Metals and Materials International (2025) 31:325–338

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12540-024-01766-x

Unveiling the Characteristics of ER70S-6 low Carbon Steel Alloy

Produced by wire arc Additive Manufacturing at Different Travel
Speeds
Mohammed Dekis1 · Mahmoud Tawfik1 · Mohamed Egiza1,2 · Montasser Dewidar1,3

Received: 24 December 2023 / Accepted: 15 July 2024 / Published online: 12 August 2024
© The Author(s) 2024

Abstract
Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) produces metal components with crucial properties dependent on process
parameters. Understanding the effects of these parameters on microstructure and mechanical properties is vital for opti-
mizing WAAM. This study investigated the impact of varying travel speeds (TS) on the microstructure and mechani-
cal properties of low carbon steel ER70S-6 alloy produced by WAAM process. The hypothesis centred on the impact
of different TS values on heat input (HI) and cooling rates, and the subsequent effects on the resulting microstructure
and mechanical properties of the deposited material. ER70S-6 alloy was deposited at three different TS: 120, 150, and
180 mm/min. Microstructure and mechanical properties (microhardness, tensile strength, elongation) were evaluated for
each TS condition. Distinct microstructures were observed in the deposited samples, influenced by cooling rates at differ-
ent TS. Distinct microstructures emerged in different regions of the deposits due to varying cooling rates at different TS.
Higher TS (180 mm/min) significantly reduced pores and cracks while enhancing yield strength (YS) and ultimate tensile
strength (UTS) up to 25.2 ± 0.77% elongation and 502.3 ± 3.17 MPa UTS, respectively. However, UTS remained slightly
lower (93%) than the catalogued value for ER70S-6 (540 MPa), indicating a mild softening effect. TS significantly influ-
enced the microstructure and mechanical properties of WAAM-produced ER70S-6 alloy. This study provides key insights
into optimizing WAAM parameters for low carbon steel, paving the way for improved component production for diverse
industrial applications.

Keywords Low carbon steel alloy · Mechanical properties · Microstructure · Travel speed (TS) · Wire arc additive
manufacturing (WAAM)

1 Introduction by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)

as the layer-by-layer construction of 3D objects from digital
Additive manufacturing (AM) has revolutionized the man- data, AM stands in stark contrast to traditional subtractive
ufacturing paradigm by enabling the production of large- methods [2].
scale components with rapid deposition rates [1]. Defined Metal AM technologies, categorized by ASTM standards
into powder bed fusion, sheet lamination, binder jetting, and
directed energy deposition (DED) [3], offer diverse capabil-
ities. DED methods employ a heat source (laser [4], electron
Mohammed Dekis beam [5], or plasma arc [6]) to melt and deposit powdered
[email protected]
or wire feedstock onto a surface using a nozzle. “Wire and
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of arc additive manufacturing” (WAAM) is a specific DED
Engineering, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafrelsheikh technique that utilizes wire as feedstock and an electric arc
33516, Egypt as the energy source [7, 8]. Various arc welding processes,
2
School of Engineering, Robert Gordon University, Garthdee including gas metal arc welding (GMAW) [9], gas tungsten
Road, Aberdeen AB10 7GJ, UK arc welding (GTAW) [10], and plasma arc welding (PAW)
3
Samannoud Technological University, Samannoud, Gharbia, [11], can be employed in WAAM.
Egypt

13
326 Metals and Materials International (2025) 31:325–338

Compared to other metallic AM methods, WAAM boasts structural applications, limitations remain. Several studies,
several advantages: higher deposition rates (3–8 kg/h vs. for example, demonstrate acceptable mechanical properties
0.1–0.6 kg/h for powder-based systems) [7], lower capital with minimal anisotropy using GMAW [28–30]. However,
costs, and greater flexibility in material compositions. Nota- this technique often limits the ability to precisely control
bly, WAAM leverages commercially available components HI and tailor microstructure. Others delve into the impact
like robot arms, welding power sources, and wire feeders, of deposition strategies and orientations, revealing the sig-
minimizing initial investment and making it accessible for nificant influence of thermal cycles on both microstructure
both large-scale production and small workshops [9]. Addi- and properties [31, 32]. Interestingly, studies exploring
tionally, the affordability, accessibility, and safety of metal torch movement control [33, 34] demonstrate a notable
wires compared to powders render them a preferred choice improvement in ultimate tensile strength (UTS) compared
[12]. to alternative fabrication methods. Similarly, research
Despite its benefits, WAAM faces challenges such as focusing on GTAW highlights its potential for producing
porosity, distortion, residual stresses, and cracking, with defect-free components while emphasizing the presence of
waviness a significant concern for steels [13–15]. However, microstructural and property variations due to layer stack-
GTAW stands out for its precise parameter control, enabling ing effects [35]. Finally, the significant influence of various
the construction of complex structures, consistent bead process parameters on both microstructure and mechanical
deposition, and minimal distortion. Notably, its lower heat properties is underscored by studies investigating TS, volt-
input (HI) is ideal for materials susceptible to warping [16]. age, intensity, and pulse frequency [36–38]. These findings
GTAW also excels in producing high-quality, clean welds suggest considerable potential for further optimization and
with minimal spatter, slag, or fumes – crucial attributes in tailored performance in WAAM-produced ER70S-6 steel
AM, where weld quality directly impacts the final compo- components.
nent’s properties. Furthermore, its compatibility with diverse Table 1 summarizes the reviewed studies, comparing
materials like steel, titanium, aluminium, and nickel-based their wire material, welding technique, and investigated
alloys [17–19] expands its versatility in AM applications. characteristics. It reveals a dominance of GMAW among
Finally, GTAW’s narrow heat-affected zone reduces heat- the studies analyzed, with only a few employing GTAW for
related issues and fosters strong bonding between deposited evaluating mechanical properties. Notably, most existing
material and the substrate [20]. research haven’t comprehensively investigated the influ-
Travel speed (TS) plays a crucial role in determining the ence of TS on mechanical properties across different levels
quality of deposited material in WAAM. Optimizing TS of analysis. Despite these valuable contributions, a compre-
allows manufacturers to achieve desired mechanical proper- hensive understanding of how TS affects ER70S-6 steel in
ties and surface finish while minimizing defects like poros- WAAM remains elusive. This study addresses this critical
ity and distortion. Different materials require varying TS for gap by systematically investigating the impact of varying TS
optimal fusion, and research in this area helps set optimal on the microstructure, microhardness, and tensile properties
parameters for diverse materials used in WAAM [1, 21]. of WAAM-deposited components. By employing GTAW
Maximizing TS can lead to cost savings by reducing manu- for its precise control and minimal HI, this research offers
facturing time and expenses, but effective heat management a unique perspective and aims to significantly advance the
is crucial to prevent deformation and cracking. Ultimately, understanding and optimization of WAAM for high-perfor-
the optimal TS ensures process stability and influences the mance ER70S-6 steel components.
mechanical properties of the final part to meet application
requirements [22]. ● Investigates and quantifies the understudied impact of
While extensive research has investigated WAAM-built varying TS on microhardness and key tensile proper-
metals, a significant knowledge gap exists regarding the ties like yield strength, UTS, and elongation. This data
specific impact of TS on the microstructure and mechanical directly informs the suitability of WAAM-produced
properties of ER70S-6 low carbon steel, a widely used alloy. ER70S-6 low carbon steel components for specific in-
Several studies have explored material properties, hardness, dustrial applications.
tensile characteristics, and microstructure in WAAM and ● Employs GTAW, known for its precise parameter con-
GTAW-based additive manufacturing [23–26]. However, trol and minimal HI, offering a unique perspective com-
these studies primarily focused on deposition techniques, pared to dominant GMAW-based studies.
printing parameters, feasibility studies, or other materials ● Analyzes the resulting microstructure across different
[27]. levels of magnification, providing a comprehensive un-
More specifically, existing research on WAAM-built derstanding of how TS affects grain morphology, phase
ER70S-6 steel offers valuable insights into its potential for distribution, and potential defect formation.

