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 Contents

Preface xiii 2 THE TEACHING PROFESSION  24

Is Teaching a Profession? 25
A Defined Body of Knowledge 26
Part 1 Controlling Requirements for Entry and
Licensing 27
Understanding the Teaching Profession 1 Autonomy in Determining Spheres of Work 28
High Prestige and Economic Standing 29
Trends toward Professionalism 31
1 Motivation, Preparation, and The Scope of Collective Bargaining 31
Conditions for the Entering Teacher 1 Collective Bargaining under Attack 31
Choosing a Career in Teaching 2 Mediated Entry 32
Motivations for Choosing Teaching 2 Professional Development 34
The Challenge of Teaching All Students 2 Performance Pay 34
From Preservice to Practice: Considerations 3 Technology @ School: Professional Development
Teaching Force Diversity: A Growing Concern 3 Opportunities on the Internet 35
Supply/Demand and Salaries 4 Taking Issue: Merit Pay 36
Job Opportunities 4 Professional Learning Communities 37
Pay Scales and Trends 6 From Preservice to Practice: A Professional Learning
Overview 1.1: Ways to Improve Your Employment Community 38
Prospects 7 Teacher Organizations 38
Status of Certification 7 Overview 2.1: Comparison of the National
Taking Issue: Alternative Certification 11 Education Association (NEA) and the
Trends in Preservice Education 12 American Federation of Teachers (AFT) 39
Reflective Teaching 12 National Education Association (NEA) 39
Computer and Technology Use 12 American Federation of Teachers (AFT) 40
Requirements for Teaching Students with Overview 2.2: Major Specialized Professional
Disabilities 13 Organizations for Teachers 41
Preparation for Teaching in Diverse Settings 13 Specialized Professional Organizations 41
Quality of Preparation Programs 13 Religious Education Organizations 42
Prospective Teachers: Abilities and Testing 14 Parent-Teacher Groups 42
Testing Teachers 15 Overview 2.3: Professional Organizations Students
Criticisms of Testing 15 Can Join 43
Proponents of Testing 15 Organizations for Prospective Teachers 43
Controversies over Basic-Skills Testing 15
Job Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction 16
Reasons for Dissatisfaction 16 Pa rt 2
State and District Standards and Teacher Stress 16
Technology @ School: An Internet Resource for Historical and Philosophical
Prospective Teachers 17 Foundations 45
Efforts to Improve Teacher Qualifications and
Functioning 18
The No Child Left Behind Act 18
3 The World Origins of American
Evaluating Current and Future Teachers Based on Education 45
Student Achievement 19 Education in Preliterate Societies 46
Implications and Prospects for Future From Preservice to Practice: Learning National
Teachers 22 Identity through Patriotic Programs 47

vi

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 Education in the Ancient Chinese Civilization 47 Luther: Protestant Reformer 80
Confucian Education 48 The Reformation’s Significance in World
Overview 3.1: Key Periods in Educational Education 81
History 50 The Enlightenment and Education 81
Technology @ School: Connecting Ancient China to The Enlightenment’s Significance in
the History of Education 53 American Education 81
Ancient China’s Significance in World
Education 53
Education in Ancient Egypt 54 4 Pioneers of Teaching and Learning  85
Writing, Religion, and Schooling 54 Comenius: Pansophism as a New Method 87
Ancient Egypt’s Significance in World Principles of Teaching and Learning 87
Education 54 Education and Schooling 89
The Hebraic Educational Tradition 55 Influence on Educational Practices Today 89
The Hebraic Significance in World Rousseau: Educating the Natural Child 89
Education 56 Overview 4.1: Educational Pioneers 90
Education in Ancient Greece 57 Principles of Teaching and Learning 92
Homeric Culture and Education 57 Education and Schooling 93
Sparta and Athens 58 Influence on Educational Practices Today 93
Athenian Education 58 Pestalozzi: Educating the Whole Child’s Mind, Body,
The Sophists 59 and Emotions 93
Socrates: Education by Self-Examination 60 Principles of Teaching and Learning 94
Plato: Universal and Eternal Truths and Education and Schooling 96
Values 61 Herbart: Systematizing Teaching 97
Taking Issue: Values in Education? 62 Principles of Teaching and Learning 97
Aristotle: Cultivation of Rationality 63 Education and Schooling 97
Isocrates: Oratory and Rhetoric 64 Influence on Educational Practices Today 98
The Greeks’ Significance in World Education 65 Froebel: The Kindergarten Movement 98
Education in Ancient Rome 65 Principles of Teaching and Learning 99
Quintilian: Master of Oratory 66 From Preservice to Practice: Using a Story to Connect
Rome’s Significance in World Education 67 the Past and Present 100
Education in the Middle Ages 67 Education and Schooling 100
Charlemagne’s Revival of Learning 68 Influence on Educational Practices Today 101
The Church and the Medieval Education 69 Spencer: Social Darwinist and Utilitarian
Overview 3.2: Major Educational Theorists to Educator 101
1600 CE 70 Principles of Teaching and Learning 102
Aquinas: Scholastic Education 70 Education and Schooling 102
The Medieval Significance to World Influence on Educational Practices Today 103
Education 72 Dewey: Learning through Experience 104
Islam and Arabic Education 72 Principles of Teaching and Learning 105
The Renaissance and Education 74 Education and Schooling 105
Erasmus: Critic and Humanist 76 Influence on Educational Practices Today 106
The Renaissance Significance for World Addams: Socialized Education 107
Education 76 Principles of Teaching and Learning 107
The Reformation and Education 76 Education and Schooling 108
Overview 3.3: Significant Events in the History of Influence on Educational Practices Today 109
Western Education to 1650 CE 77 Montessori: The Prepared Environment 109

