Generic Algebraic Equations

2 2
b b
a x 2+ bx+ c=a x + ( 2a)+c−
4a

−b ± √ b2−4 ac
a x 2+ bx+ c=0 ⟺ x=
2a
a−b
√ a− √ b=
√ a+ √ b
a3 +(b)3=(a+( b))( a2−a( b)+ b2 )
1 1
3 3 a−b
a −b = 2 1 2
a + ( ab )3 +b 3
3

Laws of Logarithms
y=ax ⟺ x =log a y a>0, x> 0, y >0, a ≠ 1
log a x+ log a y=log a xy x
log a x−log a y=log a
y

log a x n=n log a x

log a y
log x y= ,if x ≠1
log a x
ln k
log a k = , a> 0∧a ≠ 1
ln a
Chapter 0: Precalculus

Terms involved in Inequality to solve

function
√ g (x) g( x) ≥ 0

ln g ( x ) g ( x ) >0
1 g( x) ≠ 0
g(x)
Domain Range
sin θ (∞ ,−∞) [−1,1]
 cos θ (∞ ,−∞) [−1,1]
tan θ π
θ ≠ + nπ (∞ ,−∞)
2

sin −1 θ [−1,1] −π π
[ , ]
2 2
cos θ
−1
[−1,1] [0, π ]

tan −1 θ (∞ ,−∞) −π π
( , )
2 2

ex (∞ ,−∞) (0,−∞)
ln x (0,−∞) (∞ ,−∞)
Equation Transformation
f (x−k ) translation of k units to the right
f (x+ k) translation of k units to the left

f ( x ) +k translation of k units to vertically

up
f ( x )−k translation of k units to vertically
down
f (−x ) reflection in y-axis

−f ( x ) reflection in x-axis

kf (x ) scaling along y-axis by factor k

f (kx) scaling along x-axis by factor k
Chapter 1: Limits & Continuity
lim g(θ)=0
If θ→c , then

θ θ
¿ ¿
g¿ g¿
lim sin g(θ) lim tan g(θ)
θ →c θ →c
=lim ¿ =lim ¿
g (θ) θ→c g(θ) θ →c
 Squeeze Theorem
lim g( x)=lim h( x )=L lim f ( x )=L
Suppose g(x) ≤ f ( x )≤ h( x ) , if x→ c x→c , then x→ c

lim g(θ)=0
If θ→c , then

lim g( x) sin h(x)=0 lim g( x) cos h(x )=0

x→ c and x→ c

Chapter 2: Derivatives
f ( x 0+ h )−f ( x 0 )
f ' ( x 0 )=lim
h →0 h

Function Derivative
n n−1
( f ( x )) n f ' ( x )( f (x ))
cos f ( x) −f '( x )∙ sin f ( x )
sin f ( x) f ' (x) ∙cos f (x )
2
tan f (x) f ' (x) ∙ sec f ( x)
sec ⁡( f ( x ) ) f ' (x) ∙ sec ( f ( x ) ) tan ⁡( f ( x ))
f ( x)
−f ' (x )∙ cosec ( f ( x ) ) cot ⁡( f ( x ))
cosec ⁡¿
2
cot ⁡( f ( x )) −f ' (x )∙ cosec f (x )

ef ( x) f ' ( x ) ∙ e f ( x)
f '(x)
ln ⁡( f ( x ))
f (x)

−1
f '(x)
sin f (x )
√1− ( f ( x ) ) 2

'
−1
−f ( x )
cos f ( x)
√1− ( f ( x ) ) 2

−1
f'(x)
tan f (x) 2
1+ ( f ( x ) )
 '
−1
f (x )
sec f ( x)
√ 2
f ( x ) ( f ( x ) ) −1

Constant d
( c )=0
Rule dx
Constant d du
Multiple ( cu )=c
dx dx
Rule
d du dv
Sum Rule ( u+v ) = +
dx dx dx

Product d du dv
( uv )=v + u
Rule dx dx dx
du dv
v −u
Quotient d u dx dx
Rule dx v()
=
v2

