Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 1

electron flow - redox reaction

Redox reactions, Chemical Cell and Electrolysis exothermic reaction
(A) Chemical cell (Chapter 29)
- Electrical cells can be divided into chemical cell and solar cell.
- A chemical cell is a device in which chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.
- Chemical cell can be classified into simple chemical cells, dry cells, wet cells and fuel
cells.
(a) Simple chemical cell
A simple chemical cell can be set up by dipping two _________________ different metal
strips into a solution of ___________ electrolyte.
(b) In the dry cell, the electrolyte is a paste rather than a liquid. Dry cells are small and
convenient. e.g. Zinc-carbon cell, Lithium battery, silver oxide button cell
ion
Alkaline Manganese Cell
Classwork
The paste of electrolyte in a ‘dry’ cell should not be completely dry. Why?

A little water should be present to keep the ions present in the electrolyte mobile for
conduction of electricity.
sulphuric acid
(c) Wet cells contain a tank of aqueous solutions as electrolytes e.g. car battery or lead-acid
accumulator 6M sulphuric acid
(d) Use fuel e.g. H2 gas or methane gas as energy source and the fuel reacts with oxygen in
fuel cell
air to give electrical energy

(B) Simple chemical cell

(a) A simple chemical cell

It can be set up by dipping two different metal strips into a solution of electrolyte. The two
metal strips are connected by an external electric wire.
- They form a metal couple, represented by Mg/Cu.
e.g. dipping Mg and Cu strips into dilute sulphuric acid solution and connect the two
metal strips with wires with light bulb or voltmeter. The light bulb glows or voltmeter
show readings.

- +
+ve reading

metal couple cannot touch each other -ve +ve

if they touch each other, the cell will be short circuit

e-
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 2

Note that:
- The two metal strips do not touch each other in the electrolyte which cause short circuit.
- The two metals act as electrodes. In such a cell, the more reactive metal has a greater
electrons and forms _____________.
tendency to lose __________ cations
e.g. Mg is more reactive than Cu
At the Mg electrode, Mg loses _________electrons and form _____Mg2+ ions
The ionic half-equation occurred on Mg: Mg(s) ® Mg2+(aq) + 2e–
The Mg2+ cations flow into the solution Mg dissolves
Electrons flow away from Mg strip and moves to copper strip along the electric wires

At the copper electrode, H+ ions on the surface gain electrons to form H2.
The ionic half-equation occurred on Cu: 2H+ (aq) + 2e– ® H2 (g)

- In a cell electrons flow out from the negative pole to positive pole. In this case,
electrons flow from Mg strips to Cu strips through the external circuit. Magnesium
releases electrons; it is the negative electrode. Copper receives electrons; it is the
Mg -> Mg2+ + 2e-
positive electrode.
+ 2H + + 2e- -> H
Overall equation: Mg (aq) + 2H+ (aq) ® Mg2+ (aq) + H2 (g) 2

- The maximum voltage given out by a cell is called electromotive force (e.m.f.) which
gives a measure of how strongly electrons are ‘pushed’ through the circuit.
- The voltage of a cell is measured by multimeter, voltmeter or data logger.with voltage sensor

(b) Method to make simple chemical cell

(1) Cell made of metal electrodes and an electrolyte soaked in filter paper
(2) Dip two metal strips into a beaker of electrolyte.
(3) Fruit cell
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 3

Classwork

Refer to the simple chemical cell below:

e-
Na+ +ve pole -ve pole Cu-> Cu2+ + 2e-
H+
2H+ + 2e- -> H2

(a) What is the direction of electron flow in the external circuit, from silver to copper,
or from copper to silver? Why?
(b) Which is the negative pole?
(c) Suppose the silver foil is replaced by a zinc foil. Is there any change in the
direction of electron flow in the external circuit? Why?
(a) Copper to silver. Copper is more reactive than silver, thus it loses electrons more
readily.
(b) Copper foil.
(c) Electrons flow from zinc to copper. Zinc is more reactive than copper, thus it
loses electrons more readily.

(c) Method to measure the tendency to lose electrons for different metals

The tendency to lose electrons for different metals are different

We can measure this tendency using simple chemical cell by the following experiment
1. Connect the metal under study to the same reference electrode (e.g. Cu) separated by
an electrolyte.
2. Measure the voltage produced using voltmeter or multimeter. e.m.f. (max voltage)
3. Compare the voltage of each pair of metal couple. vs difference in reactivity of metal couple

Metal couple used (Cu connect to the +ve pole of Voltage produced by cell
multimeter) (V) Mg
Magnesium and copper (Mg/Cu) +1.50 Zn
Fe
conc of lemon cell 0.99 V Zinc and copper (Zn/Cu) +0.82
Cu
hydrogen Iron and copper (Fe/Cu) +0.34
Ag
ion
Copper and copper (Cu/Cu) 0.00
increases
Copper and silver (Cu/Ag) -0.14
Sign of voltage – indicate the polarity on reference electrode (e.g. Cu in this case)
- A larger voltage indicates a higher tendency to lose electrons
\ Tendency of losing electrons e.g. Mg > Zn > Fe > Cu > Ag
Classwork
According to the voltages given in Table, calculate the voltage generated by a Mg/Zn
couple with NaCl (aq) as the electrolyte. Voltage= + 1.50 – (+0.82) = +0.68 V
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 4

(d) Electrochemical Series

- The tendency of a metal to lose electrons is indicated in the voltage produced in a
chemical cell
- Electrochemical series (E.C.S.) is the order of metals arranged in decreasing order of the
voltages produced
- Higher position in the E.C.S. => Larger tendency to lose e–
- So highly reactive metals (K, Ca) are at the top and less reactive metals (Ag, Au) are at
the bottom.
- In a chemical cell, if the positions of 2 different metals are far apart in the E.C.S. =>
Larger voltage. Conversely, positions are near =>Smaller voltage
(e) Comparison of the relative positions of metals in the Electrochemical Series and the
metal reactivity series
- The relative positions of metals in the two series are quite similar. They should the
tendency of the metals to lose electrons.

Electrochemical series Metal reactivity series

The E.C.S. is based on voltage
Potassium Potassium measurements. The metal reactivity series is
Calcium Sodium
Sodium Calcium based on how vigorous chemical reactions
Magnesium Magnesium
Aluminium Aluminium are. (different experiment conditions)
Zinc Zinc
Iron Iron

Non-metal
Lead
H
Copper
Lead
Copper
polyatomic ion Silver Silver

Note that:
- The Electrochemical Series is drawn up based on standard electrode potentials. The
standard hydrogen electrode is chosen as the reference electrode.
- A standard hydrogen electrode contains a platinum electrode dipped into a 1 M solution
of hydrochloric acid. Hydrogen gas at 1 atm is bubbled over the surface of the platinum
electrode and the temperature of the electrode is fixed at 25°C. The set-up is shown
below:
2H + (aq)＋2e- H 2 (g)
Factor affecting magnitude of e.m.f.
(voltage)
(1) position of the metal / chemicals in
hydrogen half-cell electrochemical series

electrode (2) concentration of ions

and catalyst (3) pressure of gas

=> H + (aq)
Pt black (4) temperature

- The voltage of the standard hydrogen electrode is arbitrarily taken to be zero volt. All
other voltage of other electrodes are measured relative to it.
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 5

Classwork
Magnesium and iron are used as electrodes in the chemical cell on the right. Electrons
flow from electrode B to electrode A.
(a) Identify electrodes A and B.

e-

A – iron and B - magnesium

(b) State the direction of electron flow and compare the voltage produced with the
original chemical cell if
(i) B is replaced by aluminium voltage decreases Al to Fe same polarity
(ii) A is replaced by copper voltage increases Mg to Cu same polarity
------------------------
(iii) B is replaced by silver voltage increases Fe to Ag reverse polarity
cannot predict the magnitude and voltage because -ve
(c) Referring to the simple chemical cell in part (a), if the sodium chloride solution is
replaced by a sugar solution, could the voltmeter show a reading? Explain.
The voltage drops to zero because sugar solution is a non-electrolyte which does not
contain mobile ion for conduction.

(f) Disadvantages of simple chemical cell

- The above simple chemical cells work only for a short time
∵ Accumulation of charges on the electrodes
- The positive Mg2+ formed accumulate around the negative Mg electrode which hinder
further release of e– from Mg
- The H2 formed accumulate around the positive Cu electrode which has poor conduction
- Fewer e– flow along the wire and current and voltage drops until zero

Acid electrolyte e.g. dilute sulphuric acid reacts with magnesium ribbon directly.

(g) Cells consisting of two metal-metal ion half-cells and a salt bridge
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 6

Mg -> Mg2+ (aq) + 2e- +ve electrode

-ve electrode
Cu 2+ (aq) +2e- -> Cu (s)

H + x xxx

- To obtain better performance of the chemical cell, a simple chemical cell can be
set up by using __________two metal/metal ion half cells, connected with a
___________ .
- salt bridge.
- When we dip a metal electrode into a solution containing its own ions, we obtain a
half-cell
- Salt bridge is prepared by dipping a strip of filter paper into salt solution e.g. NaCl
which does not react with chemicals in two half cells.
At Mg/Mg2+ half-cell: Mg loses e– to form cations. The cations flow into the solution. The
released electrons flow along the electric wires to the Cu electrode.
Half-equation: _______________________Mg(s) ® Mg2+(aq) + 2e–
Observation:
Mg electrode becomes _________smaller / its mass decreases.