vii

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viii Contents

Principles of Teaching and Learning 109 Native Americans 150

Education and Schooling 110 Latino Americans 152
Influence on Educational Practices Asian Americans 154
Today 111 Arab Americans 156
Piaget: Developmental Growth 112 The Common Core: A Historically
Principles of Teaching and Learning 112 Referenced Issue 157
Education and Schooling 113 Taking Issue: Common Core Standards 158
Influence on Educational Practices Connecting with the History of Education
Today 114 throughout This Book 159
Freire: Liberation Pedagogy 114
Principles of Teaching and Learning 114
Technology @ School: Paulo Freire’s Liberation
6 Philosophical Roots of Education 162
Pedagogy 115 Overview and Special Terminology 163
Education and Schooling 115 Idealism 165
Taking Issue: Commitment to Social Justice in Overview 6.1: Philosophies of Education 166
Education? 116 Key Concepts 166
Influence on Educational Practices Today 117 Educational Implications 168
Application to Schools and Classrooms 168
Realism 169
5 Historical Development of American Key Concepts 169
Education 120 Educational Implications 171
The Colonial Period 121 Application to Schools and Classrooms 171
New England Colonies 122 Pragmatism 172
Middle Atlantic Colonies 123 Metaphysics and Epistemology 172
Overview 5.1: Significant Events in the History Axiology and Logic 173
of American Education 124 Educational Implications 174
Colonial Education: A Summary View 126 From Preservice to Practice: The School as a Special
The Early National Period 127 Environment 175
Articles of Confederation and the Application to Schools and Classrooms 176
Constitution 127 Existentialism 177
Franklin: The Academy 128 Educational Implications 177
Jefferson: Education for Citizenship 129 Applications to Schools and Classrooms 178
Benjamin Rush: Church-Related An Existentialist School: Summerhill 178
Schools 130 Postmodernism 179
Webster: Schoolmaster of the Key Concepts 179
Republic 131 Educational Implications 181
The Movement toward Public Schooling 131 Application to Schools and Classrooms 182
The Common School 132 Overview 6.2: Theories of Education 183
Mann: The Struggle for Public Schools 134 Essentialism 183
Normal Schools and Women’s Contemporary Essentialist Trends 184
Education 135
Technology @ School: Skills, Subjects, and
Catharine Beecher: Preparing Women as Standards 185
Teachers 136
Educational Implications 185
Technology @ School: 139
Application to Schools and Classrooms 186
McGuffey Readers 139
Perennialism 186
The Development of American Secondary
The Paideia Proposal 188
Schools 140
Educational Implications 188
The Academy: Forerunner of the High
School 140 Applications to Schools and Classrooms 188
The High School 140 Progressivism 189
Secondary-School Organization 142 Key Concepts 190
The Development of Educational Educational Implications 190
Technology 142 Applications to Schools and
The American College and University 143 Classrooms 191
Immigration and Education in a Culturally Critical Theory 192
Pluralist Society 145 Key Concepts 193
European Immigration 145 Educational Implications 193
African Americans 146 Application to Schools and Classrooms 195
From Preservice to Practice: Connecting the Past and Taking Issue: Teacher Objectivity or
the Present: Constructing an Educational Commitment on Social, Political, and
Autobiography 147   Economic Issues 196

