of Mining and Materials 5
K. M. J. Aitasalo Engineering 6
Department of Otorhinolaryngology McGill University 7
– Head and Neck Surgery 3610 University Street 8
Turku University Hospital Montreal
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20521 Turku Quebec H3A 2B2
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Finland Canada
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E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]
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Introduction 3
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Today, millions of prostheses, implants and bone grafts are needed to maintain the 3
quality of life of the aging population. The increased human lifespan alone has 4
created enough problems in this regard, even if we discount the need for repairing 5
or replacing body parts damaged by an individual’s own actions. As a result, 6
material scientists have for decades faced the challenge of developing advanced 7
biomaterials to repair the defects of the human body or to replace damaged parts. 8
A significant advance in the search for better biomaterials was provided by the 9
introduction of two new synthetic biomaterials during the early 1970s. The 20
materials were developed independently and almost simultaneously by several 1
groups of materials scientists. The new synthetic biomaterials were able to bond 2
to host tissue through chemical processes occurring on the materials’ surface, and 3
the materials were termed bioactive ceramics. A comprehensive review of the 4
state of the art in bioceramics from basic science to clinical applications is 5
presented in The Handbook of Bioceramics and Their Applications, edited by 6
Professor Tadashi Kokubo (Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2008). 7
The current book focuses on a special subgroup of bioactive ceramics, namely 8
bioactive glasses. Systematic research into bioactive glasses was started by 9
Professor Larry Hench in 1969, when he introduced the concept of a strong 30
bonding between bone and synthetic material brought about by chemical reactions 1
occurring on a glass surface. The innovation concerned the chemical reactivity of 2
the surface of a silica-based material that had the amorphous structure of silicate 3
glass. Hench introduced the material, a bioactive glass, in the early 1970s. 4
Bioactive glasses bond firmly to bone through chemical reactions and can 5
ultimately be replaced by bone: these properties make them extremely promising 6
as a material for medical applications. Most importantly, the constituents in 7
bioactive glass are physiological chemicals found in the body, typically silicon, 8
sodium, potassium, magnesium, oxygen, calcium and phosphorus. According to 9
several studies, during the bonding and formation of bone, the concentration of 40
the chemicals never rises to levels that could disturb the adjacent tissues. 1
The use of bioactive glass as an implant material or in manufacturing medical 2
devices is limited, however, by the mechanical properties of glass. Glass is brittle 43X