At Cu/Cu2+ half cell: Cu2+ ions in the solution gain e– released from the Mg electrode to
form Cu.
Half-equation: _________________________ Cu2+(aq) + 2e– ® Cu(s)
Observation:
The Cu electrode becomes _______larger in size / its mass increases. The blue colour of
the solution becomes pale blue
______ paler ∵ The concentration of Cu2+ decreases.

Overall equation: Mg(s) + Cu2+(aq) ® Mg2+(aq) + Cu(s)

Note:
The Mg electrode must be separated from Cu2+ ion to prevent direction reaction between
Mg and Cu2+. Hence electrons will not flow through the external circuit. Chemical energy
=> heat energy instead of electrical energy
The main functions of a salt bridge are mobile
(1) ___________completing the circuit by allowing the ion to pass through and
(2) ___________balancing the charges in the solution of two half-cells.

Classwork current increases when rate of

reaction increases
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 7

A simple chemical cell is set up as shown (a) Identify the positive and negative
below. electrodes of the chemical cell.
Al is –ve pole and Fe is +ve pole
(b) What is the direction electron flow in
the external circuit?
From Al to Fe

(c) What is A? What is its function in the chemical cell? A is a salt bridge which used to
allow the mobile ion to pass through
complete the circuit by provide mobile ion and balance the charge on both beakers.
(d) Write the half equations at both electrodes and an ionic equation for the overall cell
reaction.
(-ve electrode): Al (s) ® Al3+ (aq) + 3e-
(+ve electrode): Fe2+ (aq) + 2e- ® Fe (s)
Overall ionic equation: 2Al (s) + 3 Fe2+ (aq) ®3Fe (s) +2Al3+ (aq)
(e) State the observable changes in half-cells X and Y after some time.
The Al electrode becomes smaller pale green
The Fe electrode become thicker. The green solution in half-cell Y become paler.

(h) Simple chemical cells with a porous device – Daniell cell

- A Daniell cell consists of a copper/copper(II) sulphate half-cell and zinc/zinc sulphate
half-cell. allow ion to pass through and prevent mixing of two electrolytes
- The half-cells are separated by a porous
pot.
- The porous pot prevents direct mixing
of the two electrolytes. However, it
mobile
allows ions to pass through to complete
the circuit.
Zinc electrode: Zn(s) → Zn2+ (aq)+2e-
Copper electrode: Cu2+(aq) + 2e →
Cu(s) The e.m.f. of the Daniell cell is 1.1 V.
Overall equation:
Zn(s)+Cu2+(aq) → Cu(s)+Zn2+ (aq)
- When the cell operates, more and more Zn2+(aq) ions are formed inside the porous pot,
the solution tends to have a surplus of positive charges.
- Outside the porous pot, there are more and more Cu2+(aq) ions gain electrons to form
Cu(s), the solution tends to have a surplus of negative charges.
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 8

(C) Redox reactions (Chapter 30)

(a) Definition
(1) By addition or removal of oxygen
Oxidation – addition of oxygen
Reduction – removal of oxygen
oxidation
e.g. Mg lose electrons
Cu 2+ ion in the CuO gains electrons
Mg(s) + CuO(s) ® MgO(s) + Cu(s) Thermit reaction

Reducing agent Oxidizing agent

R.A. O.A.

Note ：Student should write full name of R.A. and O.A. in exam.
reduction
- Oxidation and reduction must occur together. We call this type of reaction
oxidation-reduction reactions or redox reactions.
- An oxidizing agent is a substance which oxidizes others.
- A reducing agent is a substance which reduces others

(2) By transferring of electrons

- A redox reaction is a reaction involving transfer of electrons.
loses electrons.
- Oxidation is a process in which a substance ___________________
gains electrons
- Reduction is a process in which a substance __________________.
- An oxidizing agent is a substance which oxidizes others by gaining electrons from
others.
- A reducing agent is a substance which reduces others by losing electrons to others.

Classwork
Consider the displacement reaction:
Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) ® Fe2+(aq) + Cu(s)
(a) Explain why this is a redox reaction in term of transfer of electron.
(b) Which substance is being oxidized? Why?
(c) Which substance is the oxidizing agent? Why?

(a) It involves a transfer of electrons (from Fe(s) to Cu2+(aq)). so it is a redox reaction.

(b) Fe(s) is being oxidized. Fe(s) loses electrons to others.
(c) Cu2+(aq) is the oxidizing agent. Cu2+(aq) gains electrons from other.

P 4 + 6Cl2 -> 4PCl3

Change is oxidation number to predict whether the reaction is redox reaction or not.
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 9

(b) Oxidation Number and Oxidation State

The Oxidation number of an element in a compound is the charge an atom of the
element would have if the atom existed as an ion.
e.g. MgO => Mg2+ and O2-
Oxidation number of magnesium = +2 Oxidation number of oxygen = -2
Oxidation state (O.S.) of magnesium = II
We can assign oxidation numbers to elements in a compound by using the electronegativity
concept.
E.N.
The electronegativity of an atom represents the power of the atom to attract bonding
electrons to itself in a molecule. E.N. value = 0 to 4
H - Cl

2.1 3.5 +1 -1

3.0
the most electronegative element is F (assign the value of E.N. be 4.)
Noble gases does not want to form bonding, so their electronegativity is 0.
OF 2 F- O - F
-1 +2 -1
Br-F
+1 - 1
e.g. oxidation number of Cl in CCl4 = -1 Total sum of the oxidation number of all atoms in the formula

oxidation number of C in CCl4 = +4 = charge of the species

in CCl4 , sum of the O.N. = +4+4(-1)=0

Rule to assign oxidation number

1. The oxidation number of a free element is zero.
2. The oxidation number of an element in a simple ion is equal to the ionic charge.
e.g. oxidation number of Al3+ in Al2O3 = +3
3. The oxidation numbers of some elements in compounds are fixed:
(a) All Group I elements (alkali metals, e.g. Na) = +1
(b) All Group II elements (alkaline earth metals, e.g. Ca) = +2 e.g. LiH, hydride ion
(c) Hydrogen in most of its compounds (except metal hydride) = +1 has formula H -, so the
(d) Fluorine (the most electronegative element ) = -1 O.N. of H - ion = -1//
(e) Oxygen (the second most electronegative element)
in most of its compounds (except peroxide and OF2) -2 H2 O 2
e.g. MgO KOH H2O +2 -1
+1 -1
+2 -2 +1-2+1 +1-2
4. The algebraic sum of oxidation numbers of all elements in a compound is zero. The
algebraic sum of oxidation numbers of all atoms in a polyatomic ion is equal to the ionic
charge.
e.g. H2O MgCl2 OH- H3O+ (+1)x3 + (-2) = +1
+1-2 +2 -1 -2+1 +1 -2
For H2O, (+1) ´ 2 + (-2) = 0
MgCl2, (+2) + (-1) ´ 2 = 0
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 10

OH-, (-2) + (+1) = -1

H3O , +
(+1) ´ 3 + (-2) = +1

5. In a compound or polyatomic ion, the oxidation number of a certain element may have
to be calculated. We have to assign reasonable oxidation numbers to the other
elements first. H3PO3
e.g. The oxidation no. of S in H2SO4
CH3CH2OH C2H6O
+1 a -2
so (+1)x2+a+(-2)x4 = 0 => a = +6 so the oxidation no. of S = +6 //

6. The oxidation number of an element may vary from compound to compound, e.g.
HNO3, HNO2. NH4NO3 contain NH4+ ion and NO3 - ion
+5 +3 -3 +5 -3 +5
Classwork
Find the oxidation numbers of the underlined elements in the following substances or
ions: (+1)2+a+(-2)4=0
(a) S8 (b) Mg3N2 (c) Na2SO4 (d) Na2SO3 (e) K2CrO4 (f) NH4Cl

0 -3 +1 a -2 a = +6 +1 a -2 a=>+4 +1 a =-2 a=> +6 -3

(g) HCO3- (h) Cr2O72- (i) NF3
+1a -2 a=> +4 a -2 a=> +6 -3

e.g. of different oxidation number of S, N, C, Fe, Cu, Mn and Cr

(c) Naming of compound using stock system

Naming of transition metal ion
- name the ion followed by roman number of oxidation state. e.g. Fe2+ iron(II) ion
Naming of polyatomic anion with oxygen
- name the ion end with ‘ate’ followed by roman number of oxidation state for centre atom
Formula Common name Stock system
2-
SO4 sulphate ion sulphate(VI) ion
SO32- sulphite ion sulphate(IV) ion
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 11

Classwork
Name the following compounds using the common name and stock system:
(a) Cu(NO3)2 (a) Copper(II) nitrate or Copper(II) nitrate(V)
(b) Lead(II) hydroxide Chromium(III)
(b) Pb(OH)2 __________________
(c) Chromium(III) sulphate or Chrominium(III) sulphate(VI)
(c) Cr2(SO4)3 (d) Potassium hydrogensulphite or potassium
(d) KHSO3 hydrogensulphate(IV)

(d) Definition of redox reaction by oxidation number

Oxidation
e.g.
Mg(s) + CuO(s) ® MgO(s) + Cu(s)
Oxidation no. 0 +2 -2 +2 -2 0

Reduction
- Oxidation is a process in which the oxidation number of an element in a
increases.
substance____________
- Reduction is a process in which the oxidation number of an element in a substance
decreases
____________.
- A redox reaction is a reaction in which the reacting substances undergo
_____________________________changes in oxidation number.
(e) Summary of the definition of oxidation and reduction
Defined in terms of Oxidation Reduction
Oxygen +O -O
Electron -e +e
Oxidation number Increase in O.N. Decrease in O.N.