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 Contents ix

School Budgets during Difficult Economic

Part 3 Times 240
School Infrastructure and Environmental
Political, Economic, and Legal Problems 241
Foundations 199
9 Legal Aspects of Education 243
7 Governing and Administering Public The Court System 244
Education 199 State Courts 244
Local Responsibilities and Activities 200 Federal Courts 244
Characteristics of Local School Boards 200 Teachers’ Rights and Responsibilities 246
School Board Responsibilities 202 Testing and Investigation of Applicants for
From Preservice to Practice: A Partnership in Certification or Employment 246
Decision Making? 203 Employment Contracts and Tenure 247
The School Superintendent and Central Taking Issue: Tenure for Teachers 248
Office Staff 204 Due Process in Dismissal of Teachers 249
The Principal and the School 207 Negotiation and Strikes 250
Parent and Community Involvement 208 Protection against Assault 250
Taking Issue: Charter Schools as Public-School Protection against Unreasonable Search and
Reform 210 Surveillance 250
Size of Schools and School Districts 211 Freedom of Expression 251
Intermediate Units 213 Overview 9.1: Selected US Supreme Court
State Responsibilities and Activities 214 Decisions Affecting Teachers’ Rights and
The Governor and State Legislature 214 Responsibilities 252
The State Board of Education 215 Academic Freedom 253
The State Department of Education 216 Teacher Exemplars, Personal Behavior, Internet
The Chief State School Officer 216 Use, and Dress Codes 253
The Federal Role in Education 217 Tort Liability and Negligence 255
Federal Educational Agencies 217 Reporting Child Abuse 257
Returning Responsibility to the Federal Copyright Laws 257
Government 218 Students’ Rights and Responsibilities 259
Technology @ School: School Governance Overview 9.2: Selected US Supreme Court
Information Available on the Internet 219 Decisions Affecting Students’ Rights
Nonpublic Schools 219 and Responsibilities 260
Freedom of Expression 260
Cyberbullying and Other Electronic
8 Financing Public Education 222 Misdeeds 261
Tax Sources of School Revenues 223 From Preservice to Practice: Advising a Student
Local Financing for Public Schools 223 Newspaper 262
Property Tax 224 Technology @ School: Legal Issues Involving
Overview 8.1: Other Income Sources by Level and Technology in Schools 265
Spending Pattern 224 Dress Codes and Regulations 265
Other Sources of Local Funding 225 Suspension and Expulsion 266
Local Resources and Disparities 226 Protection from Violence 267
State Financing of Public Schools 226 Search and Seizure 269
State Revenue Sources 227 Classroom Discipline and Corporal
States’ Ability to Finance Education 229 Punishment 271
Taking Issue: Expanding Funding for Public Sexual Harassment or Molestation of
Education 230 Students 273
State Aid to Local School Districts 231 Student Records and Privacy Rights 274
The Courts and School Finance Reform 232 Need for Balance between Rights and
From Preservice to Practice: Funding Woes 233 Responsibilities 275
Federal Education Funding 234 Religion and the Schools 276
Trends in Federal Aid to Education 234 Prayer, Bible Reading, and Religious Blessings
School Finance Trends 236 and Displays 276
Technology @ School: Finding School Financing Access to Public Schools for Religious
Information on the Internet 237 Groups 277
Taxpayer Resistance 237 The Pledge of Allegiance in Limbo 278
The Accountability Movement 237 Religious Objections Regarding
Tax Credits, Educational Vouchers, Curriculum 279
and School Choice 238 Teaching about Religion 280