13
Metals and Materials International (2025) 31:325–338 327

Table 1 A summary of recent literature works on waam 2 Experimental Methods

Reference Wire Year Welding Characteristics
Material Technique investigated
[28] ER70S-6 2019 GMAW Utilizing Surface
2.1 Materials
Tension Transfer
(STT) waveform The WAAM process utilized ER70S-6 steel wire with a
control technology 0.8 mm diameter as the deposited material. An AISI 1018
for the inaugural
carbon steel plate measuring 50 mm x 250 mm x 50 mm
time.
[29] ER70S-6 2019 GMAW Employing 3D
(thickness, length, width) served as the substrate. Table 2
X-ray computed summarizes the chemical compositions of both the wire and
tomography to the substrate.
identify internal
defects arising dur-
ing the production
2.2 WAAM Process
process.
[31] ER70S-6 2020 GMAW Using two different A layer-by-layer deposition technique was used to inves-
deposition strate- tigate the effects of TS on ER70S-6 characteristics. Water
gies, oscillatory and compressed air circulation facilitated cooling between
and overlapping.
layers (Fig. 1). A GTAW device with a 350 A power supply
[30] ER70S-6 2021 GMAW Exploring mate-
rial anisotropy in (INV AC-DC PULSE TIG 350 A, IŞIK KAYNAK) served
WAAM plates by as the heat source and was mounted on a three-axis CNC
cutting coupon milling machine (Vcenter-102E) for the WAAM process.
specimens in vari-
Prior to deposition, the substrate plate was meticulously
ous directions rela-
tive to the printing cleaned with acetone to remove any contaminants. Exten-
orientation. sive experimentation established practical operational lim-
[33] ER70S-6 2021 GMAW Applying different its for the GTAW parameters, summarized in Table 3. The
torch movements. investigation focused on three different TS values while
[32] ER70S-6 2022 GMAW Printing with dif-
maintaining other parameters constant.
ferent print layer
orientations, nomi-
nal thicknesses, 2.3 Testing Method
and deposition
strategies.
Sample preparation for testing involved initial sectioning,
[39] ER70S-6 2022 GMAW Using two different
welding technique.
as depicted in Fig. 2 (a) Subsequently, a meticulous polish-
CMT
ing process was carried out using abrasive sandpaper with
[35] ER70S-6 2022 GTAW Effect of building
direction of GTAW varying grits, specifically 400, 800, 1200, 2500, and 4000.
[36] ER70S-6 2023 CMT Changing feed rate The polished samples were then subjected to comprehen-
and HI. sive assessments for microstructure and microhardness. The
[37] ER70S-6 2023 GMAW Studying surveys, resultant phases were characterized through X-ray diffrac-
the influences of tion (XRD) analysis, which was executed using an X-ray
TS, voltage, and
intensity diffractometer (SHIMADZU 6000, Shimadzu Corporation,
[38] ER70S-6 2024 GMAW Changing pulse Japan). With working conditions as illustrated in Table 4.
frequency For microstructure analysis, the samples underwent etch-
[34] ER70S-6 2024 GMAW Rotating the arc. ing with a 5% Nital solution (comprising 5 ml HNO3 and
Previous research has demonstrated that WAAM-produced compo- 100 ml ethanol) and were subsequently examined using an
nents can possess mechanical characteristics suitable for industrial
optical microscope and a 3D Laser Confocal Microscope
applications. However, there is a notable lack of research investigat-
ing the impact of varying TS on the mechanical behavior of ER70S-6 (OLS5100, LEXT, Japan). The microstructure, with a focus
low carbon steel alloy in the WAAM process. This knowledge gap on fractured surfaces following tensile testing, was meticu-
motivates this study, which aims to bridge this gap by investigating lously inspected utilizing a field emission scanning electron
the effect of different TS on the microstructure, microhardness, and
microscope (FE-SEM) (Quattro S, Thermo Fisher Scientific
tensile properties of WAAM-deposited components. By doing so,
this research aims to contribute to a deeper understanding and opti- Inc., USA). Microhardness assessments were conducted
mization of this promising additive manufacturing method. Major with a Vickers microhardness testing machine (HM-210 A
contributions of this study: series, Mitutoyo Corporation, Japan) utilizing a 15-second
dwell time and a 500-gram load.

13
328 Metals and Materials International (2025) 31:325–338

Table 2 Chemical composition of subtract and feedstock steel wire (in wt%)
Elements C Mn Si P S Cu Fe
Subtract (AISI 1018) 0.17 0.5 0.22 0.02 0.03 - Bal.
Feedstock (ER70S-6) 0.15 1.4 0.80 0.15 0.03 0.02 Bal.