Classwork
1. Study the following reactions.
-4 +4 -2
(a) CH4(g) + 2O02(g) ® CO2(g) + 2H2O (l)
(b) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaBr(aq) ® PbBr2(s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)
(c) 6FeSO4(aq) + 3Cl2(g) ® 2Fe2(SO4)2(aq) + 2FeCl3(aq)
3
(d) Cl2 (g) + 2 NaOH (aq) ® NaCl (aq) + NaClO (aq) + H2O (l)
In each0case, state -1 +1
(i) whether the reaction is redox or not
(ii) the formula of the (1) oxidizing agent and (2) reducing agent (if applicable)
(iii) the name of the element which is oxidized (if applicable), explain your answer
using oxidation number.
(a) (i) Redox in CH4 (ii) (1) O2 (2) CH4
(iv) Carbon is oxidized because oxidation number of C changes from -4 to +4.
(b) (i) Not redox (ii), (iii) & (iv): not applicable
(c) (i) Redox (ii) Cl2 (iii) FeSO4 (or Fe2+)
(II) ion
(iv) Iron is oxidized because oxidation number of Fe changes from +2 to +3.
(d) (i) Redox (ii) Cl2 (iii) Cl2
(iv) Chlorine is oxidized because oxidation number of Cl changes from 0 to +1.

Disproportionation - a kind of redox reaction with same species

undergoes oxidation and reduction at the same time.
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 12

2. Classify each of the following as an oxidizing agent, a reducing agent, either, or neither.
Explain your answer.
(a) Fluorine (F2)
(b) Sodium (Na)
(c) Aqueous iron(II) ion (Fe2+(aq))
(d) Neon (Ne)
(a) Fluorine gas (F2) can only act as an oxidizing agent because the oxidation
number of fluorine in a F2 molecule can only be decreased from 0 in F2 to –1 in
its compound. (It is the most electronegative element in the world.)
(b) Sodium metal (Na) can only act as a reducing agent because the oxidation
number of sodium in Na metal can only increase from 0 in Na to +1 in Na+ ion.
(c) Aqueous iron(II) ions, Fe2+(aq), can act either as an oxidizing agent or as a
reducing agent, because the oxidation number of iron in Fe2+ is +2. When the
O.N. decreases to 0 (in Fe), Fe2+ acts as an oxidizing agent. When the O.N.
increases to +3 (in Fe3+), Fe2+ acts as a reducing agent.
(d) Being chemically inert, neon gas (Ne) is neither an oxidizing agent nor a
reducing agent. Its oxidation number is always zero.
Conc. H 2 SO4 2M dilute nitric acid
2e- + 2H + + H 2 SO4 => SO2 + 2H 2 O 3e- + 4H + + NO3 - => NO + 2H 2 O
- 2-
2e + SO4 2- +2H + ＋H 2 SO4 -> SO2 + 2H 2 O +SO4 +5 +2
6e- + 14H + + Cr2 O7 2-
=> 2Cr3+ +7H 2 O
2e- + 2H 2 SO4 => SO2 + 2H 2 O +SO4 2-

(D) (a) Common oxidizing agent and reducing agent 5e- +8H + + MnO4 - => Mn 2+ + 4H 2 O

KMnO4 (aq)/H + (aq)

K 2 Cr2 O7 (aq)/H + (aq)

Very dilute Nitrogen monoxide

(<0.5M) (2M)
HNO3 reacts with Nitrogen dioxide
(>4M)
metal to give

hydrogen gas (98% by mass)

H + => H 2
aq
O2 (g) -> H2O O2 + 4e- -> 2O2-

I2 (aq) => I- (aq)

greenish yellow gas
brown colourless

don't use bromine liquid to expt

(aq)

white solid

Acid medium 4e- + 4H + + O2 => 2H 2 O

(1) balance atom which have change O.N.
(2) balance O atom by adding H2O Alkaline medium 4e- +4OH - + 4H + + O2 => 2H 2 O + 4OH -
(3) balance H atom by adding H+ ion 4H 2 O
(4) balance charge by adding e- 2H 2 O 4e- + 2H 2 O + O2 => 4OH -
(5) If the medium is alkaline, add OH- on both side which change all H+ ion to H2O
The reaction is occurred in neutral medium, we alkaline medium to balance the equation.
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 13

2H 2 O + SO2 => SO4 2- + 4H + + 2e-

C + 2H 2 O -> CO2 + 4H + + 4e-

C + 4OH- -> CO2 + 2H2O + 4e-

Carbon monoxide

Classwork
When excess sodium sulphite solution is added to acidified potassium permanganate
solution, there is a colour change.
Observation: The colour changes from _________ purple to ___________ colourless.
Explanation
purple
The ___________ MnO4-(aq) ions are __________ Mn2+
reduced to colourless __________ ions. The
2-
colourless SO32-(aq) ions are _________ SO4
oxidized to colourless ____________ ions.
Which one is the oxidizing agent? Explain your answer briefly.
MnO4- is an oxidizing agent because the oxidation no. of Mn decreases from +7 to +2.

(b) Steps to balance half reactions and overall ionic equation

(i) Steps to balance half reactions
e.g. Reaction between acidified potassium dichromate and sodium sulphite
Step 1 Write the main change for each ionic half-equation.
Oxidation : SO32- to SO42-
Reduction: Cr2O72- to Cr3+

Step 2: Write separate ionic half-equations for oxidation and reduction. Balance each
half-equation with respect to atoms by adding the correct number of H2O, H+ or OH-.
(i) balance the atom which change oxidation no.
(ii) balance the O atom by adding H2O
(iii) balance the H atom by adding H+
(iv) balance the charge by adding e-
Oxidation: SO32- + H2O® SO42- + 2H+ + 2e-
Reduction: Cr2O72- + 14 H+ + 6e-® 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 14

(ii) Steps to balance the overall ionic equation from half equation
Multiply each balanced ionic half-equation by a number, so that the number of electrons
gained in one half-equation is equal to that lost in the other.
e.g. SO32- + H2O® SO42- + 2H+ + 2e- x ____3
+ Cr2O7 (aq) + 14H + 6e ® 2 Cr + 7 H2O
2- + - 3+
x ____1
3 SO3 + Cr2O7 + 14 H + 3 H2O ® 3 SO4 + 6 H + 2 Cr + 4 H2O
2- 2- + 2- + 3+
8 4
3 SO32- + Cr2O72- + 8 H+ ® 3 SO42- + 2 Cr3++ 4 H2O
Classwork
For each of the following reactions taking place:
(a) Chlorine gas mixed with potassium bromide solution
(b) Acidified potassium permanganate solution mixed with iron(II) sulphate solution
work out
(c) Dilute nitric acid mixed with sulphur dioxide
(i) the reduction half-equation
(ii) the oxidation half-equation
(iii) the overall ionic equation
(a) (i) Cl2(g) + 2e- ® 2Cl-(aq)
(ii) 2Br-(aq) ® Br2(aq) + 2e-
(iii) Cl2(g) + 2Br-(aq) ® 2Cl-(aq) + Br2(aq)
(b) (i) MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e- ® Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
(ii) Fe2+(aq) ® Fe3+(aq) + e-
(iii) MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq)® Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l) + 5Fe3+(aq)
(c) (i) NO3-(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 3e- ® NO(g) + 2H2O(l)
(ii) SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ® SO42-(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 2e-
(iii) 2 NO3-(aq) + 3 SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ®2 NO(g) + 3 SO42-(aq) + 4H+(aq)

(E) (a) Electrochemical Series

Li+ (aq) + e- < => Li(s)

1M, 25 oC, 1atm

inert electrode
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 15

(b) Use of electrochemical series

(i) Comparing the strength of oxidizing agents and reducing agents
- The lower the position of an oxidizing agent in the E.C.S., the stronger its oxidizing
power
- The higher the position of a reducing agent in the E.C.S., the stronger its reducing power
Classwork
1. Refer to the Electrochemical Series.
(a) Which is the weakest oxidizing agent? K+ ion
(b) Which is the weakest reducing agent? F- ion
(c) Which ion can act as both an oxidizing agent and a reducing agent? Fe2+

2. Arrange the oxidizing power of halogen in decreasing order.

F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
3. Arrange the reducing power of Mg, Zn, H2 and Cu in decreasing order.
Mg > Zn > H2 > Cu
(ii) Predict of redox reaction (spontaneous)
- Not all oxidizing agents and reducing agent react with each other
- In general, strong oxidizing agents react with strong reducing agents

- Metals higher in the E.C.S. react with metal ions lower in the series but not vice versa

Displacement
Mg (s) + Cu 2+(aq) -> Cu (s) + Mg2+ (aq)

Classwork
1. Combine the following two ionic half-equations into an ionic equation for a possible
reaction.
Ag+(aq) + e- Ag(s) (lower in the E.C.S)
Fe3+(aq) + e- Fe2+(aq) (higher in the E.C.S)

Fe2+(aq) + Ag+(aq) ® Fe3+(aq) + Ag(s)

2. Predict whether each pair of the following reagents can undergo a redox reaction when
they are mixed together. If yes, identify the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent. If
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 16

no, explain why a redox reaction does not occur. Write down the equation occurred (if
any)
(a) Conc. HNO3(aq) and Na2SO3(aq)
(b) Cl2(g) and Fe(NO3)3(aq)
(c) acidified K2Cr2O7 (aq) and NaBr(aq)
(d) AgNO3(aq) and KCl(aq)
(e) NaOH(aq) and Fe2(SO3)3(aq)
(f) CuO(s) and C(s)
(a) Yes. Oxidizing agent: Conc. HNO3(aq); Reducing agent: Na2SO3(aq)
Reduction: NO3- (aq) + 2H+ (aq) + e- ® NO2 (g) + H2O (l) x2
Oxdation: + SO _____________________________________________________
3 (aq) + 2H (aq) + 2e ® SO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
2- + - 2-
x1
2_____________________________________________________________
NO3- (aq) + 6H+ (aq) + SO32- (aq) ® SO42- (aq) + 2 NO2 (g) + 3 H2O (l)

(b) No. Both Cl2(g) and Fe(NO3)3(aq) are oxidizing agents.