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x Contents

Overview 9.3: Guidelines on Religion in the Home Environment 324

Schools, from the US Department of Stressful, Difficult Environments 325
Education 281 Social-Class Advantages and Disadvantages
Government Guidelines Regarding Prayer and are Not Universal 326
Religion in Schools 282 The Heredity versus Environment
Government Regulation and Support Debate 326
of Nonpublic Schools: A Legal Obstacles in the Classroom 328
Muddle 282 Taking Issue: Homogeneous Grouping 331
Do Schools Equalize Opportunity? 335
Traditional versus Revisionist Interpretations 336
Part 4 The Traditional View 337
The Revisionist View and Critical Pedagogy 337
Social Foundations 286 An Intermediate Viewpoint 338
Technology @ School: Dealing with the Digital
10 Culture, Socialization, and Divide 339
Issues in Measuring and Interpreting
Education 286 Socioeconomic Mobility 339
Agents of Socialization 287 Reclaiming the Promise of Equal Opportunity
The Family 287 for All Students 340
Overview 10.1: Effects of Major Socializing
Institutions 288
Poverty, Marriage, and Parenting Problems 288 12 Providing Equal Educational
From Preservice to Practice: Tuning In 293 Opportunity 342
The Peer Group 293 Desegregation 343
School Culture 296 A Brief History of Segregation in American
Television and Digital Media 300 Education 343
Taking Issue: The Influence of Television 301 The Progress of Desegregation Efforts 345
Technology @ School: Helping Students Develop Desegregation Plans 347
Media Literacy 304 Nonblack Minorities 348
Gender Roles and Sex Differences and Outcomes 304 Taking Issue: Magnet Schools and
Sex Differences in Achievement and Ability 306 Desegregation 349
Educational and Occupational Attainment of Movement to Charter Schools Reinforcing
Women 307 Segregation 349
The Increasing Plight of Working-Class and Effects on Student Performance and
Low-Skilled, Middle-Class Men 307 Attitudes 350
Adolescent and Youth Problems 308 Compensatory Education 351
Drugs and Drinking 309 Technology @ School: An Internet Site about
Suicide 309 Successful Title I Schools 352
Teenage Pregnancy 309 Early Childhood Compensatory Education 352
Delinquency and Violence 310 Comprehensive Ecological Intervention 353
Effects on Schools 311 Current Promising Examples of Comprehensive
Ecological Intervention 354
The No Child Left Behind Act 355
11 Social Class, Race, and School Status of NCLB and Movement toward
Achievement 314 Waivers 357
Social Class and Success in School 315 Questions about Compensatory Education 358
Categories of Social Class 315 Multicultural Education 359
Research on Social Class and School Multicultural Instruction 360
Success 316 Overview 12.1: Comparison of Bilingual Education
Race, Ethnicity, and School Success 318 and English Language Instruction Focus for
The Special Problem of Minority Status Plus English Language Learners 362
Urban Poverty 320 Multiculturalism for the Future 366
Comparing the Influence of Social Class and Education for Students with Disabilities 367
Ethnicity 321 Classification and Labeling of
From Preservice to Practice: Hoping for Success 322 Students 369
Overview 11.1: Obstacles to Achievement From Preservice to Practice: Meeting All Needs 370
for Working-Class Students by Area of Disproportionate Placement of Minority
Influence 323 Students 371
Reasons for Low Achievement among Low-Status Issues and Dilemmas 372
Students 323

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 Contents xi

Overview 15.1: Areas of Similarities and Differences

Part 5 among Educational Systems of the
World 428
Curricular Foundations 377 Multicultural Populations 428
From Preservice to Practice: New Perspectives 429
13 The Changing Purposes of American Differences in Educational Systems and
Outcomes 430
Education 377
Resources Devoted to Education 430
Establishing Goals and Objectives 378 Student–Teacher Ratios at the Primary Level 430
Goals 379 Enrollment Ratios 430
From Preservice to Practice: Standards and Male and Female Enrollments 431
Objectives 380
The United States among Industrial Nations 431
Standards 381
US Teachers in the TALIS Survey 433
Objectives 381
Extent of Centralization 433
Overview 13.1: Goals and Objectives of
Taking Issue: Establishment of a National
Education 382
Curriculum 434
Historical Perspective 383
Vocational versus Academic Education 435
Technology @ School: 387
Enrollment in Higher Education 435
The Call for Excellence 388
Nonpublic Schools 436
Overview of Policy Reports 388
Achievement Levels of Elementary and
Taking Issue: Common Core State Standards 391 Secondary Students 437
Swings of the Pendulum 393 US Achievement among Young Adults 439
Sex Differences in Achievement in the United
14 Curriculum and Instruction 395 States and Internationally 440
Exemplary Reforms: A Selection 441
Curriculum Organization 396
Early Childhood Education in France 441
Subject-Centered Curricula 396
Finnish Achievement and Teacher
Taking Issue: High-Stakes Exit Exams for
Preparation 442
Graduation 399
Technology @ School: An Internet Site Dealing
Student-Centered Curricula 400
with Achievement and What Influences
From Preservice to Practice: Curriculum Achievement around the World 443
Choices 405
Mathematics and Science Education in
Curriculum Contrasts: An Overview 405 Japan 443
Issues in Curriculum Development 406 The International Context and the Challenges Facing
Overview 14.1: Curriculum Organization US Schools 446
Approaches 407
Technology @ School: Safety Issues and Social
Media 410 16 School Effectiveness and Reform in the
Instructional Approaches 410 United States 448
Differentiated Instruction 410 Imperatives to Improve the Schools 449
Social and Emotional Learning 411 Characteristics of Effective Classrooms 450
Direct Instruction 413 Classroom Management 450
Twenty-First-Century Skills 414 Time-on-Task 450
Technology-Enhanced Instruction 415 Questioning 451
Significant Curriculum Trends 418 Direct Instruction and Explicit Teaching 451
The Importance of the Arts 418 Explicit Comprehension Instruction 452
Education of English Language Cognitive Instruction for Low-Achieving
Learners 419 Students 453
Pre-K Education 421 Effective Schools Research 453
Career and Technical Education (CTE) 422 Elementary Schools 453
High Schools 454
Evaluation of Effective Schools Research 455
Part 6 Characteristics of Successful School Reforms 456
Improvement Approaches across Classrooms
Effective Education: International and and Grade Levels 457
American Perspectives 426 From Preservice to Practice: School Reform 458
Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)
Program 458
15 International Education 426 Success for All 459
Commonalities in Educational Systems 427 Degrees of Reading Power Comprehension
Social-Class Origins and School Outcomes 427 Development Approach 459