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 xiv Introduction

1 and cannot therefore be used in positions where load-bearing properties are

2 required. Glass can be cast to plates, rods or simple devices; alternatively it can
3 be formed by sawing or grinding cast rods to rigid medical devices. It can also be
4 used as a filler material in the form of particulate. In order to widen the
5 manufacturing of bioactive glass products to technically more demanding clinical
6 applications, new bioactive glasses were developed.
7 Today, new bioactive glasses can be tailor-made to a variety of clinical applications,
8 to different shapes, fibers, microspheres and to show optimal bioactivity in different
9 physical conditions found in the human body. Novel applications of bioactive
10 glasses require not only tight control of the bioactivity but also a thorough knowledge
1 of the influence of the composition of glass on its manufacture and its formation into
2 different products. The tailoring of glasses to certain applications is thus based on
3 understanding and mastering a wide range of properties important for both medical
4 applications and for the manufacture of glass.
5 The manufacturing of conventional melt-derived bioactive glasses demands
6 extremely high temperatures and careful annealing procedures. To avoid this, new
7 technologies were developed for manufacturing new types of bioactive glasses
8 such as those derived from sol-gel, spun bioactive glass fibers and bioactive glass
9 nanoparticles. Today, the use of bioactive glass as a component of biomaterial
20 composites is one of several interesting options in the development of a variety of
1 clinical applications of this material.
2 In the current book, the development of different bioactive glasses is reviewed
3 by globally distinguished experts and scientists. The book starts with an
4 introduction to different types of bioactive glasses, the influence of surface
5 modification on the properties of these special glasses, and the process of bonding
6 to different types of host tissues. It also discusses cell interactions at the interface
7 of bioactive glasses and tissues. When marketing any products containing
8 bioactive glass, regulations imposed by authorities are of crucial importance. A
9 chapter addressing this issue is written by a company specializing in products
30 made of bioactive glass. Having been developed over several decades, bioactive
1 glass products are today in clinical use across the world. This means that it is now
2 possible to discuss experiences of the clinical applications of these products. The
3 current book also covers this interesting area of bioactive glasses.
4 Earlier works have been published that have covered the area of bioceramics
5 and even their clinical applications. However, to my knowledge, the current book
6 is the first one to discuss solely bioactive glasses and their application. The book
7 should become a standard textbook in both the fields of materials sciences and
8 medical sciences. I hope that by publishing this book we can encourage an interest
9 in the development of bioactive glasses in students and researchers the world over.
40
1 Heimo O. Ylänen
2
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Melt-derived bioactive glasses 3
4
L. HUPA, Åbo Akademi University, Finland
5
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Abstract: This chapter discusses the properties of melt-derived bioactive 7
glasses from the material technology point of view. The non-crystalline 8
structure of bioactive glasses offers the possibility of adjusting their physical 9
and chemical properties by altering their oxide composition within certain 10
limits. Thus, understanding the relationships between the oxide composition
and the relevant properties is essential when the glass composition is tailored 1
for novel clinical applications. The focus is to summarize some published data 2
on the in vitro and in vivo bioactivity. The restrictions put on glass composition 3
by the manufacturing process are also discussed. The aim is to provide some 4
fundamental tools for further studies and the development of melt-derived
glasses to desired product forms for various clinical applications. 5
6
Key words: melt-derived bioactive glasses, viscosity, crystallization, in vitro 7
bioactivity, in vivo bioactivity. 8
9
20
1.1 Introduction
1
A new era in the development of materials for use in medicine began in the 1970s, 2
when Professor Larry Hench discovered glasses capable of forming interfacial 3
bonding with bone (Hench and Paschall, 1973). The compositions showing this 4
special property were called bioactive glasses. In developing the glasses Professor 5
Hench’s leading idea was to find a material that, rather than forming an interfacial 6
layer of scar tissue, would instead form a living bond with the host tissues (Hench 7
2006). 8
The hypothesis behind the glass development was simple but ingenious: as 9
bone contains hydroxyapatite, HA, the implant material should be able to form an 30
HA layer on the surface in biological solutions. Such a material would not be 1
rejected by the body but be bonded directly with the tissue. Hench and co-workers 2
tested whether phosphate containing soda-lime silicate glasses could fulfil the 3
criterion of tissue bonding. Glasses within this system would then contain two 4
important components of the hydroxyapatite (Ca5(PO4)3OH), namely Ca2+ and 5
PO43− ions. The two other cations, Na2+ and Si4+, are also common components 6
of the human body. Implants of Glass 45S5, one of the first compositions tested, 7
were found to bond to rat femur. This glass, known also as Bioglass®, is still one 8
of the most bioactive glasses known. The selection of the composition was ideal; 9
the low silica content makes the glass easy to melt but also gives it much lower 40
chemical durability than commercial soda-lime glasses in aqueous solutions. A 1
low chemical durability and the ability of the composition to form a dual layer of 2
silica and amorphous calcium phosphates on the surface are key features of 43X