(c) Yes. Oxidizing agent: K2Cr2O7/H+(aq); Reducing agent: NaBr (aq)

Reduction: Cr2O72- (aq) + 14H+ (aq) + 6e- ® 3 Cr3+ (aq) + 7 H2O (l) x3
aq
Oxidation: + 2 Br- (aq) ® Br2 (g) + 2e- 2 x1
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cr2O72- (aq) + 14H+ (aq) + 6 Br- (aq) ® 3 Cr3+ (aq) + 7 H2O (l) + Br2 (g)

(d) No. AgNO3(aq) and KCl(aq) react to form a precipitate AgCl but there is no transfer of electrons in
the reaction. Ag+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) ® AgCl (s)

(e) No. NaOH(aq) and Fe2(SO4)3(aq) react to form a precipitate Fe(OH)3 but there is no transfer of
electrons in the reaction. Fe3+ (aq) + 3 OH- (aq) ® Fe(OH)3 (s)

(f) Yes. Oxidizing agent: CuO(s); Reducing agent: C(s)

2 CuO (s) + C (s) ® 2 Cu + CO2

3. For each of the following chemical reactions, determine the oxidation number of each
element before and after the reaction. Hence state which element undergoes oxidation
and which element undergoes reduction.
(a) C(s) + O2(g) ® CO2(g)
C is oxidized because the oxidation number of carbon
(b) CH4(g) + 2O2(g) ® CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
(c) 2NO(g) + O2(g) ® 2NO2(g) increases from 0 to +4.
(d) S2O3 + 2H ® SO2 + S + H2O
2- + O is reduced because the oxidation number of oxygen
thiosulphate ion
(e) 2H2O2 ® 2H2O + O2 decreases from 0 to -2.
(a) C(s) + O2(g) ® CO2(g)
0 0 +4-2 C is oxidized and O is reduced
(b) CH4(g) + 2O2(g) ® CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
-4 +1 0 +4-2 +1-2 C is oxidized and O is reduced
(c) 2NO(g) + O2(g) ® 2NO2(g)
+2-2 0 +4-2 N is oxidized and O is reduced
(d) S2O32- + 2H+ ® SO2 + S + H2O
+2 -2 +1 +4-2 0 +1-2 S is oxidized and reduced at the same time
(e) 2H2O2 ® 2H2O + O2
+1 -1 +1-2 0 O is oxidized and reduced at the same time

Disproportionation
 brown
Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 17

(F) Chlorine as an oxidizing agent

(i) Action with halide ions
Greenish yellow gas
- Chlorine is a strong oxidizing agent. In most of its reactions, chlorine acts as an
oxidizing agent its oxidation number decreases from 0 to –1.
Half-equation: Cl2 + 2e– ® 2Cl–
- When aqueous chlorine is added to potassium bromide solution, bromine is produced.
The colourless solution changes to yellowish brown. Chlorine (Cl2) is reduced to
chloride ion (Cl–). The O.N. of chlorine decreases from 0 to –1. Since chlorine is a
stronger oxidizing agent than bromine, it displaces bromine out from the potassium
bromide solution.
Equation : Cl2(aq) + 2Br–(aq) ® 2Cl–(aq) + Br2(aq) displacement
- A non-aqueous solvent (e.g. heptane) is added to the solution. After shaking and
allowing it to stand for some time, the mixture separates into two layers. The heptane
layer on the top extracts most of the bromine from the bottom aqueous layer. The
brown immiscible with water
orange-red colour in the heptane layer indicates the presence of bromine.
- When aqueous chlorine is added to potassium iodide solution, iodine is produced. The
colourless solution changes to brown.
Equation: Cl2(aq) + 2I–(aq) ® 2Cl–(aq) + I2(aq)
- Since chlorine is a stronger oxidizing agent than iodine, it displaces iodine out from the
hexane
potassium iodide solution. If a non-aqueous solvent (e.g. heptane) is added and the
solution is shaken and allowed to stand for some time, the heptane layer on the top
extracts most of the iodine from the bottom aqueous layer. The purple colour in the
heptane layer indicates the presence of iodine.

(ii) Action of aqueous chlorine on sodium hydroxide solution

- For some reactions, chlorine is reduced and oxidized at the same time. The reaction in
which a species is simultaneously reduced and oxidized is called disproportionation.
- When chlorine gas is passed into a cold dilute sodium hydroxide solution, sodium
chloride (NaCl) and sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) are produced.
Chlorine bleach
Chemical equation : Cl2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) ® NaCl(aq) + NaOCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Ionic equation: Cl2(g) + 2OH–(aq) ® Cl–(aq) + OCl–(aq) + H2O(l)
-1 +1
0
- When Cl2(g) is passed into a hot concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, sodium
chloride (NaCl) and sodium chlorate (NaClO3) are produced. chlorate ion
Chemical equation : 3Cl2(g) + 6NaOH(aq) ® 5NaCl(aq) + NaClO3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Ionic equation : 3Cl2(g) + 6OH–(aq) ® 5Cl–(aq) + ClO3–(aq) + 3H2O(l)
- The O.N. of chlorine in Cl2 in NaCl and NaClO3 are –1 and +5. Chlorine is
simultaneously reduced and oxidized.
Br2 and I2 react with sodium hydroxide using the equation for Cl2 reacts with hot NaOH.
So 3 Br2 (aq) + 6NaOH (aq) -> 5 NaBr (aq) + NaBrO3 (aq) + 3 H2 O (l)
3 I2 (aq) + 6 NaOH (aq) -> 5 NaI (aq) + NaIO3 (aq) + 3 H2 O (l)
 typical acid vs oxidizing acid

Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 18

(G) Nitric acid

(a) Reaction of dilute nitric acid with metal Cu
Change in oxidation
Chemical formulae of products
<0.5 M number of nitrogen
Reducing power
1. Very dilute HNO3 No reaction No change
Zn > H 2 > Cu
2. Dilute HNO3 2M Cu(NO3)2, NO and H2O From +5 to +2
NO is colourless gas which turns to brown when it reacts with air.
3. Concentrated >2M
Cu(NO3)2, NO2 and H2O From +5 to +4
HNO3 NO2 is brown gas

Half-equation for dilute HNO3: NO3-(aq) + 4H+(aq) +3e-® NO(g) + 2H2O(l)

Half-equation for Cu: Cu (s) ® Cu2+(aq) + 2e-

Overall reaction involved for dilute HNO3 and Cu:

3Cu(s) + 2NO3-(aq) + 8H+(aq) ® 3Cu2+(aq) + 2NO(g) + 4H2O(l)

- The nitrogen monoxide evolved reacts readily with the oxygen in air to form reddish
brown nitrogen dioxide gas.
2NO(g) + O2(g) ® 2NO2(g)
colourless (from air) reddish brown

Half-equation for conc. HNO3: NO3-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + e- ® NO2(g) + H2O(l)

Half-equation for Cu: Cu (s) ® Cu2+(aq) + 2e-
Overall equation: Cu(s) + 2NO3-(aq) + 4H+(aq) ® Cu2+(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

(b) Reaction of concentrated nitric acid with non-metal e.g. C or S

Hot concentrated nitric acid oxidizes carbon to carbon dioxide. Reddish brown fumes of
nitrogen dioxide are produced.

CO2 can turn limewater to from

Half-equation: NO3-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + e- ® NO2(g) + H2O(l) colourless to milky.
C (s) + 2H2O (l) ® CO2 (g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e-
Overall equation: C(s) + 4HNO3(aq) ® CO2(g) + 4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
heating
S (s) + 4HNO3 (aq) -> SO2 (g)＋ 4NO2 (g) + 2H 2 O (l)
SO2 is a reducing gas which turns acidified potassium permanganate solution /
KMnO4 (aq)/H + (aq) from purple to colourless.