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xii Contents

Comer School Development Program 459 Related Efforts and Aspects Involving Educational
The Algebra Project 460 Effectiveness 469
Knowledge Is Power Program (KIPP) 460 Cooperation and Participation with Business,
The Harlem Children’s Zone (HCZ) and Purpose Community, and Other Institutions 469
Built Communities (PBC) 461 Overview 16.1: Examples and Trends
Advancement via Individual Determination Involving Efforts at School Reform or
Program (AVID) 462 Improvement 470
Response to Intervention with Tiered Rural Education 471
Instruction 462 Gifted and Talented Students 472
Technology and School Reform 463 Taking Issue: More Time in School 473
Effective Introduction of Computers and Increasing Teaching and Learning Time 474
Other Technologies 463 School Choice 475
Research on Technology Achievement Controversy about School Choice 477
Effects 464 Systemic Restructuring and Standards-Based
Full-Time Virtual Schools 465 Reform 479
Blended Learning Grab Bag 465 State-Level Systemic Reform 479
Flipped Classrooms 466 District-Level Systemic Reform 479
One-to-One Provision of Computers or Other The Sad Situation of Many Big City Districts 480
Devices to Students 466 Conclusion: The Challenge for Education 481
Mobile Learning and Bring-Your-Own-Devices
(BYOD) 466
Gaming to Learn 467 Glossary 483
Equity and the Use of Technology 468 Index 490
Cautions Regarding Computer-Based
Technologies in Education 468

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 Preface

We are dedicated to the professional preparation of educators. To achieve this goal,

we provide quality content, technology, and services to ensure that new teachers are
prepared for the realities of the classroom. Our aim is to connect preservice to practice
to foster teachers’ lifelong career success.

Goals of This Edition

As Foundations of Education enters its thirteenth edition, three goals continued to be
central in revising and updating the book:

Goal #1: Include contemporary and substantive subject matter To meet this
goal, we have worked to refine and update the following themes that recur throughout
the book:

●● Diversity: We continue to place emphasis, throughout this revision, on address-

ing educational issues involving or influenced by cultural diversity.
●● Standards and accountability: We have added new information to several
chapters that addresses the growing emphasis on holding students, teachers, and
schools accountable for performing at levels specified by local, state, and national
standards.
●● Technology: We have systematically placed emphasis on the growing role of
technology in education. This emphasis includes sections on the history of tech-
nology in education, the place of technology in school reform, the expanding
reach of new technological literacies such as social networking, and the effects of
digital technologies on children.
●● Developing your own history, autobiography, and philosophy of
education: This edition, especially Part Two, Historical and Philosophical Foun-
dations, emphasizes the relevance of reflecting on and writing your history of
education, your own educational autobiography, and your own philosophy of
education to your professional development as an educator.

NEW and updated content covered in the thirteenth edition includes the following:

Chapter 1: New information on the status of certification and licensing; quality of

preparation programs; efforts to improve teacher qualifications and functioning;
evaluating current and future teachers based on student achievement; Excellent
Educators for All Initiative; criticism of VAM and observation data; elimination of
Race to the Top in 2015; waivers from NCLB; Council on Accreditation of Educator
Preparation (CAEP); US Department of Education Regulations and Rating Systems;
and implications and prospects for future teachers.
Chapter 2: Enhanced discussion of knowledge base for beginning teachers and the
Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education; and updated information on
alternative certification programs; teacher prestige and status; state efforts to limit

xiii

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xiv Preface

collective bargaining; focus on performance pay based on value-added measures;