Chain d
Rule / dx
( f ( g ( x ) ) ) =f ' ( g ( x ) )∙ g ' ( x)
Composite
f
d dy
g ( y ) =g' ( y )∙
Implicit dx dx
Differentiati
on dy −f x
= , where f x denotes f ' w . r . t x
dx f y
' 1 1
Inverse ( f −1) ( a ) = = , at (a , b)
Functions
−1
f ' ( f ( a )) f ' (b)
'
dy dy dt g ( t )
= ∙ = '
dx dt dx f ( x )

Parametric '
d g (t)
( ' )
d y d dy dt dt f ( t )
2

dx
2
= ( )
∙ =
dt dx dx f ' (t )

Differentiat d g g( ' f'

f =f g ∙ ln f ) + ∙ g ¿
e powers dx f
Trigonometry Identities
sin P−Q
tan P−tan Q=
(cos P)( cos Q)
sin(u ± v )=sin u ∙ cos v ± cos u ∙sin v
cos( u± v)=cos u ∙cos v ∓ sinu ∙ sin v
tan u ± tan v
tan (u± v)=
1 ∓tan u ∙ tan v
−1 −1 −1 u+ v
tan u+ tan v=tan
1−uv

sin 2 θ+cos 2 θ=1

sec 2 θ−1=tan 2 θ
csc 2 θ−1=cot 2 θ
1
sin A cos A= sin 2 A
2
2 1
cos A= (1+cos 2 A )
2
1
sin 2 A= ( 1−cos 2 A )
2
1
sin A ∙cos B= [sin ( A + B ) +sin ( A−B ) ]
2
1
cos A ∙ sin B= [sin ( A + B )−sin ( A−B ) ]
2
1
cos A ∙ cos B= [cos ( A+ B )+ cos ( A−B ) ]
2
−1
sin A ∙sin B= [ cos( A +B)−cos( A−B)]
2
Chapter 3: Applications of Derivatives I
Equation of straight line: y− y 0 =m ( x−x 0 )

−1
Equation of tangent line: y− y 0 = ( x−x 0 )
m

Distance of 2 points: √ 2
D= ( x−x 0 ) + ( y − y 0 )
2

dy dy dt
Parametric Equations: = ×
dx dt dx

Propertie Test
s
Increasin f↑ on [a ,b ] if
g
dy
>0 ∀ x ∈(a , b)
dx
Decreasi f ↓ on [a ,b ] if
ng
dy
<0 ∀ x ∈(a , b)
dx
1-1 If f always increasing or always
decreasing
Concave f (a , b)
concave upwards on
Upwards
d2 y
if > 0 ∀ x ∈(a , b)
d x2
Concave f concave downwards on
Downwar
ds (a , b)

d2 y
if < 0 ∀ x ∈(a , b)
d x2
Inflexion Point a is point of inflexion if
point
concavity changes at x=a
 Taylor series of f at x=c
'' n
f (c ) f (c )
f ( x )=¿ '
f ( c ) + f ( x )( x−c )+ ( x−c )2 +…+ ( x−c )n +…
2! n!

f ' ' (0 ) f n(0 ) n

Maclaurin Series (special case of Taylor series when c=0 ¿ f ( x )=f ( 0 ) +f ' ( 0 ) ∙ x + ∙ x +…+ ∙ x +…
2! n!

th n
Coefficient of n−1 or x term
n
f ( 0) n
Cn −1 = ∙x
n!

Approximation using Taylor Polynomials

f ' ' (c ) 2 f n( c)
'
f ( x )=f ( c )+ f ( x ) ( x−c ) + ( x−c ) +…+ ( x −c )n
2! n!

Stop at n

L’Hopital’s Rule
'
0 ∞ f (x) f (x)
IF ∨ , lim =lim '
0 ∞ x→ c g ( x ) x → c g ( x )

Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives II

Abs MAX Abs max at x=c if

f ( x ) ≤ f ( c) ∀ x ∈ D f
Abs MIN Abs min at x=c if

f ( x ) ≥ f ( c) ∀ x ∈ D f
Local x=c f ( x ) ≤ f ( c) ∀ x
Local max at if
MAX
in some Df
Local x=c f ( x ) ≥ f ( c) ∀ x
Local min at if
MIN
 in some Df
Critical Not an end-point
Point
ii) Either f ' ( c )=0
i∩(ii ∪ iii)
iii) Or f ' ( c ) dne ↔¿ ≠ ¿ tangent