Table 4 XRD working condition

Parameter Value
Voltage 40.0 (kV)
Current 30.0 (mA)
Scan range 5–80 (deg)
Scan mode Continuous Scan
Scan speed 8 (deg/min)
Sampling pitch 0.0200 (deg)
Preset time 0.15 (sec)

228/2002 standards utilizing a universal testing machine

(LLOYD, LR300K, Ametek Inc., United Kingdom) at room
temperature, maintaining a consistent strain rate of 5 mm/
min.
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing
(WAAM) setup

Table 3 WAAM deposition parameters

3 Results and Discussion
Parameter Value
Type of welding current DC 3.1 Microstructure Analysis
Wire feed speed (WFS) 5.5 m/min
Traveling speeds (TS) 120, 150, 180 mm/min WAAM involves sequential deposition of multiple layers,
Purity of argon shield gas 99.99% creating a complex interplay between HI, interpass tem-
Flow rate of shield gas 12 L/min perature, thermal cycles, and cooling rates [40, 41]. These
Current density 300 A factors significantly influence the resulting microstructure
Diameter of tungsten electrode 2.4 mm throughout the component. This study observed variations
in the microstructure compared to Ghaffari et al. [40], who
Tensile test specimens, as illustrated in Fig. 2 (b), were identified distinct zones within WAAM-deposited ER70S-
meticulously cut from the primary sample employing a 6. The focus here was on understanding how these process
wire-cut electric discharge machine (EDM) (FR400, Kun- parameters influence the morphology and phases across the
shan Ruijun Machinery Co., Ltd., China). The tensile test- entire component, rather than specific zones.
ing procedure was carried out in compliance with GB/T

Fig. 2 (a) the positions of tensile specimens, microstruc-

ture samples, X-ray diffraction (XRD) samples, and
microhardness test specimens, and (b) the dimensions of
the tensile test specimens

13
Metals and Materials International (2025) 31:325–338 329

The microstructure of the deposited material is intri- solidification by managing heat accumulation, fostering a
cately linked to the cooling rates experienced during depo- consistent thermal environment for subsequent layers and
sition. These rates are governed by HI per unit length, the contributing to a more uniform microstructure throughout
geometry of the deposited bead, and the characteristics of most of the component.
the interfaces formed between them. In WAAM-processed
ER70S-6, the primary phases observed are pearlite and fer- 3.1.2 Top Layer’s Microstructure
rite, but the composition also includes acicular ferrite (AF),
bainite (B), allotriomorphic ferrite (ALF), Widmanstätten The top layer experiences a distinct thermal cycle due to its
ferrite (WF), and transformed martensite [40, 42]. position, leading to some microstructural variations com-
pared to the mid-layers. This difference is further reflected
3.1.1 Uniformity Challenges and Thermal Management in the observed increase in the final layer height compared
to preceding layers, stemming from WAAM’s inherent
Achieving microstructural uniformity throughout the build remelting behaviour. The concentrated heat source partially
in WAAM remains a challenge [43]. Each layer experiences melts previously deposited material, incorporating it into
unique thermal cycles due to HI and preheating from prior the subsequent layer and effectively increasing its height.
layers, traditionally leading to microstructural variations This highlights the importance of precise HI and TS con-
along the building direction, potentially impacting mechan- trol for achieving desired dimensional accuracy in WAAM
ical properties. However, analysis revealed a remark- components.
able degree of uniformity in the mid-layers. This success The top layers across all samples displayed a unique
can be attributed to meticulous planning of the deposition combination of microstructural features, including fine WF,
sequence, which partially homogenizes the thermal his- scattered ALF, and a mixture of AF and bainite (B) as illus-
tory of each layer, mitigating drastic cooling rate variations trated in Fig. 3. This distinct fingerprint can be attributed to
that could lead to significant microstructural differences. the unique thermal history experienced by these top layers.
Optimizing the interlayer dwell period ensures proper Unlike lower layers, the top layer undergoes fewer heating
Fig. 3 Microstructure analysis
of the top-layer region for the
deposited samples at various
magnifications

13
330 Metals and Materials International (2025) 31:325–338

Fig. 4 Microstructure analysis

of the Mid-layer region for the
deposited samples at different
magnifications

Fig. 1 FE-SEM images: (a) top

region of 120 mm/min sample
and (b) mid region of 150 mm/
min sample.

cycles during the deposition process, resulting in a faster sample printed at a higher TS (180 mm/min) exhibited a
overall cooling rate, which promotes the formation of finer significantly finer WF structure compared to the coarser WF
microstructures. This observation aligns with established observed in the sample printed at a lower TS (120 mm/min).
knowledge in metal additive manufacturing, where faster This disparity can be directly linked to HI. Higher TS values
cooling rates favor the development of finer and more dis- correspond to lower HI due to the faster movement of the
persed microconstituents. The presence of finer WF in these heat source. This promotes faster cooling rates in the top
top layers (Fig. 5 (a)) likely contributes to increased hard- layer, and established principles in metallurgy dictate that
ness. This finding highlights the crucial interplay between faster cooling rates favour the formation of finer microstruc-
microstructure and cooling rate, which tailor the mechanical tures [44].
properties in WAAM components.
An apparent relationship was observed between TS and
the microstructure of the top layers across the samples. The

