Turbulent Flow & Pipe Flow Problems

1. Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow is a type of fluid motion where the flow velocity varies chaotically in time and space. It
occurs at high Reynolds numbers (Re > 4000) and is characterized by:

 Irregular motion with eddies and vortices

 Mixing of fluid particles across layers
 Higher energy dissipation due to internal friction

(a) Laminar and Turbulent Boundary Layers

A boundary layer forms when a fluid flows over a surface. It is divided into:

1. Laminar Boundary Layer:

o Fluid moves in smooth layers with no mixing.
o Occurs at low Reynolds numbers (Re < 2000).
o Dominated by viscous forces.
2. Turbulent Boundary Layer:
o Fluid moves in irregular patterns with mixing of layers.
o Occurs at high Reynolds numbers (Re > 4000).
o Dominated by inertial forces rather than viscosity.
3. Laminar Sublayer:
o A thin viscous layer close to the boundary in turbulent flow.
o Velocity changes from zero at the wall to turbulent levels.

(b) Hydrodynamically Smooth & Rough Boundaries

 Hydrodynamically Smooth Boundary: The laminar sublayer covers surface roughness, reducing its
effect on flow resistance.
 Hydrodynamically Rough Boundary: The surface roughness penetrates the laminar sublayer,
increasing turbulence and resistance.

(c) Velocity Distribution in Turbulent Flow

The velocity profile in turbulent flow is logarithmic, unlike the parabolic profile in laminar flow:

(d) Resistance in Pipes

 Smooth Pipes: Resistance depends on viscosity and Reynolds number.

 Artificially Roughened Pipes: Resistance depends on roughness height.
 Commercial Pipes: Have natural roughness affecting flow resistance.
 Aging of Pipes: Over time, corrosion, scaling, and deposition increase pipe roughness, reducing
efficiency.
2. Pipe Flow Problems

(a) Losses in Pipe Flow

Losses in pipe flow occur due to friction and disturbances in flow direction. They are categorized into:

1. Major Losses (Friction Losses)

2. Minor Losses (Local Losses)

Caused by sudden changes in pipe flow such as:

 Sudden Expansion: Flow separation increases energy loss.

 Sudden Contraction: Loss due to turbulence formation.
 Pipe Fittings & Valves: Bends, elbows, tees, and valves introduce additional resistance.

(b) Concepts of Equivalent Length, Hydraulic & Energy Gradient Lines

1. Equivalent Length:
o Useful in pipe network analysis.
2. Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL):
o Represents the pressure head + elevation head at any point.
o Shows how pressure drops due to friction.
3. Energy Gradient Line (EGL):
o Represents the total energy head (pressure + velocity + elevation).
o Always above the hydraulic gradient line by the velocity head (v2/2gv^2/2gv2/2g).

(c) Siphon

A siphon is a U-shaped tube that allows liquid to flow from a higher reservoir to a lower reservoir over
an obstacle.

 Works on gravity and atmospheric pressure.

 Used for draining fuel tanks, irrigation, and chemical transfer.

(d) Pipes in Series & Parallel

1. Pipes in Series:
o The same discharge (Q) flows through all pipes.
o The total head loss is the sum of individual head losses
o The total discharge (Q) is the sum of flow rates in each branch
o The head loss across all parallel pipes is the same.

(e) Pipe Networks

1. Water Hammer (Quick Closure Case)

  A pressure surge occurs when flowing water is suddenly stopped (valve closure).
 Can cause pipe bursts due to high pressure waves.

2. Transmission of Power Through Pipes

 Power is transmitted by the fluid’s pressure and velocity.

 Maximum power is transmitted when head loss due to friction is 1/3 of total head.

3. Hardy Cross Method (Pipe Network Analysis)

Used to analyze complex pipe networks (loops).

Steps in Hardy Cross Method:

1. Assume initial flow directions in loops.

2. Compute head loss in each pipe using Darcy-Weisbach or Hazen-Williams equations.
3. Apply correction to satisfy continuity: ΔQ=−∑hfn∑(hf/Q)\Delta Q = - \frac{\sum h_f}{n \sum
(h_f/Q)}ΔQ=−n∑(hf/Q)∑hf where nnn is the number of pipes in the loop.
4. Iterate until corrections are negligible.

Used in water distribution systems, municipal networks, and irrigation systems.

Conclusion

 Turbulent flow is chaotic, with higher resistance in rough pipes.

 Pipe flow problems involve major & minor losses, siphons, and networks.
 Hardy Cross Method is a key technique for analyzing complex water systems.
 Understanding water hammer & energy gradients is essential for pipeline safety.