SO2 is a reducing gas which turns acidified potassium dichromate solution from orange to
green. K2 Cr2 O7 (aq) / H+ (aq)
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 19

(c) Reaction with iron(II) ions

Concentrated nitric acid oxidizes iron(II) salts to iron(III) and itself reduce to NO.
Chemical equation: 3Fe2+(aq) + NO3–(aq) + 4H+(aq) ® 3Fe3+(aq) + NO(g) + 2H2O(l)

(d) Reaction with sulphite

Concentrated nitric acid oxidizes sulphite to sulphate ion and itself reduce to NO2.
Chemical equation: SO32–(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2NO3–(aq) ® SO42–(aq) + 2NO2(g) + H2O(l)

(H) Concentrated sulphuric acid

(a) Oxidizing properties
With metals
- Hot concentrated sulphuric acid attacks all metals (except gold and platinum), forming
the corresponding sulphate and sulphur dioxide (not hydrogen). Take copper as an
example:
e.g. Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(l) ® CuSO4(s) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Cu reacts with conc. sulphuric acid which forms some black solid at
With non-metals the beginning. The black solid is CuO (HKDSE syllabus)
- Hot concentrated sulphuric acid oxidizes non-metals (such as carbon and sulphur) to
their oxides:
e.g. C(s) + 2H2SO4(l) ® CO2(g) + 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
S(s) + 2H2SO4(l) ® 3SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

(b) Dehydrating properties

- Concentrated sulphuric acid has a great affinity for water which can remove water from
substance.
- Concentrated sulphuric acid can act as a drying agent to dry gases (e.g. H2, O2) which
do not react with the acid.

x ammonia

x ethene C2 H 4 / alkene

- It can remove water of crystallization from hydrated salts.

conc. H2SO4
CuSO4•5H2O(s) ¾® CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)
blue white
- Concentrated sulphuric acid can even remove the elements of water from various
compounds.
conc. H2SO4
C12H22O11(s) ¾® 12C(s) + 11H2O(l)
white black solid / spongy

n C6 H12 O6 -> -[C6 H10 O5 ]n - +ｎH2 O condensation polymerization

Monomer Polymer
conc. H2 SO4
-[C6 H10 O5 ]n - ----> 6nC (s) + 5n H2 O (l)
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 20

(c) Reaction of non-volatile acid with sodium halide

(i) Reaction with sodium chloride

- Concentrated sulphuric acid can be used to prepare volatile hydrogen chloride gas by
reacting with solid sodium chloride.
Chemical equation: NaCl (s) + H2SO4 (l) ® NaHSO4 (s) + HCl (g)

H 2 + Cl2 -> 2 HCl not attempted in the

labthe reaction is explosive.

- Since HCl is very soluble in water or methylbenzene. Sucking back of solution may occur.
Inverted funnel used in the set-up can prevent sucking back.

(ii) Reaction with sodium bromide

Concentrated sulphuric acid is strong enough to oxidize HBr to Br2 and itself reduced to
SO2. NaBr (s) +Ｈ2 SO4 (l) -> NaHSO4 (s) + HBr
Chemical equation: 2HBr(g) + H2SO4(l) ® Br2(g) + SO2 (g) + 2 H2O(l)
HBr is stronger R.A. than HCl

(ii) Reaction with sodium iodide

Concentrated sulphuric acid is strong enough to oxidize and HI to I2 and itself reduced to
H2S. NaI (s) +Ｈ2 SO4 (l) -> NaHSO4 (s) + HI
Chemical equation: 8HI(g) + H2SO4(l) ® 4I2(g) + H2S(g) + 4H2O(l)
purple lead(II) ethanoate paper turns from white to black / brown
Classwork
1. Potassium permanganate is acidified by dilute sulphuric acid. Can we use dilute
hydrochloric acid and dilute nitric acid to acidify potassium permanganate solution?
Why? Write down chemical equation for the reaction occurred (if any).
No. It is because HCl(aq) (actually the Cl– ions) can be oxidized by KMnO4.
10Cl- + 2MnO4- + 16H+ ® 5Cl2 + 2Mn2+ + 8H2O
Moreover dilute nitric acid can compete with KMnO4 as the oxidizing agent since it is
also a strong oxidizing agent.

conc. acids are not used because they are corrosive.

acidified silver nitrate solution - test chloride ion white ppt which is insoluble in acid
dilute nitric acid to acidify silver nitrate
dilute sulphuric acid can form insoluble silver sulphate with silver nitrate solution
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 21

2. For the following chemical reactions, write balanced chemical equations using the
method of ionic half equations; state the change in oxidation number of the elements in
the reactants and all the observable change(s).
(a) Mg(s) + HCl(aq)
(b) Al(s) + conc. HNO3(aq)
(c) SO2(g) + KMnO4/H+(aq)
(d) Carbon + lead(II) oxide on heating
(e) Dilute nitric acid + sodium bromide
(f) Concentrated sulphuric acid + sodium iodide The products are iodine and sulphur dioxide
(g) Heating concentrated sulphuric acid with sulphur powder
(a) Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) ® MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
0 +1 +2 0
Magnesium dissolves in acid / decrease in size. Colourless gas is evolved.

(b) Al(s) + 3NO3–(aq) + 6H+(aq) ® Al3+(aq) + 3NO2(g) + 3H2O(l)

0 +5 +3 +4
Aluminium dissolves in acid / decreases in size. Brown gas is evolved. Temperature
rises.

(c) SO2(g) + 2MnO4–(aq) + 2H2O(l)® 5SO42–(aq) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 4H+(aq)

+4 +7 +6 +2
+
KMnO4/H (aq) changes from purple to colourless / very pale pink. Sulphur dioxide
dissolves in solution.

(d) C(s) + 2PbO(s) ® 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)

0 +2 0 +4
On heating, PbO(s) firstly changes from yellow to orange and finally to silvery grey.

(e) 2NO3–(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 6Br–(aq) ® 3Br2(aq) + 2NO(g) + 4H2O(l)

+5 -1 0 +2
Solution changes from colourless to brown / orange. Colourless gas is evolved.
Temperature rises. which turns brown at the mouth of
test tube

(f) 2I- + 2H+ H2SO4 -> I2 (g) + SO2 + 2 H2O

purple fume observed. colourless gas which turns acidified
K2Cr2O7 paper from orange to green.
(g) S (s) + 2H2SO4 (l) -> 3SO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
yellow S solid dissolves and colourless gas evolved turns
acidified K2Cr2O7 paper from orange to green.
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 22

(I) Change in simple chemical cells

(a) Redox reaction occurred in a simple chemical cell
(d) Consider a simple chemical cell consisting of a metal couple magnesium/copper and
dilute sulphuric acid

0 +2
(e) At magnesium electrode: Mg (s) ® Mg2+ (aq) + 2e-
(f) Magnesium electrode is said to be the anode of the cell because at the magnesium
electrode, Mg is oxidized to Mg2+ ion.
+1 0
(g) At copper electrode: 2H+ (aq) + 2e- ® H2 (g)
(h) Copper electrode is said to be the cathode of the cell because at the copper electrode, H+
is reduced to H2.
(i) The overall reaction: Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) ® Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
(j) The reaction in chemical cell is a redox reaction.

(k) An ______ anode refers to the electrode at which oxidation takes place
(l) A __________ cathode refers to the electrode at which reduction takes place.
Classwork
1. Is the negative electrode of a chemical cell anode or cathode? anode (oxidation occurs at anode)
Is the positive electrode of a chemical cell anode or cathode? cathode (reduction occurs at cathode)
2. A simple chemical cell is shown below. (a) Identify the anode and the cathode of
the above chemical cell.
(b) At which electrode does reduction
occur?
(c) At which electrode does oxidation
occur?
(d) Write ionic half equations for the
oxidation and the reduction that take
place.
Zinc is more reactive than Ag. Zn lose electrons and oxidizes to form Zn2+ ion
(a) Anode: zinc electrode Cathode: silver electrode
(b) Silver electrode (cathode) Ag is less reactive than Zn. On Ag electrode, H+ ion gain electrons and
(c) Zinc electrode (anode) reduces to form H2 gas.
(d) Oxidation half equation: Zn(s) ® Zn2+(aq) + 2e-
Reduction half equation: Ag +(
aq) + e- ® Ag(s)
-----------------------------

2H+ + 2e -> H2
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 23

(b) Simple chemical cell using inert electrodes

(m) We can construct simple chemical cells using carbon (graphite) or platinum
electrodes (inert electrodes) if the oxidizing agent or reducing agent is not a conductor
which can be the electrode.

KNO3 (aq)

K+ ion weak O.A.

I- ion R.A. Fe3+ ion is O.A.
SO4 2- ion is weak R.A.

At electrode P (Anode) (-ve electrode in a cell)

Half-equation: 2I (aq)® I2(aq) + 2e-
-

Observation: A brown colour appears around the electrode.

At electrode Q (Cathode (+ve electrode in a cell)
Half-equation: Fe3+(aq) + e- ® Fe2+(aq)
Observation: The solution changes from yellow to green gradually.
Overall cell reaction: 2I-(aq) + 2Fe3+(aq) ® I2(aq) + 2Fe2+(aq)

MnO4 - ion is strong O.A.

Fe2+ is R.A.
SO4 2- is weak R.A.

At anode (-ve electrode in a cell)

Half-equation: Fe2+(aq) ® Fe3+(aq) + e–
Observation: the solution changes from green to yellow gradually.
At cathode (+ve electrode in a cell)
Half-equation: MnO4–(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e–® Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
Observation: the purple colour of the solution fades out gradually.
Overall cell reaction: turns to pale purple

MnO4–(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq)® Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)+ Fe2+(aq)

 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 24

Classwork
1. A simple chemical cell is set up as shown in Figure. Both electrodes are made of
platinum.