First Derivative Test for Local Extrema

If f' changes from +ve to -ve at x=c , then f has local max at c

If f' changes from -ve to +ve at x=c , then f has local min at c If f' doesn’t change at x=c , then f has no local extremum at c

First Derivative Test for Absolute Extrema

' '
If f ( x )> 0 ∀ x <c AND f ( x )< 0 ∀ x >c , then f has Abs MAX
' '
If f ( x )< 0 ∀ x <c AND f ( x )> 0 ∀ x >c , then f has Abs MIN

Second Derivative Test

If f ' ( c )=0 AND f ' ' ( c )< 0 , then f has local max at c

If f ' ( c )=0 AND f ' ' ( c )> 0 , then f has local min at c

Nothing conclusive if f ' ' ( c )=0

Rolle’s Theorem (to test for ≤ n roots)

Let f be cont. at [a ,b ] and diff on (a , b) .

If f ( a )=f ( b ) , then ∃c ∈ ( a , b ) such that f ' ( c )=0

Template for at most 2 roots (if exactly one, use 1)

Let f ( x )=…=0, f is diff on Df

Assume f has ≥3 roots, where a , b , c are 3 such roots, a<b <c

Then f ( a )=f ( b )=f ( c ) =0

RT ∃m ∈ ( a , b ) s .t . f ' ( m )=0 & ∃n ∈ ( b , c ) s .t . f ' ( n )=0

/* Compute f' here */

Since f' is diff on Df '

RT ∃q ∈ ( m, n ) s .t . f ' ' ( q )=0

/* Compute f '' here */

/* f ' ' ( q )=…=0 */

/* Carry on proof */
∴ equation f ( x )=0 has at most 2 real roots

If at most 1 root, then use calculate to f' would do

Mean Value Theorem

Let f be cont. at [a ,b ] and diff on (a , b) .

' f ( b )−f ( a )
∃c ∈(a , b) such that f ( c )=
b−a

f ( b )−f ( a )
Force everything into the form and differentiate f
b−a

Template
Use the given
Let f ( t )=¿∗something∗¿ domain of
c
f is cont on [a ,b ] and diff on (a , b)

f ( b )−f ( a )
MVT f ' ( c )= , for some c ∈(a ,b)
b−a
¿∗Carry on proof here∗¿

The ‘Deduce’ Part

Whatever is
Start with a< c< b given

Play with c until you get the expression to sub

Points on Graph

Finding Critical Points

'
+¿ (x )
(I) f' dne, i.e. −¿ ' ( x ) ≠ f ¿
f¿

(II) f ' ( x )=0

Finding extremum

1) Calculate end points, regardless of inclusive or not

2) Calculate critical points
3) Proof only one local extremum abs extremum
4) Draw timeline for examiner to see

L’Hopital Rule Revisited

e 2 x +2 e 3 x + 1
4
¿
3
ln (¿¿) 3
x
lim ¿
(
¿ exp lim
1
∙… )
Apply L’Hopital’s
Rule
¿
3
e2 x +2 e 3 x +1 x
lim ( 4 ) =exp ¿
Chapter 0: Precalculus
0.1: Solving Inequalities
4 1
≥ 1+
x +1 2 x−1

0: Determine x≠ what
1: Bring all terms to one side
2: Bring all denominator terms up
3: Simplify numerator
4: Determine critical points for ALL x terms

0.2: Maximal Domain

1 2 3
f ( x )= + +
√ 4 x −9 √ x −2 √ 6−x +9
2

0: f ( x)∈ R ⇔ *List all domains of x *

1: Find ALL possible domains of x in the function

2: Draw number line and group common intersections
3: ( ,) ∪ [ ,] …

0.3: Maximal Domain (Trigo)

0: Find vertical asymptotes of tan ❑

1: Find range of values that satisfies inequality
2: ( , ) \ { all the non-inclusive } OR ( , ) ∪[,]∪ …

0.4: Curve Sketching

Refer to Table in pg1.