Uniform Flow in Open Channels

1. Channel Geometry & Elements of Channel Section

An open channel is a conduit where liquid flows with a free surface exposed to the atmosphere (e.g.,
rivers, canals, drainage ditches).

Elements of Channel Section

1. Top Width (T): The width of the flow at the free surface.
2. Depth of Flow (y): The vertical distance from the channel bed to the water surface.
3. Wetted Perimeter (P): The length of the channel boundary in contact with the flowing fluid.
4. Hydraulic Radius (R): Ratio of flow area (A) to wetted perimeter (P): R=APR =
\frac{A}{P}R=PA
5. Slope (S): The channel bed slope, affecting velocity and discharge.
 6. Hydraulic Depth (D): Ratio of flow area to the top width: D=ATD = \frac{A}{T}D=TA

Common channel shapes include rectangular, trapezoidal, triangular, and circular sections.

2. Velocity Distribution in Open Channels

 Non-uniform velocity profile due to friction at the bed and sides.

 Maximum velocity occurs just below the free surface (not at the top) due to reduced resistance.
 Shear stress near channel walls causes velocity to decrease.
 The velocity distribution is influenced by roughness, slope, and channel shape.

3. Energy in Open Channel Flow

Energy in an open channel consists of:

1. Kinetic Energy : Due to velocity of flow.

2. Potential Energy (y): Due to flow depth.
3. Pressure Energy : Usually neglected as flow is open to atmosphere.

4. Specific Energy & Critical Flow

(a) Specific Energy (EEE)

Specific energy is the total energy relative to the channel bed:

It helps in analyzing flow conditions, such as critical, subcritical, and supercritical flow.

(b) Types of Flow in Open Channels

1. Subcritical Flow
o Low velocity, high depth
o Governed by gravity forces
o Slow-moving rivers
2. Supercritical Flow
o High velocity, shallow depth
o Governed by inertia forces
o Rapid flows, steep channels
3. Critical Flow
o Minimum specific energy for given discharge
o Occurs when Froude number (Fr) = 1
o Governs hydraulic jumps and flow transitions

5. Uniform Flow & Its Computations

Uniform flow occurs when:

 Flow depth and velocity remain constant along the channel.

 The driving force (gravity) and resisting force (friction) are balanced.

It is governed by Chezy’s and Manning’s Equations.

(a) Chezy’s Formula

v=CRSv = C \sqrt{R S}v=CRS

where:

 CCC = Chezy’s coefficient (depends on roughness)

 RRR = Hydraulic radius
 SSS = Slope of the channel

(b) Manning’s Formula

v=1nR2/3S1/2v = \frac{1}{n} R^{2/3} S^{1/2}v=n1R2/3S1/2

where:

 nnn = Manning’s roughness coefficient

 RRR = Hydraulic radius
 SSS = Channel slope

Discharge (QQQ) is given by:

Q=Av=AnR2/3S1/2Q = A v = \frac{A}{n} R^{2/3} S^{1/2}Q=Av=nAR2/3S1/2

Manning’s equation is widely used in natural streams and engineered channels.

6. Normal Depth & Velocity Determination

 Normal depth (yny_nyn) is the flow depth at which uniform flow occurs.
 It is found using Chezy’s or Manning’s equation by solving for yny_nyn.
 Normal velocity (vnv_nvn) is the velocity corresponding to normal depth.

These are essential for channel design to maintain steady and efficient flow.

7. Normal & Critical Slopes

The channel slope affects whether flow is subcritical or supercritical.

 Normal slope (S0S_0S0): Actual slope of the channel.

 Critical slope (ScS_cSc): Slope at which critical flow occurs.
Slope Classifications:

1. Mild Slope (M): S0<ScS_0 < S_cS0<Sc → Subcritical flow

2. Steep Slope (S): S0>ScS_0 > S_cS0>Sc → Supercritical flow
3. Critical Slope (C): S0=ScS_0 = S_cS0=Sc → Critical flow

Slope affects hydraulic jumps, energy dissipation, and flow control structures.

8. Economical Sections

An economical channel section minimizes wetted perimeter for maximum flow efficiency.

 For a Rectangular Channel:

o Most efficient shape: Width = twice the depth
o b=2yb = 2yb=2y
 For a Trapezoidal Channel:
o Most efficient shape: Side slope = 1:1 (45°)
o Wetted perimeter = minimum
 For a Circular Channel (Flowing Full):
o Diameter = optimum for carrying maximum discharge

Economical sections reduce construction and maintenance costs.