13
Metals and Materials International (2025) 31:325–338 331

3.1.3 Mid-layer Microstructure Quantitatively, using ImageJ, the average pore area at
120 mm/min was 2.1835%, whereas at 180 mm/min, it was
The mid-region of the deposited material presented a dis- significantly reduced to 0.7375%, representing a 66.22%
tinct microstructural signature, as revealed by both the 3D decrease. This observed pore reduction at higher TS aligns
laser confocal microscope (Fig. 4) and FE-SEM (Fig. 5 (b)). with established findings. For instance, H M et al. [47]
This region displayed a combination of AF and polygonal reported a 23% decrease in pore volume in WAAM-depos-
ferrite (PF), with a limited presence of pearlite along the pri- ited stainless steel with increased TS, attributed to faster
mary ferrite grain boundaries. This microstructure is typical cooling and reduced hydrogen solubility. Similarly, Wang et
of low-carbon steel, with a reduced percentage of pearlite, al. [48] observed a significant reduction in porosity in addi-
align to observations after arc welding [45]. The transfor- tively manufactured Ti-6Al-4 V components with higher
mation from PF to AF in the mid-region can be attributed TS due to rapid solidification and limited pore growth.
to the thermal cycle experienced by this zone. Initial depo- This reduction in porosity directly translates to improved
sition involves rapid water-induced cooling, followed by mechanical properties of the deposited ER70S-6 steel.
reheating due to subsequent layer deposition, refining the
microstructure and promoting the formation of AF over the 3.1.5 Grain size
coarser PF. This microstructure, characterized by reduced
pearlite content, is a hallmark of low-carbon steel processed The average grain size exhibited a progressive decrease
using WAAM [44]. with increasing TS. The 120 mm/min sample displayed the
Furthermore, TS plays a significant role in shaping the coarsest grains, with an average size of 19.91 ± 1.06 μm.
microstructure of the mid-region. Increased TS promotes Conversely, samples fabricated at 150 mm/min and 180 mm/
the formation of AF and decreases the pearlite content. min demonstrated progressively finer grains, averaging
This can be explained by two key factors. Firstly, WAAM’s 13.06 ± 0.57 μm and 11.34 ± 1.59 μm, respectively. Grain
inherent rapid solidification nature favors the formation of size is a well-established determinant of mechanical proper-
AF. Secondly, the minimal carbon content variations within ties in metallic materials. The observed grain coarsening in
the material limit the formation of pearlite. However, it’s the lower TS samples (120 mm/min) can potentially lead
important to acknowledge that heat accumulation in spe- to a reduction in mechanical properties like hardness and
cific regions due to non-uniform heat distribution can lead ultimate tensile strength (UTS). This can be explained by
to slower cooling rates and microstructural inhomogene- the concept of dislocation movement, where coarser grains
ity within the mid-region. This underscores the importance allow for greater dislocation movement, reducing the mate-
of optimizing process parameters to achieve consistent rial’s ability to resist plastic deformation.
and predictable microstructures throughout the WAAM Conversely, the finer grains observed at higher TS (150
component. and 180 mm/min) present a distinct advantage. The pres-
ence of more grain boundaries in a finer-grained microstruc-
3.1.4 Pore Formation and Travel Speed Influence ture creates numerous obstacles for dislocation movement,
hindering their ability to propagate and cause plastic defor-
WAAM-deposited samples of ER70S-6 alloy contain pores, mation. This enhanced resistance to dislocation movement
primarily influenced by hydrogen from the filler wire and translates to a potential increase in hardness and UTS for
surrounding atmosphere. These defects are detrimental to the WAAM-deposited ER70S-6 components fabricated at
mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, and fatigue higher TS.
strength [46]. Established literature highlights factors like Moreover, the findings confirm that higher HI, particu-
repeated thermal cycles, improper parameter selection, and larly at lower TS, significantly coarsens the grain structure,
turbulent welding conditions as contributors to pore forma- aligning with previous studies [49–51]. This coarsening
tion. A higher incidence of pores is present at a lower TS of arises from slower cooling rates associated with higher HI,
120 mm/min compared to 180 mm/min, directly correlating providing more time for grain growth [52]. Consequently,
with HI variation based on Eq. 1 [43]. Higher HI, associated coarser grains generally translate to lower yield strength
with lower TS, leads to slower cooling rates and increased and reduced ductility. This underlines the importance of
hydrogen diffusion, facilitating pore nucleation and growth. carefully balancing HI and TS to achieve the desired micro-
structure and mechanical properties in WAAM-processed
V× I ER70S-6 steel. Importantly, this phenomenon consistently
HI = × η × 0.06 (1)
TS manifests across both the middle and upper layers of the
welds, regardless of location. Furthermore, increased HI

13
332 Metals and Materials International (2025) 31:325–338

optimizing welding parameters to achieve desired material

properties and quality. For instance, the rapid cooling expe-
rienced by the inter-layer region due to water flow translates
to a finer grain structure, potentially influencing mechanical
properties like strength and ductility.

3.1.7 Quantification of Pearlite Volume Fraction vs. Travel

Speed

Pearlite, a crucial microstructural constituent in low-carbon

steel, significantly influences its mechanical properties.
Image analysis using ImageJ software quantified the vol-
Fig. 6 Optical observation of inner-layer and inter-layer
ume fraction of pearlite, particularly within the mid-region
of the samples (represented by the red phase in Fig. 7).
promotes the formation of AF grains within the matrix of The interplay between the low carbon content (0.06–0.15
larger columnar grains. wt%) of the ER70S-6 steel feedstock and pearlite formation
was considered. Due to the limited carbon availability, the
3.1.6 Inter-layer and inner-layer Grain Structures overall volume fraction of pearlite remained relatively low
across all samples, ranging from 7.37 to 12.68%. Notable
Figure 6 reveals two distinct regions within each deposited differences were observed: the 120 mm/min sample exhib-
layer: the inner-layer and inter-layer regions. This differen- ited the highest pearlite volume fraction (12.68%), followed
tiation arises from the interplay between the cooling rate by the 150 mm/min sample (9.92%), and the 180 mm/min
and prevailing temperature gradients near the welding pool. sample (7.37%). These quantified values provide valuable
Notably, the inter-layer region consistently exhibits a finer insights into the influence of TS on pearlite formation.
grain structure compared to the coarser grains within the The trend of increasing pearlite volume fraction with
inner-layer region. decreasing TS can be attributed to the effect of TS on HI.
This phenomenon is primarily driven by the inherent Lower TS results in higher HI during deposition, leading to
inverse relationship between HI and TS across different lay- slower cooling rates within the mid-region of the compo-
ers. Additionally, the top surface of each layer experiences nent. These slower cooling rates facilitate more extensive
direct exposure to the water flow between deposition paths, diffusion of carbon atoms, promoting the formation and
inducing rapid cooling and solidification of the molten growth of pearlite. Additionally, slower cooling can induce
metal. This rapid cooling promotes the formation of a finer microstructural coarsening, characterized by an increase
grain structure in the inter-layer region. Conversely, the in grain size and the overall interfacial area available for
inner-layer region experiences slower cooling and solidifi- pearlite nucleation and growth. This relationship between
cation due to higher HI and lower TS, resulting in a coarser TS, HI, cooling rates, and microstructure underscores the
grain structure compared to the inter-layer region. The dis- importance of precise parameter control in optimizing the
tinct grain structures observed within each layer highlight mechanical properties of WAAM-fabricated components.
the intricate interplay between thermal parameters, cooling The variation in pearlite content across different TS con-
rates, and microstructural development in WAAM. This ditions can potentially influence the mechanical proper-
understanding of microstructural variations is crucial for ties of the WAAM components. Pearlite, with its lamellar
Fig. 7 Image analysis using ImageJ software quantifying
the pearlite volume fraction (shown in red) in the mid-
region of the samples deposited at (a) 120 mm/min and
(b) 180 mm/min