H2 (g) is R.A.

Br- ion is R.A. H+ is O.A.

Br2 is O.A. Cl- is R.A.

K+ ion is weak O.A.

(a) Which two chemical species in the left half cell can undergo an oxidation/a
reduction reaction? Br– and Br2 metal / metal ion half cell Mg -> Mg2+ + 2e-
(b) Which two chemical species in the right half cell can undergo an oxidation/a
reduction reaction? H2 and H+ 2H+ +2e- < => H2
(c) With reference to electrochemical series, find out the relative strengths of
Br2 + 2e- < => 2Br-
oxidizing agents and reducing agents present.
(d) Write ionic half equations for the reactions taking place at the electrodes.
(e) Write an overall equation for the cell reaction.
(f) Predict the direction of flow of electrons in the external circuit.
(g) Predict ONE observation that can be made when the circuit is closed.
(c) The ionic half equation, Br2(aq) + 2e– ⇌2Br–(aq) is lower than
2H+(aq) + 2e– ⇌H2(g) in e.c.s. electrochemical series
Thus, Br2(aq) is a stronger oxidizing agent than H+(aq) while H2(g) is a stronger
reducing agent than Br–(aq).

(d) In the left half cell is: Br2(aq) + 2e– ® 2Br–(aq)

In the right half cell is: H2(g) ® 2H+(aq) + 2e–
(e)The overall cell reaction is: Br2(aq) + H2(g) ® 2H+(aq) + 2Br–(aq)
(f) Electrons flow from the right electrode to the left electrode in the external circuit.
(g) The orange-brown colour of the bromine solution in the left beaker slowly fades.
turns pale brown.
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 25

2. (CE1995)

When the circuit in the set-up shown above is closed, the acidified potassium
permanganate solution loses its colour gradually.
(a) Write a half equation for the reaction that occurs in the acidified potassium
permanganate solution. Explain whether the permanganate ion is oxidized or
reduced. MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e → Mn2+ + 4H2O
MnO4- is reduced because it receives electrons / the oxidation number of Mn
decreases from +7 to +2 / the oxidation number of Mn decreases.

(b) What would be observed in the potassium iodide solution after some time? Write a
half equation for the reaction that would occur.
The solution turns brown / yellow.
(DO NOT accept iodine / brown solid is formed,)
2I- → I2 +2e-

(c) Identify the direction of electron flow in the external circuit.

From KI solution to KMnO4, solution / from RHS to LHS / Counter clockwise.

(d) Write an ionic equation for the reaction that occurs when an acidified potassium
permanganate solution and a potassium iodide solution are mixed together.
2MnO4- + 16H+ + 10I- → 2Mn2+ +8H2O + 5I2
(e) (1) What is the function of the salt bridge in the set-up?
To allow migration of ions between the two beakers
(Accept to complete the circuit by allowing movement of ions)
balancing the charge of two half-cell
(2) Explain whether a sodium sulphite solution can be used instead of a potassium
nitrate solution in the salt bridge.
No. Sodium sulphite can be oxidized / react with permanganate ions.
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 26

(J) Chemistry of dry cell (chapter 28)

(a) Basic terms related to chemical cell

According to the rechargeable nature, the chemical cell can be divided into
(1) primary cell – non-rechargeable
(2) secondary cell – rechargeable
Primary cell Secondary cell
Dry cell Zinc-carbon cell Nickel-cadmium cell
Alkaline manganese cell Lithium ion cell
Silver oxide cell Nickel metal hydride cell
Wet cell Lead-acid accumulator
(n) There
-ve
are some basic terms related to dry cells: battery, electromotive force (voltage),
+ve
anode, cathode, electrolyte, discharge, discharge curve, charge capacity, service life,
shelf life, shape and size.

(o) A battery is an arrangement of two or more cells.

(p) The electromotive force (e.m.f.) or voltage of a cell is the maximum potential
difference between the terminals of the cell. This force is measured in volts.
e.g. (a) A normal cylindrical zinc-carbon cell or alkaline manganese cell has 1.5 V.
(b) A rectangular zinc-carbon cell or alkaline manganese cell has 9 V because there
is six 1.5 V. cell arranged in series.
a 1.5 V cell a 9 V battery 1.5 x 6 = 9 V

- An anode is the electrode where oxidation occurs. It is the negative electrode from
which electrons flow out into an external circuit. (Note it is different from anode in
electrolysis)
- A cathode is the electrode where reduction occurs. It is the positive electrode into
which electrons flow from the external circuit. (Note it is different from cathode in
electrolysis)
- An electrolyte is the medium which has mobile ion for ionic conduction between the
two electrodes of a cell.
- Discharge is the conversion of chemical energy of a cell into electrical energy. A
discharge curve shows the relationship between voltage and time of discharge.

Voltage Voltage

Time of discharge Time of discharge

(a) Sloping discharge curve (b) Flat discharge curve

Voltage drops gradually. Voltage remains steady until
discharge is complete.
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 27

- Service life (or simply life) is the period of useful

service of a cell under specified conditions, before its
voltage falls to a certain value (usually 0.8 V).
- Experiment to determine the discharge curve
1. Connect a cell with a load (e.g. three 1.5 volt light working
bulbs) voltage
2. Measure the voltage of the cell against with time
of discharge using data logger and voltage sensor
3. Plot the voltage-time of discharge graph.

Classwork
1. Which cell would supply a steady current, one with a sloping discharge curve or one
with a flat curve? Suggest which type of cell can supply a steady current and voltage.
The one with a flat curve.
Alkaline manganese cell, silver oxide cell and nickel-cadmium rechargeable cell.
Sloping discharge curve - Zinc-carbon cell

2. Which cell has a longer service life, zinc-carbon cell or alkaline manganese cell?
Alkaline manganese cell because the longer time for its voltage to drop below 0.8 V
working voltage.

- Charge capacity (or capacity) is the quantity of electricity a cell can deliver under
certain specified conditions. It is usually expressed as mAh.
- Charge capacity = current x time of discharge
- Charge capacity - => use longer time

- Shelf life usually refers to the duration of storage (at 21oC) at the end of which a cell
retains only 90% capacity.
Rechargable cells have shorter shelf life than non-rechargable cells.
size
- Shape and cell - There are two common shapes: cylindrical and button. Four different
sizes of cylindrical cells are the most widely available, with codes of AAA, AA, C and
D. Button cells look like a button.

Which size of the cylindrical cell has greatest charge capacity? D-size

Button cell has smaller charge capacity than

cylindrical cell.

AAA, AA, C, D
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 28

(b) Comparing the characteristics and uses of different cells.

Types of cells Zinc-carbon cell Alkaline Silver oxide cell Nickel-cadmium

+MnO2 manganese cell rechargeable cell
Electrodes (+) graphite (+) manganese (+) silver oxide or (+) nickel(IV)
(−) zinc (IV) oxide (−) zinc oxide
(−) zinc (−) cadmium
Electrolyte ammonium potassium potassium potassium
NH 4 Cl SA-WB chloride hydroxide hydroxide hydroxide
Voltage 1.5 V 1.5 V 1.55 V 1.25 V
Rechargeable or Ｘ Ｘ Ｘ Ö
not?
Charge capacity 200−8000 500−20 000 12−180 100−10 000
(mAh) (depending
on size)
Voltage over falls rapidly falls slowly constant voltage constant voltage
discharge sloping discharging curve over discharge over discharge
Able to supply a Ｘ Ö Ö Ö
steady voltage?
Able to produce a Ｘ Ö Ｘ Ö
large current? rate of reaction
Average service life short long long long
Approximate shelf ~1.5 ~3 ~2 much shorter than
life (years) zinc react with acidic electrolyte others
Shape cylindrical cylindrical button cylindrical
Price Cheap medium (about 3 expensive expensive
times as much as a
zinc-carbon cell of
the same size)
Advantages Low cost Low internal Lightweight able to operate at a
Long shelf life resistance Small in size relatively high
Able to operate Able to operate discharge rate
continuously at a over a wide can be recharged
relatively high temperature range more than 500
discharge rate over times with a battery
a wide temperature charger
range low internal
Long shelf life resistance
Disadvantages Poor performance Too expensive for Expensive Ni and Cd
in high-drained use in low-drained compounds is toxic
devices devices
Poor performance
at low temperatures
Leakage of
electrolytes
Typical uses suitable for suitable for suitable for suitable for
low-drained or high-drained small-sized, high-drained
intermittently-used continuously-used continuously-used electrical
electrical electrical electrical appliances appliances, such as
appliances, such as appliances requiring a small indoor wireless
torches, portable (requiring a steady steady current, such phones, MP3
radios, clocks and current), such as as quartz watches players and
calculators MP3 players, and clocks, motorized toys
motorized toys, calculators,
photo flashguns, cigarette lighters,
shavers and hearing aids and
portable TVs small electronic
instruments
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 29