9. Saint Venant Equations

The Saint-Venant equations describe unsteady flow in open channels based on conservation laws:

1. Continuity Equation:
2. Momentum Equation:

These equations are used in flood routing, dam break analysis, and real-time river modeling.

Conclusion
 Uniform flow in open channels occurs when depth and velocity remain constant.
 Specific energy and critical flow determine the flow type.
 Chezy’s and Manning’s equations are key for computing velocity and discharge.
 Economical sections optimize flow efficiency.
 Saint Venant equations are fundamental for unsteady flow modeling.

Non-Uniform Flow in Open Channels

1. Introduction
In open channels, non-uniform flow occurs when the depth and velocity of flow change along the
channel length. Unlike uniform flow (constant depth), non-uniform flow is influenced by channel slope,
width changes, and obstructions.

Types of Non-Uniform Flow

1. Gradually Varied Flow (GVF):

o The flow depth changes gradually over a long distance due to a small disturbance.
o Occurs in natural rivers, reservoirs, and backwater effects near dams.
o Example: Water depth changes near a dam due to water storage.
2. Rapidly Varied Flow (RVF):
o The flow depth changes suddenly over a short distance.
o Caused by abrupt obstructions, weirs, sluice gates, or channel contractions.
o Example: Hydraulic jump, flow over a spillway.

2. Basic Assumptions & Dynamic Equations of Gradually Varied Flow (GVF)

Gradually varied flow (GVF) is analyzed using differential equations derived from energy and momentum
principles.

Assumptions for GVF

1. Steady Flow: Flow properties (depth, velocity) do not change with time.
2. One-Dimensional Flow: Velocity distribution is uniform across the channel section.
3. Pressure Distribution is Hydrostatic: Water pressure follows a linear profile.
4. Negligible Acceleration: Changes in velocity are small along the channel.
5. Small Bed Slope: The angle of inclination is small.

3. Characteristics & Computation of Flow Profiles

Classification of Flow Profiles

The shape of the water surface (called a flow profile) depends on the channel slope and flow depth.

Types of Slopes

1. Mild Slope (M) → S0<ScS_0 < S_cS0<Sc (Subcritical flow)

2. Steep Slope (S) → S0>ScS_0 > S_cS0>Sc (Supercritical flow)
3. Critical Slope (C) → S0=ScS_0 = S_cS0=Sc

Types of Flow Profiles (Water Surface Curves)

Each slope condition has three possible water surface profiles:

Flow Type Mild (M) Steep (S)

Profile 1 (M1, S1) Backwater effect, water depth increases Flow depth increases (steep slope near a dam)
Profile 2 (M2, S2) Flow depth adjusts to normal depth Flow adjusts after a drop
Profile 3 (M3, S3) Supercritical flow near obstructions Supercritical flow near a sudden expansion
Examples:

 M1 Profile: Water accumulates behind a dam.

 S2 Profile: Water flowing over a steep spillway.

Computations of GVF Profiles

To compute the profile, numerical integration techniques like Direct Step Method or Standard Step
Method are used.

4. Rapidly Varied Flow (RVF) & Hydraulic Jump

Rapidly Varied Flow (RVF) occurs when the flow changes suddenly in a short distance due to
obstructions. The most important example is a hydraulic jump.

Hydraulic Jump

A hydraulic jump is a sudden transition from supercritical to subcritical flow, leading to energy
dissipation.

Characteristics of Hydraulic Jump:

 Occurs when Fr>1Fr > 1Fr>1 (high velocity) changes to Fr<1Fr < 1Fr<1 (low velocity).
 Forms a turbulent, high-energy region.
 Converts kinetic energy into heat and turbulence, reducing velocity.
 Used in spillways, energy dissipators, and irrigation canals.

Jump Height Calculation (Energy Equation)

Using momentum conservation:

y2=y12(1+8Fr12−1)y_2 = \frac{y_1}{2} \left( \sqrt{1 + 8 Fr_1^2} - 1 \right)y2=2y1(1+8Fr12−1)

where:

 y1y_1y1 = Initial depth (supercritical)

 y2y_2y2 = Final depth (subcritical)
 Fr1Fr_1Fr1 = Froude number before the jump

Applications of Hydraulic Jump:

1. Energy dissipation: Prevents erosion downstream of spillways.

2. Mixing and aeration: Helps in wastewater treatment.
3. Flow control: Regulates water levels in canals.

5. Surges in Open Channels & Channel Flow Routing

Surges in Open Channels

A surge is a sudden change in water depth due to a disturbance such as sluice gate operations or dam
breaks.
Types of Surges:

1. Positive Surge: Sudden rise in water level.

2. Negative Surge: Sudden drop in water level.

Applications:

 Flood wave propagation analysis.