13
Metals and Materials International (2025) 31:325–338 333

structure of ferrite and cementite (iron carbide), generally were present, its volume fraction could have been below
exhibits higher hardness and strength compared to ferrite. the detection limit of XRD. This underscores the necessity
Therefore, a lower pearlite volume fraction, as observed at of employing supplementary characterization techniques to
higher TS (180 mm/min), might suggest a slight decrease in comprehensively evaluate phase composition, particularly
hardness and strength. However, the presence of finer AF for phases potentially existing in low concentrations.
grains, potentially more prevalent at higher TS, can coun- The absence of austenite indicates a predominantly fer-
teract this decrease in hardness to some extent. ritic microstructure in the WAAM-deposited ER70S-6 sam-
ples, consistent with findings from prior research on similar
3.1.8 XRD Analysis materials. The rapid cooling conditions, influenced by lower
HI at higher TS values, likely impeded the transformation
XRD served as a pivotal tool in uncovering the crystal- of austenite into ferrite and cementite, essential constituents
line structure of WAAM-deposited ER70S-6 samples. This for pearlite formation.
comprehensive analysis revealed a consistent dominance of This pivotal insight from XRD analysis is essential for
the α-iron (BCC, ferrite) phase across all tested samples, optimizing WAAM process parameters to tailor mechanical
regardless of the TS used during fabrication. Figure 8 visu- properties effectively. Understanding the intricate interplay
ally substantiated this observation by displaying prominent between cooling rates, absence of austenite, and subse-
α-iron peaks at 2θ angles approximately 44.5° and 64.8°, quent microstructural development, particularly concerning
closely matching the reference pattern for α-iron (JCPDS pearlite formation, provides critical insights into enhanc-
98-000-9982). ing the performance and application of WAAM-fabricated
An intriguing aspect unveiled by the XRD analysis was components.
the minimal variation in peak positions across different TS
conditions. Minor shifts, such as from 44.52° to 44.58° at 3.2 Microhardness Measurements
TS values of 120 and 150 mm/min, were observed within
a narrow range. These slight deviations likely stem from Figure 9 presents microhardness measurements across
minor lattice parameter variations within experimental the build direction for WAAM-deposited samples fabri-
error. Further reinforcing the crystalline nature of the mate- cated at different TS. As expected, microhardness varies
rial, calculated lattice parameters ranged from 2.8723 to along the build direction due to the inherent microstructure
2.8760 Å, which closely corresponded to the established distribution.
literature value of 2.8664 Å for α-iron [53]. A clear trend in microhardness variation across the build
A significant finding from the XRD analysis was the con- height was observed irrespective of TS. Both the bottom
clusive absence of the austenite (FCC) phase in all exam- and top regions exhibited consistently higher microhard-
ined samples, irrespective of TS. This absence suggests ness compared to the middle region. For example, the sam-
that the thermal conditions experienced during the WAAM ple deposited at 120 mm/min displayed a microhardness of
process might not have been sufficient to reach the austen- 200 ± 4 HV at the bottom, 166 ± 3 HV in the middle, and
ite transformation temperature. Alternatively, if austenite 186 ± 3 HV at the top. Similar trends were evident in sam-
ples deposited at 150 mm/min and 180 mm/min.
This variation in microhardness can be attributed to sev-
eral factors. The bottom and top regions experience signifi-
cantly faster cooling rates compared to the middle. Faster
heat transfer occurs in the bottom layers due to direct con-
tact with the substrate, promoting the formation of finer
microstructures typically associated with higher hardness.
The top region benefits from direct water cooling, which, as
observed in Fig. 3, leads to the development of finer micro-
structures like WF and ALF. These finer microstructures
likely contribute to the higher hardness observed in the top
region. Additionally, depending on the specific TS value and
the resulting local cooling conditions, minor variations in
the distribution of different phases (e.g., ferrite vs. pearlite)
within the deposited material can occur. These variations in
phase distribution can also influence the overall hardness.

Fig. 8 WAAM-ER70S-6 samples XRD’s results

13
334 Metals and Materials International (2025) 31:325–338

Fig. 9 Microhardness results acquired in the build direc-

tion of WAAM-deposited materials under various TS
values

In contrast, the upper layers exhibit a distinct micro-

structural composition dominated by robust features like
WF and ALF, as observed in Fig. 3. This predominance of
harder phases contributes to significantly higher average
microhardness values in the upper regions compared to the
middle region. Figure 10 clearly demonstrates this trend,
with average microhardness values for the 120, 150, and
180 mm/min TS samples being 178 ± 3.50 HV, 193 ± 3.47
HV, and 197 ± 3.94 HV, respectively. These results high-
light the interplay between thermal history, microstructure,
and mechanical properties in WAAM-deposited materials,
emphasizing the importance of optimizing process param-
eters to achieve desired hardness profiles across different
regions.
The observed trend can be attributed to the interplay
Fig. 10 Average hardness values of the three deposited samples between TS and HI. Higher TS reduces HI (Eq. (1)), requir-
ing less heat extraction during cooling and leading to a
These findings align with previous observations of harder faster cooling rate. This rapid cooling, further facilitated by
bottom regions in WAAM-deposited ER70S-6 [54]. reduced layer thickness at higher TS (Fig. 11), promotes the
While the bottom and top regions of the WAAM deposits formation of finer microstructures like WF and AF. Conse-
exhibit consistent HV values (standard deviation < 3 HV in quently, microhardness increases with increasing TS.
most cases), the middle region displays greater variation, The microhardness of WAAM-deposits is intricately
particularly for the 120 mm/min and 150 mm/min samples. linked to their microstructure, influenced by thermal history
For example, the middle region (layers 4–6) in the 120 mm/ and cooling rates. Distinct thermal profiles lead to varying
min sample exhibits an average standard deviation of 4.4 microhardness across different regions. The microstructure
HV, with individual layers reaching 5.6 HV variation. Simi- of the deposited material exhibits a distinct variation across
larly, the 150 mm/min sample shows an average standard the build height due to differences in cooling rates. The bot-
deviation of 3.8 HV in the middle region, with individual tom and top regions experience faster cooling rates. The
layers varying by up to 4.9 HV. This increased variability bottom region cools rapidly due to contact with the build
can be attributed to the complex thermal cycles experienced plate, while the top region benefits from the direct appli-
by these intermediate layers during the build process. These cation of water cooling. This faster cooling promotes the
cycles typically involve reheating and cooling during subse- formation of finer microstructures such as WF and AF,
quent layer deposition, leading to a mixed microstructure of which contribute to higher microhardness in these regions.
ferrite and pearlite, known for its moderate strength. Conversely, the middle regions undergo multiple thermal