Types of cells Lithium-ion Nickel-metal hydride Lead-acid accumulator

rechargeable cell (NiMH) rechargeable
cell Ni(OH)2
Electrodes (+) Lithium metal oxide (+) nickel-oxy-hydroxide (+) lead(IV) oxide
(−) Lithium-carbon (−) metal hydride (−) lead
compound hydrogen absorbed alloy
Electrolyte lithium salt in an potassium hydroxide sulphuric acid
organic solvent
Voltage 3.7 V 1.2 V 12 V (6 cells connecte
in series)
Rechargeable or not? Ö Ö Ö
Charge capacity (mAh) 700−2500 500−8250 1.3−3.3 (Ah)
(depending on size)
Voltage over discharge constant voltage over constant voltage over falls slowly
discharge discharge
Able to supply a steady Ö Ö Ö
voltage?
Able to produce a large Ö Ö Ö
current?
Average service life long long long
Approximate shelf life short much shorter than short
(years) others
Shape Cylindrical or prismatic Cylindrical Box -like
Price Very expensive Expensive Very expensive
Advantages High energy High energy Relatively low
density density cost of electricity
Lightweight Low internal Extremely high
Can be recharged resistance current
more than 1200 Can be recharged Can be recharged
times more than 500 more than 500
Able to operate at times times
relatively high Able to operate at Able to operate at
discharge rate relatively high relatively high
discharge rate discharge rate
Disadvantages Very expensive Expensive Very expensive
Subjected to aging, High initial cost for Heavy
even if not in use the battery charger Lead and lead
Old cells may be easily compounds are toxic
overheated and explode
Requires protection of
circuit to maintain
voltage and current
within safety limits
Typical uses suitable for suitable for suitable as an
high-drained electrical high-drained electrical uninterruptible power
appliances, such as appliances, such as supply, suitable for
mobile phones, digital indoor wireless phones, high-drained electrical
cameras, notebook digital cameras, PDAs appliances, such as
computers, PDAs emergency lighting,
wheelchairs, telecom
back-up power
supplies, engine
starters
Car battery
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 30

(c) Choosing a dry cell for a particular use

When choosing a dry cell for a particular use, we need to consider the following aspects:

Price Voltage
Size and shape Rechargeability
Charge capacity Shelf life
Current delivered (steady or not /large or Risk of leakage
small)
Classwork

1. Based on your experience in daily life, what are the advantages of using zinc-carbon
cells and alkaline manganese cells respectively?
Zinc-carbon cells are cheap. Alkaline manganese cells have a larger charge capacity
and a longer service life. longer shelf life, steady voltage and current, larger current

2. What are the two major advantages of using silver oxide cells?
They produce a steady voltage.
They are small in size.

3. What is the greatest advantage of using rechargeable cells e.g. nickel-cadmium cells
and lithium hydride cells?
They are rechargeable so that it saves money and produce less solid wastes.

Disadvantage : shorter shelf life, expensive

4. There is usually a warning label on smoke detectors: ‘Do not use rechargeable cells.
Alkaline manganese cells are recommended.’ Suggest a reason why rechargeable cell
should not be used in smoke detectors.
Rechargable cells lose their charge quite quickly even when they are not being used.
Thus, there is a danger that the smoke detector would not sound an alarm when a fire
breaks out.
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 31

5. Suggest a suitable chemical cell for each of the following uses. Explain briefly.
(a) Flashlight
alkaline manganese cell or Ni-Cd or Li ion rechargeable cell which provide large
current/voltage.
(b) Cigarette lighter
Silver oxide cell because it has small size
(c) Cordless phone
Nickel-cadimum cell because it can be rechargeable. It is cheaper than Li-ion
rechargeable cell and it can save money for continue use.
(d) Car battery
Lead-acid accumulator car need a battery with large charge capacity and need to
recharge repeatedly.
(e) Mobile phone
Lithium ion rechargeable cell (lighter and save money for rechargeable)

6. Three AA-sized cells — a zinc-carbon cell (X), a nickel-metal hydride rechargeable cell
(Y) and an alkaline manganese cell (Z) are under test. Each cell is continuously
discharged (by connection to a motorized toy), until its voltage drops to below 0.8 V.
Three discharge curves are shown in the graph on the right, one for each cell.
(a) We usually consider a cell ‘dead’ if its voltage drops to 0.8 V. Which type of cell
becomes ‘dead’ suddenly?
(b) What voltage range would the alkaline manganese cell have during its first hour of
discharge?
(c) What voltage would the nickel-metal hydride rechargeable cell maintain during
discharge?
(d) Which cell has the shortest service life?

(e) What is the approximate value of the ratio

(f) Which cell should NOT be used for the electrical appliances shown below? Explain
your answer.
(a) Nickel-metal hydride rechargeable cell.
(b) 1.26 V–1.45 V.
(c) Around 1.25 V. (d) Zinc-carbon cell
(e) 4
(f) Zinc-carbon cells should not be used.
The electrical appliances shown are
high-drained devices, and zinc-carbon cells
cannot supply a large steady current.
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 32

(d) Dry cells and environmental protection

(i) Primary cells are non-rechargeable
- Used primary cells are useless and they are usually disposed of. The material used to
construct the cell is wasted. Components of these cells are difficult to disintegrate
which causes land pollution.
- Zinc metal used and its compounds produced in the cells are toxic. Moreover, some
zinc-carbon cell or alkaline manganese cell usually contains a small amount of
mercury, mercury and its compounds are highly toxic.
- Potassium hydroxide used in alkaline cells is a strong concentrated alkali which is
corrosive.
- Zinc-carbon cells and alkaline manganese cells having little or no mercury are called
“green cells”

(ii) Secondary cells still contain harmful chemicals e.g. Cd, Pb and its compounds are highly
toxic. They are usually disposed of once their service times expire, so recycling the
secondary cells can reduce the land pollutions.

Classwork

1. (HKCEE 1995) Which of the following statements concerning a silver oxide cell is / are
correct?
(1) The cell is rechargeable.
(2) The cell can maintain a steady voltage during discharge.
(3) The positive electrode of the cell is silver oxide.
A. (1) only
B. (2) only
C. (1) and (2) only
D. (2) and (3) only D
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 33

2. The table below includes some information about three types of dry cells. The voltage
of each type of cell is 1.5V.
Voltage over Price per Shelf life Life
Type
discharge cell/$ /years /minutes
Zinc-carbon cell (AA size) falls quite
2.5 1.5 70
rapidly
Alkaline manganese cell
remains steady 5.0 3 90
(AA size)
Silver oxide cell (button
remains steady 8.0 2 30
type)
(The life of a cell has been determined from its use in a test with a motorized toy.)
(a) Decide and explain which type of cell should be used in a small CD-player
(Discman).
(b) A package of 24 zinc-carbon cells is now being offered at a special price of $49.90.
Assuming that your radio consumes one zinc-carbon cell per month, would you buy a
package of these specially-priced cells for the use of your radio? Explain your
answer.
(a) Alkaline manganese cells should be used in the discman as silver oxide cell is not
of the right size, and the voltage of zinc-carbon cell drops quickly.
(b) No.

The shelf life of the zinc-carbon cell is 1.5 years. As one cell is consumed a month, only
18 pieces can be used.

OR The price for 18 zinc-carbon cell, bought separately, = $2.50 ´ 18 = $45.00

Therefore the price for 18 cells, bought separately, is less than the package, which is
sold at $49.90.
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 34

(K) Structure and reaction in zinc-carbon cell

(a) Construction and reaction in zinc-carbon cell Optional

(1) At anode (-ve electrode) : Zn cup dissolves to give zinc ion

Equation: Zn(s) ® Zn2+(aq) + 2e–
(2) At cathode (+ve electrode) : Manganese(IV) oxide, an oxidizing agent, which is reduced
to give manganese(III) oxide. The moist paste of ammonium chloride is the acidic electrolyte
which provide H+ (aq) for the reaction.
Equation: 2MnO2(s) + 2H+ (aq) + 2e- ® Mn2O3(s) + H2O(l)
(3) Overall reaction of the cell
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2MnO2(s) ® Zn2+(aq) + Mn2O3(s) + H2O(l)

(ii) Comparison of a used and new zinc-carbon cell

Feature New cell Used cell

Appearance Silvery grey Dull grey
Zinc case
Thickness Thick Thin and corroded
Colour Black Light black or brown
Paste Texture quite dry Moist with choking smell
pH Acidic Less acidic

(iii) Explanation for the change of appearance

1. Zinc case becomes thinner and dull grey ∵ It undergoes oxidation to form ________
zinc ions Or it is corroded by the ___________acidic NH4Cl electrolyte (The paste may
leak if the case is too thin) (NH4+ ® NH3 + H+)
2. Paste changes from black to light black / brown ∵ Black MnO2 is converted to brown
Mn2O3
3. Paste gets wet with choking smell ∵ _____H2O(l) and ____ NH3 are produced.
4. Paste becomes less acidic ∵ Acidic NH4Cl is consumed & alkaline NH3 is formed.
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 35

(iv) Side reaction:

- Ammonium chloride also undergoes for following side reaction at the cathode. It reacts to
give ammonia and hydrogen. Manganese(IV) oxide, an oxidizing agent, is used to remove
the hydrogen to prevent building up of pressure.
Equation: 2NH4+ (aq) + 2e- ® 2 NH3 (aq) + H2 (g)
2MnO2(s) + H2(g) ® Mn2O3(s) + H2O(l)
Overall equation for side reaction:
Zn(s) + 2NH4+(aq) + 2MnO2(s) ® Zn2+(aq) + 2NH3(aq) + Mn2O3(s) + H2O(l)

(v) Disadvantage of zinc carbon cell:

- The voltage drops if a large current is drawn from the cell rapidly. It is because the
hydrogen gas formed on the surface of the cathode by the side reaction is a poor
conductor which increases the internal resistance of the cell. So the voltage drops
suddenly. Therefore zinc-carbon cell is used for low drain devices only.
- The cell has a relatively short shelf life and leakage problem. It is because the electrolyte
is acidic which reacts with the zinc cup and dissolves it.
- Chemical equation: 2H+ (aq) + Zn (s) ® H2 (g) + Zn2+ (aq)
Classwork

1. Why should a zinc-carbon cell not be disposed of in fire or recharged?

On heating, the electrolyte, NH4Cl, may decompose to form gaseous NH3 and HCl /
Water may also boil.
Recharge acidic electrolyte may form gases e.g. H2 or O2
A large pressure when gases form which may lead to explosion.