 Gate opening/closing operations in reservoirs.

Channel Flow Routing

Flow routing predicts how flood waves move through a channel.

Methods of Flow Routing:

1. Hydrologic Routing: Uses continuity equation (e.g., Muskingum method).

2. Hydraulic Routing: Uses Saint-Venant equations for precise modeling.

Flow routing is used in flood forecasting, dam operations, and river management.

6. Venturi Flume

A Venturi Flume is a device used to measure discharge in open channels.

Working Principle:

 It consists of a narrow throat where velocity increases, creating a pressure drop.

 Flow rate is calculated using the continuity and energy equations.

Advantages:

 Accurate discharge measurement

 Minimal head loss compared to weirs
 Used in irrigation channels and wastewater flow monitoring

Equation for Discharge (Q):

Q=CA2ghQ = C A \sqrt{2 g h}Q=CA2gh

where:

 AAA = Flow area

 hhh = Water depth
 CCC = Coefficient of discharge

Conclusion
 Gradually Varied Flow (GVF) occurs when flow depth changes slowly over a long distance.
 Rapidly Varied Flow (RVF) includes hydraulic jumps where energy is dissipated.
  Surges and Flow Routing help manage sudden water level changes.
 Venturi Flume measures discharge efficiently in open channels

Forces on Immersed Bodies

When a solid body moves through a fluid (or a fluid moves around a stationary body), it experiences fluid
forces due to pressure and viscous effects. These forces lead to drag and lift, which are crucial in
aerodynamics, hydrodynamics, and mechanical engineering applications.

1. Types of Drag

Drag is the resistance force exerted by a fluid on a body moving through it. Drag is classified into different
types based on the source of resistance:

1.1. Skin Friction Drag (Viscous Drag)

 Caused by viscous shear stress in the boundary layer.

 Significant in streamlined bodies like aircraft, submarines, and long pipes.
 Reduced by using smooth surfaces and laminar flow control.

1.2. Pressure Drag (Form Drag)

 Caused by pressure difference between the front and back of the body.
 Dominant in bluff bodies (e.g., cylinders, spheres, and flat plates).
 Reduced by streamlining the shape.

1.3. Wave Drag

 Occurs due to the formation of surface waves in high-speed flows (e.g., ships, aircraft near sonic
speeds).
 Reduced by modifying the shape of the body to delay wave formation.

1.4. Induced Drag

 Generated due to flow circulation around a lifting body (e.g., wings, aerofoils).
 Occurs due to vortex formation at wingtips.
 Reduced by using winglets or optimizing wing aspect ratio.

1.5. Profile Drag

 The sum of skin friction and pressure drag for streamlined bodies.
 Used in aircraft design to improve efficiency.

2. Drag on Different Bodies

2.1. Drag on a Sphere

 At low Reynolds number (Re<1Re < 1Re<1), flow is laminar, and drag follows Stokes' Law:
 FD=6πμRVF_D = 6\pi \mu R VFD=6πμRV

where μ\muμ = viscosity, RRR = radius, and VVV = velocity.

 At higher ReReRe, a wake forms behind the sphere, increasing drag.

 Drag coefficient (CDC_DCD) decreases as ReReRe increases, but increases again due to
turbulence.

2.2. Drag on a Flat Plate

 Depends on orientation relative to flow:

o Parallel to flow: Only skin friction drag dominates.
o Perpendicular to flow: Pressure drag dominates due to flow separation.
 Drag Coefficient (CDC_DCD) for a flat plate:
o Laminar Flow: CD≈1.328/ReC_D \approx 1.328/\sqrt{Re}CD≈1.328/Re
o Turbulent Flow: CD≈0.074/Re0.2C_D \approx 0.074/Re^{0.2}CD≈0.074/Re0.2

2.3. Drag on a Cylinder

 Separation of flow occurs early, leading to high pressure drag.

 Vortex shedding occurs at higher speeds (Von Kármán vortex street).
 Drag Coefficient (CDC_DCD):
o CD≈1.2C_D \approx 1.2CD≈1.2 for turbulent wake.
o Reduced by streamlining or adding surface roughness to delay separation.

2.4. Drag on an Aerofoil

 Pressure distribution creates lift, but also causes induced drag.