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 4 Bioactive glasses

1 bioactive glasses (Hench, 1991, 1992). The subsequent reactions in the surface
2 layers lead to bonding between the glass and surrounding tissue. Ideally, the glass
3 will dissolve and be replaced by new tissue in time.
4 The kinds of materials that were capable of bonding directly to living tissue
5 were called bioactive materials. Bioactive materials are defined as (1) materials
6 that have been designed to induce special biological activity; or (2) biomaterials
7 that are designed to elicit or modulate biological activity (Williams 1999).
8 Bioactive glasses are capable of forming a bond with both hard and soft tissue in
9 vivo or in vitro environments by developing a surface layer of hydroxycarbonate
10 apatite by release of ionic species from the bulk material (Williams 1999).
1 Bioactive glass research deals in large part with developing a fundamental
2 understanding of the dissolution and surface reactions of the glass and the tissue
3 response to the dissolving material. Over the years, the interactions of several
4 glass compositions with biological solutions have been studied. However, the
5 research has been concentrated mainly on compositions close to that of the
6 bioactive glass 45S5. Li et al. (1991) reported that sol-gel-derived glasses within
7 the system Na2O-CaO-SiO2 show bioactivity within a much larger composition
8 range than melt-derived glasses. Since then, sol-gel derived glasses have been
9 studied intensively. Jones (2008, 2009) has summarized the use of sol-gel glasses
20 as materials for nanostructured bioactive scaffolds.
1 This chapter deals with the properties of melt-derived bioactive glasses. The
2 standpoint is more in glass science and technology than in biological sciences.
3 The goal is to summarize various criteria to be considered when developing
4 glass compositions for new products to various clinical applications. Controlled
5 bioactivity is the basis for development of glass compositions. However, the
6 tissue-engineering approach to manufacture porous thin-walled scaffold structures
7 of glasses or to use glasses as constituents in composites calls for a better
8 understanding of the overall properties of the glasses.
9 Generally, glasses have good chemical durability. However, one of the most
30 important properties of bioactive glasses is their controlled reactivity in body
1 solutions. The reactivity of glasses in aqueous solutions is strongly dependent on
2 the glass composition and thus one of the key factors for choice of composition.
3 Chemical durability as well as several other glass properties can be adjusted
4 smoothly by the composition within a certain range. Further, when using bioactive
5 glasses in clinical applications, other properties than chemical durability should
6 be considered. Mechanical strength and especially the ability to sustain a certain
7 mechanical impact and loading are important properties during surgery. Basically,
8 the strength of glasses is high, but due to their brittle nature they cannot be used
9 in load-bearing applications. As mechanical properties are basically more
40 dependent on the surface condition of the glass than on the glass composition,
1 they are not essential for the composition choice.
2 Today the medical uses of bioactive glasses are based mainly on crushed
43X fractions. The intense research on bioactive and biodegradable glasses as

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 Melt-derived bioactive glasses 5

components of composites is likely to give birth to novel applications. For 1

example, when using glass fibres in composites together with organic polymers 2
the inherent mechanical strength of glasses is utilized in order to reinforce the 3
composite structure. The mutual reactions between bioactive glasses and various 4
biodegradable polymers are not well established. When more information is 5
available the reactivity of glasses with other materials used in medicine should 6
also be taken into account when choosing the composition. 7
The specific criteria of reactivity in body solutions limit the composition range 8
for the glasses. Within this range, the glass composition should be chosen so that 9
it can be melted and formed into specific shapes with available methods. One of 10
the most important characteristics for glass manufacture is the viscosity– 1
temperature relationship, as it defines the methods that can be utilized in glass 2
forming. Also the liquidus temperature should be considered; all practical melt 3
forming operations have to be carried out at higher temperatures than the liquidus. 4
Both viscosity and liquidus depend on glass composition. For traditional glasses 5
the crystallization characteristics are not usually critical. However, the specific 6
composition range of glasses showing bioactivity brings a risk of rapid crystal 7
growth during glass forming. Another example is the manufacture of specific 8
porous structures via sintering of glass particulates. In the manufacture of glassy 9
structures, crystallization during sintering is an undesired phenomenon. On the 20
other hand, controlled crystallization can be utilized for achieving bioactive glass- 1
ceramics with specific properties. In both cases, the processing parameters are 2
mastered via a good knowledge of the crystallization characteristics. Although 3
crystallization in thermal treating of glasses is partly a kinetic phenomenon, it can 4
be controlled by the choice of the glass composition. 5
Thermal expansion of glasses should be considered when the glass is applied as 6
a bioactive coating, for example on a metal prostheses. The glass composition 7
should be adjusted to give a compatible adhesion with the metal for achieving a 8
good adherence without any chipping or crawling of the coating on the metal. 9
The choice of the glass composition for a specific application should be based on 30
a firm knowledge on the influence of all major components on the most relevant 1
properties of the glass with regard to both the final use and the manufacture of the 2
product. Despite extensive research during the past 40 years, only a few glass 3
compositions have been accepted for clinical use. The two US Food and Drug 4
Administration FDA approved melt-derived compositions 45S5 (Hench and 5
Paschall, 1973) and S53P4 (Andersson et al., 1990) consist of four oxides, SiO2, 6
Na2O, CaO and P2O5. In general, a great number of elements can be dissolved in 7
glasses. The effect of Al2O3, B2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, SrO, BaO, ZnO, Li2O, K2O, CaF2 8
and TiO2 on the in vitro or in vivo properties of certain compositions of bioactive 9
glasses has been reported (Andersson et al., 1990; Vrouwenvelder et al., 1994; 40
Brink et al., 1997; Haimi et al., 2009; Lusvardi et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2009; 1
Gentleman et al., 2010; Watts et al., 2010). However, the effect of the composition 2
on the properties of bioactive and biodegradable glasses is not fully understood. 43X