(K) Fuel cell

rechargeable cell - secondary cell
- It is a primary cell. non-rechargeable R.A.
- It converts the chemical energy of a continuous supply of reactants (a fuel such as
hydrogen, methane, methanol, ethanol, glucose, etc.) and an oxidant (e.g. oxygen) into
electrical energy.ＣＨ４ ＣＨ３ＯＨ ＣＨ３ＣＨ２ＯＨ Ｃ６Ｈ１２Ｏ６ O.A.
H2 O - In some fuel cell, the products are removed continuously.
CO2
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 36

(a) Hydrogen fuel cell

(i) Alkaline hydrogen fuel cell

Pt
Functions of nickel electrodes:
(1) act as electrical conductors that connect the fuel cell to the external circuit
(2) act as a catalyst for the reactions
(3) a separator to prevent direct mixing of fuel with oxygen (explosive mixture may formed)
In alkaline hydrogen fuel cell,
At anode, the half equation is: H2(g) + 2OH–(aq) ® 2H2O(l) + 2e–
At cathode, the half equation is: O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e– ® 4OH–(aq)
Overall equation: 2H2(g) + O2(g) ® 2H2O(l)

- It is same to combustion equation of the fuel.

(ii) Acidic hydrogen fuel cell,

In acidic hydrogen fuel cell, phosphoric acid is used as electrolyte.
(Some uses proton exchange membrane is used as electrolyte)

At anode, the half equation is: H2(g) ® 2H+ (aq) + 2e–

At cathode, the half equation is: O2(g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e– ® 2H2O (aq)
---
Overall equation: 2H2(g) + O2(g) ® 2H2O(l) (l)

Advantages:

(1) Efficiency of fuel cells is relatively high. For example, hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells have
an efficiency of about 70%. The rest of the energy is lost as heat.
(2) The only waste product of hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells is water. No greenhouse gases
like CO2 or acidic gases like SO2 and NOx are emitted.
(3) Quiet (compared with turbine in power station, it has no movable part).
(4) Some of them are able to work continuously if the fuel and oxygen is fed into the cell
continuously and produce a steady supply of electricity.

Drawbacks
(1) It is not easy to store and transport gaseous H2 and O2. They needs to liquefied first.
(2) The hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells are very expensive because their electrodes are made up
of expensive metal e.g. platinum or nickel.
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 37

Applications of fuel cells:

Application Features of fuel cells Examples
high efficiency spacecraft
Power source
high reliability remote weather stations
for remote
non-polluting large parks
locations
able to work continuously rural locations
Backup power high reliability hospitals
source non-polluting hotels
able to work continuously office buildings
Transportation quiet electric vehicles
high reliability boats
non-polluting
able to work continuously
Portable high efficiency notebook computers
electronic non-polluting mobile phones
products lightweight MP3 players
can be refilled conveniently handheld breathalyzers

Classwork

1. The following shows a simplified diagram of the chemical cell used in an electric car.
During discharge, zinc undergoes oxidation to give zincate ions, ZnO22-(aq). The
electrolyte is potassium hydroxide solution. At the graphite electrode, oxygen and water
react to produce hydroxide ions.

(a) Write balanced equations for the reactions occurring at

(i) the zinc electrode;
(ii) the graphite electrode.
(b) Identify the anode and the cathode of the chemical cell.
(c) Write the overall equation for the reaction occurring in the above chemical cell.
(d) What is the direction of electron flow in the external circuit?

(a) (i) Zn(s) + 4OH-(aq) ® ZnO22-(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2e-

(ii) O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e- ® 4OH-(aq)
(b) Zinc electrode is the anode while graphite electrode is the cathode.
(c) 2Zn(s) + 4OH-(aq) + O2(g) ® 2ZnO22-(aq) + 2H2O(l)
(d) Electrons flow from the zinc electrode to the graphite electrode.
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 38

2. The following diagram shows a sodium-nickel(II) chloride cell connected to a load. The
electrodes are inert and the electrolyte consists of nickel(II) chloride and sodium
aluminium chloride. The cell operates at about 300°C. The overall reaction of the
chemical cell is: 2Na(l) + NiCl2(l) ® Ni(l) + 2NaCl(l)

(a) What is the direction of electron flow in the external circuit when the cell is
discharged? Explain briefly.
(b) Write half equations for the reactions that occur at electrodes A and B
respectively.
(c) Suggest why a high temperature is needed for the cell to operate.
(d) Sodium-nickel(II) chloride cell is rechargeable and can be used in electric
vehicles. Suggest ONE advantage of using this cell as power source.

(a) Electrons flow from electrode A to electrode B because sodium atoms lose
electrons to form sodium ion when the cell is discharged.
(b) At electrode A: Na(l) ® Na+(l) + e-
At electrode B: Ni2+(l) + 2e- ® Ni(l)
(c) To keep the electrolyte in molten state to provide mobile ion for conduction of
electricity.
(d) No exhaust gas is produced.
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 39

Optional

(A) Structure of alkaline manganese cell

Equation: (At anode): Zn (s) + 2OH- (aq) ® ZnO (s) + H2O (l) + 2e-
(At Cathode): 2MnO2 (s) + H2O (l) + 2e- ® Mn2O3 (s) + 2OH- (aq)
Overall equation: Zn (s) + 2 MnO2 (s) ® ZnO (s) + Mn2O3 (s)
(involve solid reactant and product only => steady voltage

(B) Silver oxide cell

Equation: (At anode): Zn (s) + 2OH- (aq) ® ZnO (s) + H2O (l) + 2e-
(At Cathode): Ag2O (s) + H2O (l) + 2e- ® 2 Ag (s) + 2OH- (aq)
Overall equation: Zn (s) + Ag2O (s) ® ZnO (s) + 2Ag (s)
(involve solid reactant and product only => steady voltage
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 40

(C) Lead acid accumulator

- Lead-acid accumulators are an example of secondary cells. They are commonly

used in vehicles and hence also known as car batteries. A 12 V lead-acid
accumulator consists of six cells connected together. Each cell produces a voltage
of 2 V.
- If the battery is not used for a long time, the battery would lose its charge and
become flat.

- When Pb electrode put into the sulphuric acid, a coating of PbSO4(s) will be
formed.

- Forward reaction is spontaneous discharging reaction and the backward is the

charging reaction
At negative electrode (lead plate):
Pb(s) + SO42–(aq) PbSO4(s) + 2e–
Silvery grey greyish white

At positive electrode (lead plate coated with lead(IV) oxide):

PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + SO42–(aq) + 2e– PbSO4 (s) + 2H2O(l)
Reddish brown greyish white

Overall reaction:
Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2SO42–(aq) 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)

- In theory, a lead-acid accumulator can be discharged and recharged indefinitely.

But in practice, its lifespan is limited. This is because small amounts of lead(II)
sulphate fall from the electrodes to the bottom of the cell.
- Eventually, the electrodes lose so much lead(II) sulphate that the recharging
process is ineffective.
- Since when the battery discharges, the relative density of sulphuric acid
decreases. So the voltage or charge capacity is measured by hydrometer which
checked the relative density of the sulphuric acid.
 Chapter 28 to 31 Redox reactions, Simple chemical cells and electrolysis / notes / 41

Methanol-fuel cell

The fuel cells used to power mobile phones and notebook computers are not
hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells. Instead, they are called ‘direct methanol fuel cells
(DMFC)’. The DMFC uses replaceable methanol cartridges for refilling. The fuel,
methanol, is a liquid and can be fed directly in the cell for power generation.

Methanol and water react at the anode, producing H+. Positive ions (H+) are
transported across the proton exchange membrane to the cathode where they react
with oxygen to produce water. The products of the overall reaction are carbon
dioxide and water.

(a) Write the equations for the reactions at the anode and the cathode respectively.
(b) State one advantage of using methanol over hydrogen as fuel in the fuel cell.
(c) What are the potential dangers associated with using methanol fuel cells?

Answer

(a) At anode: CH3OH + H2O à 6H+ + CO2 + 6e- [1M]

4 4 2
At cathode: 3O2 + 12H+ + 12e-à 6H2O [1M]
(b) Methanol is a liquid which is easier to handle than gaseous hydrogen during
refilling.
Methanol poses a lower risk of explosion than hydrogen. (Any ONE – 1M)

(c) Methanol is flammable, if carelessly handled, it may catch fire. [1M]

Methanol is a colourless liquid like water, yet it is highly poisonous. [1M]