 Thin, streamlined shape minimizes drag.
 Drag coefficient is lower than blunt bodies due to smooth streamlining.

3. Development of Lift

3.1. What is Lift?

 Lift is the force acting perpendicular to the flow direction due to pressure differences.
 Generated by curved surfaces like airplane wings, turbine blades, and hydrofoils.

3.2. Bernoulli’s Principle and Lift

 According to Bernoulli’s Equation: P1+12ρV12=P2+12ρV22P_1 + \frac{1}{2} \rho V_1^2 = P_2

+ \frac{1}{2} \rho V_2^2P1+21ρV12=P2+21ρV22
o Air moves faster over the curved upper surface → Lower pressure.
o Slower air below the wing → Higher pressure.
o The pressure difference creates lift.

3.3. Lift Coefficient (CLC_LCL)

L=12CLρAV2L = \frac{1}{2} C_L \rho A V^2L=21CLρAV2

where:
  LLL = Lift force
 ρ\rhoρ = Air density
 AAA = Wing area
 VVV = Velocity
 CLC_LCL = Lift coefficient (depends on shape and angle of attack).

3.4. Factors Affecting Lift

 Angle of Attack (AOA): Higher AOA increases lift but causes stalling if too high.
 Wing Shape (Camber): More curvature = more lift.
 Flow Velocity: Higher velocity increases lift.

4. Lifting Vanes

Lifting vanes (or blades) are curved surfaces used in turbines, fans, and compressors to direct fluid flow
and generate lift or force.

 Example: Turbine blades in jet engines.

 Effect: Generates force similar to an aerofoil, increasing efficiency.

5. Magnus Effect

5.1. What is the Magnus Effect?

 A spinning body moving through a fluid experiences a lateral force.

 Occurs in rotating cylinders, baseballs, and soccer balls.

5.2. Explanation

 The spinning object creates circulation, altering pressure distribution.

 On one side, air moves faster (lower pressure).
 On the opposite side, air moves slower (higher pressure).
 The pressure difference results in a lateral force (lift).

5.3. Applications of Magnus Effect

1. Sports: Curveballs in baseball, bending free kicks in soccer.

2. Aviation: Rotating cylinders (Flettner Rotors) for propulsion.
3. Naval Engineering: Ships using Magnus Effect-based sails for propulsion.

Conclusion
 Drag is the resistance force due to fluid motion, classified into skin friction, pressure drag, and
wave drag.
 Different bodies experience different drag characteristics, affecting their motion in a fluid.
 Lift is developed by pressure differences in curved surfaces, crucial for aerofoils and lifting vanes.
 The Magnus Effect explains how spinning objects experience lateral forces.
 Fluid Machines: Turbines and Pumps
Fluid machines are mechanical devices that convert energy between fluid and mechanical energy. They can
be broadly categorized into turbines (devices that extract energy from fluids) and pumps (devices that
impart energy to fluids).

1. Turbines

1.1. Classifications of Turbines

Turbines are broadly classified based on the type of flow and the direction of flow:

 Based on Flow Type:

o Impulse Turbines: Fluid pressure remains constant, and kinetic energy is converted into
mechanical energy (e.g., Pelton turbine).
o Reaction Turbines: Both pressure and velocity of the fluid change, and mechanical energy
is generated from both pressure and kinetic energy (e.g., Francis and Kaplan turbines).
 Based on Direction of Flow:
o Axial Flow Turbines: Fluid flows parallel to the axis of the turbine (e.g., Kaplan turbine).
o Radial Flow Turbines: Fluid flows radially from the center of the turbine (e.g., Pelton
turbine).
o Mixed Flow Turbines: Fluid flows in a combination of radial and axial directions (e.g.,
Francis turbine).

1.2. Specific Speed & Unit Quantities

 Specific Speed (Ns): It is a dimensionless number that characterizes the geometry of the turbine and
its operating conditions.
Formula for Specific Speed: Ns=NQH3/4N_s = \frac{N \sqrt{Q}}{H^{3/4}}Ns=H3/4NQ where:
o NNN = Speed of the turbine (rpm),
o QQQ = Flow rate (m³/s),
o HHH = Head (m).
 Unit Quantities: Used for comparison purposes, such as unit speed (speed in rpm per unit flow) and
unit discharge (flow per unit power).