13
Metals and Materials International (2025) 31:325–338 335

Fig. 12 Tensile properties of WAAM-deposited ER70S-6 samples

3.3 Tensile Properties

Tensile testing revealed a positive correlation between TS

and the mechanical properties of the deposited ER70S-6
Fig. 11 Macrostructure of deposited samples steel alloy (Fig. 12). As TS increased from 120 to 180 mm/
min, UTS significantly increased by 9.67%, reaching
cycles during deposition due to the sequential layering pro- 502.3 ± 3.17 MPa at 180 mm/min. Similarly, elongation
cess. This repeated heating and cooling leads to a mixed (EL) exhibited a remarkable enhancement of 51.8%, reach-
microstructure consisting of ferrite and pearlite. This mixed ing 25.2 ± 0.77% at the highest TS.
microstructure exhibits moderate strength and lower micro- This observed improvement in mechanical properties can
hardness compared to the top and bottom regions. be primarily attributed to grain refinement induced by the
Increasing the TS during WAAM deposition significantly faster cooling rate associated with higher TS. Rapid cool-
influences microhardness variation across the build height, ing promotes the formation of finer grains, which generally
with higher TS values correlating with enhanced micro- translate to higher strength and ductility. This aligns with
hardness. This relationship is attributed to two interrelated established principles in metallurgy [35, 37]. Understand-
factors: reduced HI and layer thickness. As TS increases, ing this relationship between process parameters, cooling
the heat input per unit length decreases, resulting in faster rate, and microstructure is crucial for optimizing WAAM
cooling rates due to reduced heat extraction requirements. processes to achieve desired mechanical properties in the
Faster cooling rates promote the formation of finer micro- deposited material.
structures, which are associated with higher microhardness. Figure 3, Fig. 4, and Fig. 11, reveal the presence of pores
Additionally, higher TS results in thinner deposited lay- in the sample deposited at 120 mm/min TS. These pores
ers, facilitating more efficient heat dissipation and further contribute to the observed reduction in elongation to 16.6%,
accelerating cooling. This rapid cooling effect contributes despite the material still exhibiting significant ductility. This
to the development of finer microstructures and increased highlights the detrimental influence of porosity on mechani-
microhardness. cal properties.
The interplay between TS, HI, and microstructural char- Furthermore, the maximum tensile strength of 502.3 MPa
acteristics highlights the importance of optimizing WAAM achieved at 180 mm/min TS represents approximately 93%
process parameters. By strategically adjusting TS and other of the filler wire’s specified value (540 MPa). This suggests
related parameters, engineers can achieve desired mechani- a mild softening effect compared to the filler metal, poten-
cal properties in specific regions of the deposited material. tially attributed to factors like microstructural changes or
This targeted control enables the creation of functionally residual stresses [55]. Following tensile testing, the frac-
graded components with tailored performance characteris- ture surfaces of WAAM specimens fabricated at varying
tics for various applications. TS were analyzed (Fig. 13). Although all three specimens
shared a generally ductile appearance, closer examination
revealed distinct features influenced by specific TS settings.
Dimples, characteristic of ductile fracture, were observed

13
336 Metals and Materials International (2025) 31:325–338

Fig. 13 Schematic diagram of the

Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing
(WAAM) setup

across all specimens, but variations in their size and density TS for achieving desired mechanical properties in WAAM
suggested differences in the extent of ductile behavior dur- applications.
ing fracture.
A clear trend emerged when comparing the morphology
of dimples across the three specimens. Specimens produced 4 Conclusion
at 120 mm/min exhibited larger, deeper, and more evenly
distributed dimples compared to those at 150 mm/min and This study investigates the influence of travel speed (TS)
180 mm/min, where dimple size and density progressively on the microstructure, mechanical properties, and formation
decreased. This observation aligns with the higher tensile of defects in WAAM-produced ER70S-6 steel using a Gas
strength and hardness observed at 180 mm/min, suggesting Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) heat source. The key find-
a potential correlation between finer dimple characteristics ings reveal a correlation between TS and the resulting mate-
and enhanced material strength and ductility. This notion is rial characteristics including microstructure, hardness, and
further supported by studies by [56, 57], who observed sim- overall strength.
ilar correlations between finer dimple sizes and improved
mechanical properties in WAAM-processed materials. ● Distinct microstructures were observed across the build
While cleavage planes, frequently associated with brittle height. Upper layers displayed a finer microstructure
fracture, were not readily apparent in the horizontally ori- with Widmanstatten ferrite (WF) and acicular ferrite
ented examination plane, this aligns with the findings of (ALF) due to faster cooling rates from water flow. Con-
Ayan and Kahraman [33]. Future investigations employing versely, the middle regions exhibited a typical ferrite-
complementary fractography techniques, such as EBSD, pearlite structure associated with slower cooling.
could provide a more comprehensive understanding of frac- ● Interestingly, an increase in TS led to a decrease in the
ture mechanisms across different TS settings. formation of pores within the deposited material. This
This detailed analysis of fracture surfaces, in conjunc- suggests that faster deposition speeds can contribute to
tion with tensile and hardness data, offers valuable insights denser and potentially stronger components.
into the mechanical behavior of WAAM-produced ER70S-6 ● Increasing TS from 120 to 180 mm/min resulted in a
steel. Notably, variations in TS significantly affect the mor- significant enhancement of microhardness (10.67%), ul-
phology of dimples, potentially influencing the extent of timate tensile strength (UTS) (9.67%), and elongation
ductile behavior and contributing to the observed differences (51.8%).
in material strength and ductility. These findings corrobo- ● While UTS increased with TS, it remained approximate-
rate with [58] and highlight the importance of optimizing ly 93% of the base metal’s value (502.3 compared to

13
Metals and Materials International (2025) 31:325–338 337

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons

540 MPa). This indicates a mild softening effect in the Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing,
WAAM material, potentially attributed to microstruc- adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format,
tural changes and residual stresses induced during the as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the
process. source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate
if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this
● The multi-pass nature of WAAM creates variations in article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless
cooling rates throughout the deposited material. The indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not
top layer, subjected to rapid cooling due to water flow, included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended
exhibits unique microstructures and superior strength use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted
use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright
compared to the middle regions. holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/4.0/.