Chapter 1: Limits & Continuity

1.1/1.2: Finding unknowns given limits exists or f cont.

f ( x )= lim ¿
x →c+¿ f (x)
x → c−¿ ¿ 0: Equate both sides of the equation
lim f ( x ) ∃⇔ lim ¿
x→ c ¿

1: Find unknown constants

1.3/1.4: Evaluate Limits (at infinity)
3
x → 0+¿ tan √ x
Evaluate : lim ¿
¿

0: Check if f is valid at limit

1: Sub in c into f

1.5.1: Evaluate limits in indeterminate forms

2
x −7 x+ 6
lim 2
x→ 6 36−x

0: Check if f is in indeterminate form, i.e. 0/ 0∨∞/∞

1: Eliminate denominator of 0 value (may need some algebraic equations to eliminate those terms)
2: Evaluate the limit

1.5.2: Limits with linear sums of powers of x (normally to ∞ )

( 1+ 2 x )3
lim
x →−∞ √16 x 6 +9 x−1
0: Keep highest powers of x and its sign

1: √ x =± x
2
, the sign depends on the limit

2: Cancel the powers to see if it’s (± ∞), 0 or a constant

|x−4|−|x 2−8|
x → 0−¿
1.5.3/1.5.4: Limits with | x∨¿ in f 3−x
lim ¿
¿

0: Depending on the limit, choose the correct term: |x|=± x

1: Sub in the values to evaluate the limit

1.5.5/1.5.6: Limits with Trigo

x tan2 x
x → 0+¿
sin 3 x2
lim ¿
¿
 θ
¿
θ
¿
0: Make use of
g¿
g¿
lim sin g(θ)
θ →c
=lim ¿
g (θ) θ→c

0: If in cot❑ , csc❑, sec ❑, convert to sin❑ , cos❑ , tan❑

1: Eliminate 0 terms in denominator in any
2: Sub in the values to evaluate the limit

1.6.1: Squeeze Theorem

Given that 3−x 2 ≤ f ( x ) ≤ 1+2 e x ∀ x . Find lim
x→ 0
f (x )

0: Establish an inequality where one always greater than the other

1: Let first term be g( x) , second term be h( x )
2: Evaluate the limit for both functions
3: If they are the same, limit of f is the same

1.6.2: Squeeze Theorem with Trigonometry

2
lim x cos
x→ 0 x

0: Show f is g ( x ) cos h( x)∨g ( x ) sin h ( x)

lim g ( x )=0
1: Show that x→ c

2: Use Squeeze Theorem to show that f =0

1.7: Intermediate Value Theorem

Show that 10=x +2 tan 2 x has a root between 3∧4

0: ALWAYS check continuity, if not continuous, restrict domain

1: Let F ( x )=0

2: Apply IVT to F on [,]

3: Show signs are different at end points
4: Since f is cont. on [,] & f ( x ) f ( y )< 0 ,

IVT  root lies between x and y

Chapter 2: Derivatives
2.1: Differentiate by definition

'
f ( x 0+ h )−f ( x 0 )
f ( x 0 )=lim
h →0 h

2.2: Differentiability
0: Check continuity (if not continuous, not differentiable)
1: Differentiate the given piece wise functions (ALL domains non-inclusive)
2: Check left/right derivative

2.2: Differentiation
Refer to table in pg1

2.3.1: Implicit Differentiation

Two methods, refer to pg1

2.3.2: Derivatives of inverse functions

Refer to table in pg1

2.4: Higher-order derivatives

Just keep differentiating

2.5: Parametric Equations

2 2
x=2 t−t , y=t−t

dx
∧dy
0: Get dt
dt
dy dy dt
1: Find = ∙
dx dt dx

2a: Equation of straight line: ( y− y 0 ) =m( x−x 0 )

−1
2b. Equation of normal: ( y− y 0 ) = m ( x−x 0)

g( x )
2.6.1: Differentiating functions of the form ( f ( x ))
 ( 2 x + tan3 x )4 ln x

Refer to table in pg1

0: y=( 2 x+ tan 3 x )4 ln x

1: ln ❑ both sides and differentiate implicitly

2.6.2: Change of base formulae

log ( x+1 ) √ 1+ 2 x
5

0: Change log ❑ ¿ ln ❑
1: Differentiate from there