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 6 Bioactive glasses

1 1.2 Manufacture and physical properties

2
3 1.2.1 Melting and forming
4 Melt-derived bioactive glasses are melted and formed with methods similar to
5 traditional soda-lime glasses. However, the requirements at the processing must
6 meet the standards for materials used in medical applications. The batches are
7 mixed of high purity analytical- and reagent-grade raw chemicals and thus the
8 content of trace impurities in the glasses is low. Bioactive glasses are produced by
9 melting batch components at an elevated temperature, typically 1350 to 1450°C,
10 in electrically heated furnaces. The glasses are melted in platinum crucibles to
1 avoid any contamination from oxide crucibles. Usually, no fining agents are added
2 to the batches. The low viscosity of typical bioactive glass compositions at the
3 melting temperature aids in eliminating gaseous inclusions from the melt. Melting
4 times of small batches for laboratory testing varying from 1 to 24 hours have been
5 employed. The glasses are often melted twice in order to increase homogeneity.
6 Volatilization of components with high vapor pressures at high temperatures
7 should also be taken into account. In bioactive glasses alkalis, boron, phosphorus
8 and fluorides may vaporize. The glasses can be melted in covered crucibles to
9 minimize losses. The vaporization in a certain process can also been taken into
20 account by adjusting the batch composition.
1 Forming and shaping procedures vary depending on the product type; casting
2 into monoliths and drawing into rods or fibres are the main forming processes for
3 bioactive glasses. After forming, the glass is annealed at a temperature corresponding
4 to the viscosity 1013 dPa·s (1013 Poise), to remove residual stresses caused by
5 cooling after forming. Granulates and powdered glass are produced by crushing and
6 sieving the annealed plates into desired particle fractions. Also quenching the melt
7 between stainless steel plates or pouring the melt into deionized water are further
8 steps in the process of granulate fabrication. However, bioactive glasses start to
9 react easily in aqueous solutions, which might affect the composition of the particle
30 surfaces. Crushing and sieving increase the risk of contamination from the equipment
1 used in the particle manufacture. Thus, in all processing of bioactive glasses into
2 specific shapes, care should be taken in order to minimize any contamination.
3
4
1.2.2 Viscosity
5
6 Viscosity is important in determining the melting parameters for achieving a
7 bubble-free and homogeneous melt. Glasses are usually melted at temperatures
8 corresponding to the viscosity value 10 to 100 dPa·s. The low viscosity facilitates
9 easy elimination of the gases by buoyancy from the melt. Viscosity and its change
40 with temperature is the most crucial factor in determining the forming and shaping
1 procedures that can be used for a particular composition. The approximate
2 viscosity values of interest in forming bioactive glasses into various shapes are
43X summarized in Table 1.1.

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 Melt-derived bioactive glasses 7

Table 1.1 Approximate viscosity values (dPa·s) for bioactive 1

glass forming processes
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Processing Viscosity (η) in dPa·s
4
Melting 10–102 5
Pressing 104–106 6
Drawing of continuous fibres 102.5–103.5 7
Sinter glass powder to porous body 108–109
Annealing 1012–1013
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1.1 Viscosity–temperature points for 45S5, S53P4 and 13-93 (Vedel 7
et al., 2008). 8
9
Figure 1.1 shows measured viscosity–temperature points for three bioactive 30
glasses, 45S5, S53P4 and 13–93 at the low and high temperature ranges. The 1
measured values are according to Vedel et al. (2008). The oxide composition of 2
the glasses are given in Table 1.2. The dashed lines between the low and high 3
temperature ranges give typical viscosity–temperature curves for glass forming 4
melts. However, at the intermediate temperatures bioactive glasses crystallize and 5
melt viscosity does not exist. 6
The viscosity values at different temperatures are important criteria in glass 7
forming. The high temperature values correlate with melt-forming processes, 8
while the low-temperature values specify the suitability of the glass, for example 9
for sintering into porous bodies or firing as a coating on metal implants. The high 40
temperature values of glasses 45S5 and S53P4 in Fig. 1.1 could be measured by 1
rotational viscometer only at values below 100 dPa·s (Vedel et al., 2008). Thus, it 2
is likely that for these glasses the liquidus temperature, i.e. the temperature at 43X

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