5 Future Work References

This study highlights promising avenues for advancing 1. C. Su, X. Chen, C. Gao, Y. Wang, Appl. Surf. Sci. 486, 431–440
WAAM with ER70S-6: (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2019.04.255
2. O. Ivanova, C. Williams, T. Campbell, Rapid Prototyp. J. 19,
353–364 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1108/RPJ-12-2011-0127
● Conducting comprehensive Electron Backscatter Dif- 3. M. Dinovitzer, X. Chen, J. Laliberte, X. Huang, H. Frei,
fraction (EBSD) analysis on the deposited samples to Addit. Manuf. 26, 138–146 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
investigate grain orientation, dislocation density, residu- addma.2018.12.013
4. Y. Ding, M. Akbari, R. Kovacevic, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol.
al stress, and variations in grain size attributed to travel 95, 355–365 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-017-1179-z
speed and cooling effects. 5. F. Pixner, R. Buzolin, F. Warchomicka, A. Pilz, N. Enzinger, Int. J.
● Optimizing travel speed and cooling conditions to tai- Refract. Hard Met. 108, 105917 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
lor material properties produced by WAAM for specific ijrmhm.2022.105917
6. X. Duan, Q. Li, W. Xie, X. Yang, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 311,
applications. 117806 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2022.117806
7. S.W. Williams, F. Martina, A.C. Addison, J. Ding, G. Pardal, P.
This research underscores the importance of understand- Colegrove, Mater. Sci. Technol. 32, 641–647 (2016). https://doi.
ing the intricate relationship between process parameters org/10.1179/1743284715Y.0000000073
8. D. Ding, Z. Pan, D. Cuiuri, H. Li, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 81,
and material characteristics, paving the way for WAAM to 465–481 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-015-7077-3
potentially transform manufacturing practices across mul- 9. J. Vora, H. Parmar, R. Chaudhari, S. Khanna, M. Doshi, V.
tiple industries. Patel, J. Mater. Res. Technol. 20, 2748–2757 (2022). https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.08.074
Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their sincere 10. Q. Hu, J. Miao, X. Wang, C. Li, K. Fang, Scanning 2021, 7846116
gratitude to the Faculty of Engineering at Kafrelsheikh University for (2021). https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/7846116
their support in providing access to facilities and laboratories for this 11. T. Artaza, A. Suárez, M. Murua, J.C. García, I. Tabernero, A.
research. Furthermore, they wish to extend their heartfelt apprecia- Lamikiz, Procedia Manuf. 41, 1071–1078 (2019). https://doi.
tion to the anonymous reviewers for their valuable contributions and org/10.1016/j.promfg.2019.10.035
insightful comments, which greatly improved the quality of this work. 12. K.S. Derekar, Mater. Sci. Technol. 34, 895–916 (2018). https://
doi.org/10.1080/02670836.2018.1455012
13. Y. Feng, B. Zhan, J. He, K. Wang, J. Mater. Process. Tech-
Author Contribution All authors contributed to the study concep-
nol. 259, 206–215 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
tion and design. Mohammed Dekis: Writing-Original draft prepara-
jmatprotec.2018.04.040
tion, Methodology, Mahmoud Tawfik: Visualization, Methodology,
14. W. Du, Q. Bai, B. Zhang, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 95, 2509–
Mohamed Egiza: Project administration, Conceptualization, Writing-
2519 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-017-1364-0
Original draft preparation, Montasser Dewidar: Supervision, Writ-
15. J.M. Flynn, A. Shokrani, S.T. Newman, V. Dhokia, Int. J. Mach.
ing- Reviewing and Editing. All authors read and approved the final
Tools Manuf. 101, 79–101 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
manuscript.
ijmachtools.2015.11.007
16. H. Geng, J. Li, J. Xiong, X. Lin, F. Zhang, J. Mater. Pro-
Funding Open access funding provided by The Science, Technology cess. Technol. 243, 40–47 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
& Innovation Funding Authority (STDF) in cooperation with The jmatprotec.2016.11.027
Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB). 17. J.H. Ouyang, H. Wang, R. Kovacevic, Mater. Manuf. Process. 17,
103–124 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1081/AMP-120002801
Declarations 18. P.J. Modenesi, R.I. Reis, J. Mater. Process. Techno. 189, 199–205
(2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2007.01.022
Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known 19. J. Tušek, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 100, 250–256 (2000). https://
competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have doi.org/10.1016/S0924-0136(99)00485-9
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