teacher organization efforts to challenge recent reform efforts; private school
demographics; and PTA’s efforts to lobby Congress.
Chapter 3: Emphasis on the development of literacy, a written script, and schools;
educational implications of the transition of human groups from nomadic to
agricultural settlements, and the importance of place (living space) and time (the
development of calendars in plotting seasons).
Chapter 4: New information on mentoring used as a strategy to connect pioneers in
education teaching and learning.
Chapter 5: Discussion of relating the history of American education to constructing
a personal educational autobiography and history; commentary on the impor-
tance of location in a place in Native American education; examples of how some
teachers used the one-room country school for innovations in instruction; and an
illustration of how educational history provides the context for educational issues
such as the Common Core State Standards.
Chapter 6: Emphasis on constructing a personal educational philosophy.
Chapter 7: Updated information on school superintendents, principals, and central
office staff and their changing roles; updated information on parent and commu-
nity involvement; new discussion of the Obama administration’s policy changes
to NCLB; and updates on the adoption of Common Core State Standards by many
states.
Chapter 8: Updated school finance statistics from the most up-to-date sources and
updated information on taxes that generate revenues for state and local govern-
ments; new information on vouchers as a funding source for education, efforts
from the Obama administration to fund education reform efforts, and the impact
of recent economic times on school budgets and the response of school districts;
and updated information on needed school infrastructure repairs.
Chapter 9: New information on the erosion of tenure; teacher exemplars; personal
behavior, Internet use, and dress codes; cyberbullying and other electronic mis-
deeds; disparagement of school or staff; gaining access to prohibited materials;
restraining and secluding disabled students; zero tolerance and its effects on
schools; and the legal muddle regarding government regulation and support of
nonpublic schools.
Chapter 10: New material on poverty, marriage, and parenting problems; establishing
a productive classroom culture; and the possible negative effects of social media
and the Internet.
Chapter 11: New discussion of issues in measuring and interpreting socioeconomic
mobility and aiming to reclaim the promise of equal opportunity for all students.
Chapter 12: New information on current, promising examples of comprehensive eco-
logical intervention; status of NCLB and movement toward waivers; and culturally
responsive teaching.
Chapter 13: New discussion of the Common Core Curriculum Standard’s influence
on curriculum development; and the influence of Partnership for Assessment
of College and Career Ready Standards and the Smarter Balance assessment on
curriculum.
Chapter 14: A revised look at the history of the influence of values in the curricu-
lum; discussion of the changes in the textbook market, focusing on the digital
market; new sections on Social and Emotional Learning (SEL), blended learning
and flipped classrooms, pre-K education, and career and technology education;
and updated information on direct instruction, twenty-first century skills, vir-
tual schools, the importance of the arts, and Education of English Language
Learners.
Chapter 15: Updated information concerning US Teachers in the Teaching and Learn-
ing International Survey (TALIS); US achievement among young adults; and sex
differences in achievement in the United States and internationally.

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 Preface xv

Chapter 16: New information on technology and school reform; research on technol-
ogy achievement effects; full-time virtual schools; flipped classrooms; gaming to
learn; and the status of big city school districts.

Other important topics that continue to receive particular emphasis in the thir-
teenth edition include professional development, the history of education in China,
legal protections regarding assaults on teachers and students, problems with and pros-
pects for federal legislation, school choice and charter schools, curriculum and testing
standards, promising instructional innovations and interventions, approaches for help-
ing students from low-income families and for equalizing educational opportunity, and
international achievement patterns. Unique to this text, you’ll find that footnotes not
only point to up-to-date sources but also lend themselves to helping students explore
topics that particularly interest them. The wide range of sources cited also provides stu-
dents with access to a wealth of resources for future study of educational issues.

Goal #2: Increase the effectiveness of the text for student learning and
provide material that instructors need when preparing their students for
teaching careers Foundations of Education, Thirteenth Edition, includes many special
features designed to help students easily understand and master the material in the text
and provide professors with the tools to create in-depth and lively classroom discussions.

●● NEW Learning objectives at the beginning of each chapter are linked directly
to major sections in the chapter, so students and instructors clearly understand
expected outcomes.
●● NEW Key Terms defined in the margins make it easy for students to access defi-
nitions and review terms in the chapter.
●● Timelines are included in the history and philosophy chapters in Part Two to
mark milestones in education.
●● Focus Questions appear at the end of each major section and are designed to
help students reinforce their comprehension by connecting the concepts dis-
cussed in the book to their own personal situations.
●● From Preservice to Practice helps students both apply and think critically
about concepts discussed in each chapter. In this boxed feature, students read
vignettes that describe situations in which new teachers might find themselves
and answer case questions that encourage critical and applied thinking about how
they might best respond in each situation.
●● Topical Overviews, found in every chapter of the text, summarize and compare
key topics, giving students a concise tool for reviewing important chapter concepts.
●● Technology @ School features keep students up to date on relevant develop-
ments regarding educational technology and provide access to websites that will
be valuable resources as they progress through their teaching careers. Some exam-
ples of this feature include Helping Students Develop Media Literacy (Chapter 10)
and Safety Issues and Social Media (Chapter 14).
●● Taking Issue features present controversial issues in the field of education, offer-
ing arguments on both sides of a question so that students can understand why
the topic is important and how it affects contemporary schools. These features
address issues such as alternative certification, Common Core Standards, merit
pay, magnet schools, teacher objectivity, and high-stakes exams for graduation.
Instructors may want to use these features as the basis for class discussion or essay
assignments.
●● In addition, end-of-chapter features include summary lists that facilitate
understanding and analysis of content, and annotated lists of selected print and
electronic resources for further learning that may be of special interest to
readers.
●● An extensive glossary at the end of the book defines important terms and
concepts.