1.3. Pelton Turbine

 Construction: Pelton turbines are impulse turbines that convert the kinetic energy of high-speed
jets of water into mechanical energy.
o They consist of a runner with spoon-like buckets and a nozzle that directs a jet of water
onto the buckets.
o Jet action: The water jet strikes the turbine blades, causing them to rotate. The turbine works
based on high velocity and low flow rate.
 Speed Regulation: Speed regulation is controlled by adjusting the nozzle opening (through a
governor), which regulates the flow rate.
 Ideal Case for Power, Torque, and Efficiency:
o Power (P): P=τ×ωP = \tau \times \omegaP=τ×ω (torque × angular velocity).
o Efficiency depends on design and operating conditions.
  Characteristic Curves:
o Power vs. Flow curve, which helps in assessing turbine performance at different flow rates.
o The efficiency curve for the turbine helps optimize its operation.

1.4. Reaction Turbines

 Construction and Settings:

o Reaction turbines work on both pressure and velocity changes of the fluid. Water enters the
turbine and passes through the runner (rotating part) before exiting through the draft tube.
o Common types include the Francis turbine (radial and mixed flow) and Kaplan turbine
(axial flow).
 Draft Tube Theory:
The draft tube is used to recover kinetic energy from the fluid exiting the turbine, converting it
into useful pressure and allowing pressure recovery before discharge.
 Runaway Speed:
This refers to the maximum speed the turbine could reach in the absence of any load or brake,
typically dangerous for the turbine.
 Cavitation:
Cavitation occurs when the local pressure falls below the vapor pressure of the fluid, causing the
formation of bubbles. This leads to damage and performance loss in turbines. Cavitation can be
avoided by ensuring proper inlet pressure and flow conditions.
 Characteristic Curves:
o Flow vs. Head and Flow vs. Efficiency curves help to understand turbine behavior and
identify optimal operating points.

2. Pumps

2.1. Centrifugal Pumps

Centrifugal pumps are used to add energy to a fluid, increasing its pressure or velocity.

 Types of Centrifugal Pumps:

o Radial Flow Pump: Fluid enters the pump axially and is discharged radially.
o Axial Flow Pump: Fluid enters and exits parallel to the axis of rotation.
o Mixed Flow Pump: Combination of radial and axial flow.
 Components: Key components include impeller, casing, and shaft. The impeller imparts kinetic
energy to the fluid, which is converted to pressure energy as the fluid exits the pump.
 Manometric Head (H):
This represents the total energy imparted to the fluid, including both the elevation and pressure
heads.
 Total Head (H): The sum of manometric head and losses due to friction and turbulence in the
pump system.
 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH):
This is the amount of pressure above vapor pressure required at the pump inlet to avoid cavitation.
 Specific Speed of Pump:
This helps determine the type of pump needed based on the flow, head, and speed. It is similar to
turbines:

Ns=NQH3/4N_s = \frac{N \sqrt{Q}}{H^{3/4}}Ns=H3/4NQ

  Shut-off Head: The maximum head the pump can generate when operating at zero flow (no
discharge).
 Energy Losses: These losses arise from friction in the pipes, pump inefficiencies, and turbulence
within the system.
 Cavitation: Just like in turbines, cavitation in centrifugal pumps can cause damage and inefficiency.
It occurs when the local pressure falls below the vapor pressure of the fluid.
 Principle of Working:
o The impeller rotates, transferring kinetic energy to the fluid.
o The fluid is then discharged through the pump casing, generating pressure and velocity.
 Characteristic Curves:
o These curves represent the relationship between flow rate, head, and efficiency of the pump.

2.2. Reciprocating Pumps

Reciprocating pumps operate using reciprocating motion to move fluid through the pump.

 Principle of Working:
o A piston or plunger moves back and forth inside a cylinder, drawing fluid in during the
intake stroke and pushing it out during the discharge stroke.
 Coefficient of Discharge:
The ratio of actual discharge to theoretical discharge.
 Slip:
The difference between the theoretical and actual flow rate due to leakage and friction.
 Single Acting Pump:
Fluid is pumped during only one stroke of the piston (one direction of movement).
 Double Acting Pump:
Fluid is pumped during both strokes (both directions of movement).
 Manometric Head:
The effective head of the fluid as it is pumped out, including frictional losses.
 Acceleration Head:
The energy required to accelerate the fluid in the pump during the start of the stroke.

Conclusion

Fluid machines, including turbines and pumps, play a vital role in converting mechanical energy to fluid
energy and vice versa. Understanding the design, operation, and characteristic curves of turbines and pumps
is crucial for their efficient operation in hydropower generation, water supply systems, chemical
processes, and other engineering applications.