13
338 Metals and Materials International (2025) 31:325–338

20. A. Oyetunji, M. Bodude, W. Ayoola, B. Kutelu, FUOYE J. Eng. 40. M. Ghaffari, A. Vahedi Nemani, M. Rafieazad, A. Nasiri, JOM 71,
Technol. 4, 58–61 (2019). https://doi.org/10.46792/fuoyejet. 4215–4224 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-019-03773-5
v4i1.246 41. A.S. Yildiz, K. Davut, B. Koc, O. Yilmaz, Int. J. Adv. Manuf.
21. O. Panchenko, D. Kurushkin, I. Mushnikov, A. Khismatul- Technol. 108, 3391–3404 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/
lin, A. Popovich, Mater. Des. 195, 109040 (2020). https://doi. s00170-020-05482-9
org/10.1016/j.matdes.2020.109040 42. P. Dirisu, S. Ganguly, A. Mehmanparast, F. Martina, S. Williams,
22. M.M. Tawfik, M.M. Nemat-Alla, M.M. Dewidar, J. Mater. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 765, 138285 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Eng. Perform. 30, 7762–7769 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/ msea.2019.138285
s11665-021-05959-y 43. Y. Zhou, X. Lin, N. Kang, W. Huang, J. Wang, Z. Wang, J. Mater.
23. S. Suryakumar, K.P. Karunakaran, U. Chandrasekhar, M.A. Sci. Technol. 37, 143–153 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Somashekara, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. B. J. Eng. Manuf. 227, jmst.2019.06.016
1138–1147 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1177/0954405413482122 44. A. Elsokaty, O. Oraby, S. Sadek, H.G. Salem, J. Manuf. Mater.
24. P.A. Colegrove, H.E. Coules, J. Fairman, F. Martina, T. Process. 7, 3 (2022). https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp7010003
Kashoob, H. Mamash, L.D. Cozzolino, J. Mater. Process. 45. P. Ghosh, S. Gupta, H. Randhawa, Metall. Mater. Trans. A 31,
Technol. 213, 1782–1791 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 2247–2259 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-000-0142-y
jmatprotec.2013.04.012 46. Y. Lu, G. Wang, M. Zhang, R. Li, H. Zhang, Addit. Manuf. 56,
25. P. Dirisu, G. Supriyo, F. Martina, X. Xu, S. Williams, Int. 102885 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2022.102885
J. Fatigue. 130, 105237 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 47. H.M. Vishwanatha, R.N. Rao, M. Maiya, P. Kumar, N. Gupta,
ijfatigue.2019.105237 K.K. Saxena, V. Vijayan J. Adhes. Sci. Technol. 38, 2222–2239
26. N. Sridharan, M.W. Noakes, A. Nycz, L.J. Love, R.R. Dehoff, (2023). https://doi.org/10.1080/01694243.2023.2289770
S.S. Babu, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 713, 18–27 (2018). https://doi. 48. F. Wang, S. Williams, P. Colegrove, A. Antonysamy, Metall.
org/10.1016/j.msea.2017.11.101 Mater. Trans. A 44, 968–977 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/
27. J. Xiong, Z. Yin, W. Zhang, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 233, 100– s11661-012-1444-6
106 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2016.02.021 49. B. Bagheri, M. Alizadeh, S.E. Mirsalehi, A. Shamsipur, A.
28. M. Rafieazad, M. Ghaffari, A. Vahedi Nemani, A. Nasiri, Int. Abdollahzadeh, Weld. World 66, 2333–2350 (2022). https://doi.
J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 105, 2121–2134 (2019). https://doi. org/10.1007/s40194-022-01376-4
org/10.1007/s00170-019-04393-8 50. B. Bagheri, M. Abbasi, F. Sharifi, A. Abdollahzadeh, Mater.
29. A. Astarita, G. Campatelli, P. Corigliano, G. Epasto, F. Monte- Manuf. Process. 37, 921–932 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1080/10
vecchi, F. Scherillo, G. Venturini, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. C 235, 426914.2021.2006220
1788–1798 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1177/0954406219883324 51. B. Bagheri, M. Abbasi, F. Sharifi, A. Abdollahzadeh, Met.
30. H. Xin, I. Tarus, L. Cheng, M. Veljkovic, N. Persem, L. Lorich, Mater. Int. 28, 2239–2251 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/
Structures. 34, 1393–1402 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. s12540-021-01121-4
istruc.2021.08.055 52. B. Bagheri, F. Sharifi, M. Abbasi, A. Abdollahzadeh,
31. E. Aldalur, F. Veiga, A. Suárez, J. Bilbao, A. Lamikiz, J. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. L 236, 299–318 (2021). https://doi.
Manuf. Process. 58, 615–626 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. org/10.1177/14644207211044407
jmapro.2020.08.060 53. T. Ron, G.K. Levy, O. Dolev, A. Leon, A. Shirizly, E. Aghion,
32. C. Huang, P. Kyvelou, R. Zhang, T. Ben Britton, L. Gardner, Metals 9, 888 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/met9080888
Mater. Des. 216, 110544 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 54. B. Shassere, A. Nycz, M.W. Noakes, C. Masuo, N. Sridharan,
matdes.2022.110544 Appl. Sci. 9, 787 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/app9040787
33. Y. Ayan, N. Kahraman, Phys. Met. Metallogr. 122, 1521–1529 55. U. Tripathi, N. Saini, R.S. Mulik, M.M. Mahapatra, CIRP J. Man-
(2021). https://doi.org/10.1134/s0031918x21140039 ufact. Sci. Technol. 37, 103–109 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
34. J.C.T. Panicker, V. Senthilkumar, Vacuum 220, 112837 (2024). cirpj.2022.01.010
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vacuum.2023.112837 56. M. Abbasi, B. Bagheri, F. Sharifi, A. Abdollahzadeh, Weld.
35. U. Tripathi, N. Saini, R.S. Mulik, M.M. Mahapatra, CIRP World 65, 2207–2220 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/
J. Manuf. Sci. Technol. 37, 103–109 (2022). https://doi. s40194-021-01173-5
org/10.1016/j.cirpj.2022.01.010 57. V. Salimiyan Rizi, M. Abbasi, B. Bagheri, J. Mater. Eng.
36. V. Shukla, V. Kumar, A. Dixit, Mater. Today. Proc. (2023). https:// Perform. 31, 3369–3381 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/
doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2023.02.011 s11665-021-06443-3
37. V.-T. Nguyen, P.S. Minh, T.M.T. Uyen, T.T. Do, H.V.T. Ngoc, 58. A. Abdollahzadeh, B. Bagheri, M. Abbasi, F. Sharifi, S.E. Mir-
M.-T. Le, V. T. Tien Nguyen, Metals 13, 873 (2023). https://doi. salehi, A.O. Moghaddam, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. L 235, 2291–
org/10.3390/met13050873 2309 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1177/14644207211023987
38. J. Mohammadi, I. Dashtgerd, A. Reza Riahi, A. Mostafaei, Mater.
Today Commun. 38, 107637 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to juris-
mtcomm.2023.107637 dictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
39. P.N. Bellamkonda, M. Sudersanan, B. Visvalingam, Weld. Int. 36,
443–454 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1080/09507116.2022.209789
7

13