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xvi Preface

Goal #3: Draw on the Internet and other electronic media to enhance
learning Our updating has drawn, to a considerable extent, on resources available
on the Internet. Students may explore areas of personal interest by scrutinizing digital
versions of many sources we cite—including news sources such as the New York Times
and Education Week and journal sources such as the American School Board Journal and
Educational Leadership. In general, most of our citations are available to students on the
Internet or can be accessed easily by searching with university library resources such
as EBSCO Academic Search Premier. On controversial issues, we encourage use of sites
that represent a variety of viewpoints.

Organization
The text consists of sixteen chapters divided into the following six parts:

●● Part One (Understanding the Teaching Profession) considers the climate in

which teachers work today and its impact on teaching. Changes in the job market
and in the status of the profession and issues such as teacher empowerment, profes-
sional learning communities, and alternative certification are treated in some detail.
●● The four chapters in Part Two (Historical and Philosophical Foundations)
provide historical and philosophical contexts for understanding current educa-
tional practices and trends by examining the events and ideas that have influenced
the development of education in the United States. These chapters provide a his-
torical and philosophical perspective needed by professionals in education, encour-
age students to develop a philosophical understanding early in the course, and
establish a knowledge base that will help them comprehend and think critically
about the discussion of the contemporary foundations that occur later in the text.
●● Part Three (Political, Economic, and Legal Foundations) presents an over-
view of the organization, governance, and administration of elementary and second-
ary education; the financing of public education; and the legal aspects of education.
●● Part Four (Social Foundations) examines the relationships between soci-
ety and the schools that society has established to serve its needs. The three
chapters in this part discuss culture and socialization; the complex relationship
among social class, race, and educational achievement; and the various programs
aimed at providing equal educational opportunities for all students.
●● Part Five (Curricular Foundations) examines the ways in which changes in
societies have led to changes in educational goals, curriculum, and instructional
methods. Throughout these chapters, we explicitly point out how the particular
philosophical ideas discussed in Chapter 4 are linked to goals, standards, curricu-
lum, and other facets of contemporary education. This section concludes with a
look at emerging curriculum trends.
●● Part Six (Effective Education: International and American Perspec-
tives) provides a comparative look at schools and their development throughout
the world and an in-depth analysis of current efforts to improve school effective-
ness in the United States.

Teaching and Learning Supplements

●● MindTap™: The Personal Learning Experience. MindTap for Ornstein et al.,
Foundations of Education, Thirteenth Edition, represents a new approach to teach-
ing and learning. A highly personalized, fully customizable learning platform with
an integrated eportfolio, MindTap helps students elevate thinking by guiding
them to do the following:
●● Know, remember, and understand concepts critical to becoming a great teacher.

●● Apply concepts, create curriculum and tools, and demonstrate performance

and competency in key areas in the course, including national and state edu-
cation standards.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Preface xvii

●● Prepare artifacts for the portfolio and eventual state licensure to launch a suc-
cessful teaching career.
●● Develop the habits to become a reflective practitioner.

MindTap Moves As students move through each chapter’s Learning

Students Up Create Path, they engage in a scaffolded learning experience,
Bloom’s Revised designed to move them up Bloom’s Taxonomy,
Taxonomy Evaluate from lower- to higher-order thinking skills. The
Learning Path enables preservice students to
Analyze develop these skills and gain confidence in the
following ways:
Apply
 ngaging them with chapter topics
E
●

Understand and activating their prior knowledge

by watching and answering questions
Remember & Know about authentic videos of teachers
Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and teaching and children learning in real
assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman.
classrooms.
●● Checking their comprehension and understanding through Did You Get It?

assessments, with varied question types that are autograded for instant feedback.
●● Applying concepts through mini-case scenarios—students analyze typical

teaching and learning situations, and then create a reasoned response to the
issues presented in the scenario.
●● Reflecting about and justifying the choices they made within the teaching

scenario problem.

MindTap helps instructors facilitate better outcomes by evaluating how future

teachers plan and teach lessons in ways that make content clear and help diverse
students learn, assessing the effectiveness of their teaching practice, and adjusting
teaching as needed. MindTap enables instructors to facilitate better outcomes in the
following ways:
●● Making grades visible in real time through the Student Progress App so stu-
dents and instructors always have access to current standings in the class
●● Using the Outcome Library to embed national education standards and align
them to student learning activities, and also allowing instructors to add their
state’s standards or any other desired outcome
●● Allowing instructors to generate reports on students’ performance with the click
of a mouse against any standards or outcomes that are in their MindTap course
●● Giving instructors the ability to assess students on state standards or other
local outcomes by editing existing or creating their own MindTap activities,
and then by aligning those activities to any state or other outcomes that the
instructor has added to the MindTap Outcome Library

MindTap for Ornstein et al., Foundations of Education, Thirteenth Edition, helps

instructors easily set their course because it integrates into the existing Learning
Management System and saves instructors time by allowing them to fully cus-
tomize any aspect of the learning path. Instructors can change the order of the
student learning activities, hide activities they don’t want for the course, and—most
importantly—create custom assessments and add any standards, outcomes, or
content they do want (for example, YouTube videos, Google docs). Learn more at
www.cengage.com/mindtap.

●● Online Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank. The online Instructor’s Man-
ual that accompanies this book contains information to assist the instructor in
designing the course, including sample syllabi, discussion questions, teaching
and learning activities, field experiences, learning objectives, and additional
online resources. For assessment support, the updated test bank includes

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xviii Preface

true/false, multiple-choice, matching, short-answer, and essay questions for

each chapter.
●● Microsoft PowerPoint® Lecture Slides. These vibrant PowerPoint lecture
slides for each chapter assist you with your lecture by providing concept coverage
using images, figures, and tables directly from the textbook.
●● Cognero. Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero is a flexible online sys-
tem that allows you to author, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple
Cengage Learning solutions; create multiple test versions in an instant; and deliver
tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever you want.

Acknowledgments
The thirteenth edition would not have been possible without contributions and feed-
back from many individuals. In particular, David Vocke, Professor of Education at Tow-
son University, planned and implemented substantial revisions in Chapters 2, 7, 8, 13,
and 14. His outstanding contributions to this volume are in themselves a testimonial
to the breadth of his knowledge and the acuity of his insight as an educator dedicated
to improving professional preparation. Gerald Gutek, Professor Emeritus of Education
and History at Loyola University of Chicago, has also made an outstanding contribu-
tion to the book as the author of Chapters 3, 4, 5, and 6, which he thoroughly revised
and updated for this edition.
A number of reviewers made useful suggestions and provided thoughtful reactions
that guided us in every edition. We thank the following individuals for their conscien-
tiousness and for their contributions to the content of this edition:

Cara Barth-Fagan, State Fair Community Belete Mebratu, Medaille College

College Veronica Ogata, Kapi’olani Community
Mona Bryant-Shanklin, Norfolk State College
University Chukwunyere Okezie, Marygrove College
LaShundia Carson, Alcorn State University Priscilla Palmer, Richland Community
Cheresa Clemons, North Carolina Central College
University Beth Sanders-Rabinowitz, Atlantic Cape
Arnetta Crosby, Alcorn State University Community College
Kadene Drummer, Stone Child College Deborah Tulloch, College of Saint
Rebecca Fredrickson, Texas Woman’s Elizabeth
University Mary Ware, SUNY Cortland
Sheila Ingle, Gardner-Webb University Murlene Watwood, LeTourneau University
Karen Martin-Jones, Bennett College Amy Williamson, Angelo State University
Rodney McConnell, Texas A&M Corpus Julia Zoino-Jeannetti, Framingham State
Christi University

In addition, we thank the numerous reviewers who have contributed to prior

editions.
We also want to acknowledge and express appreciation to content developer Kassi
Radomski for her assistance. Other important contributions were made by Mark Kerr,
product manager; Chris Sosa, senior marketing manager; Samen Iqbal, senior content
project manager; and Lori Hazzard, project manager.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Part 1 Understanding the Teaching Profession

1
Motivation, Preparation,
and Conditions for the
chapter Entering Teacher
InTASC Learning Objectives
Standards 1-1 Identify the usual reasons for becoming a teacher, and determine how your reasons
Addressed in compare.
This Chapter 1-2 Summarize the salaries and benefits teachers earn.
1-3 Explain how teachers are certified.
6 Assessment
1-4 Discuss the current trends in teacher education.
9 Professional Learning and
1-5 Describe the findings of research on testing of teachers’ abilities and the controversy
Ethical Practice
surrounding it.
10 Leadership and Collaboration
1-6 Describe what teachers find satisfying and dissatisfying
about their work.
1-7 Summarize some of the recent efforts to
improve teacher workforce quality and
functioning.

ock
t o st Fo
AGE
This chapter was revised by Daniel U. Levine. vid Ken
nedy/
Da

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
2 CHAPTER 1: Motivation, Preparation, and Conditions for the Entering Teacher

You probably have been wondering whether teaching is the right career for you and whether
you will be entering a profession with good opportunities for personal and professional growth. Even if your
goal has long been to teach, you might be wondering about the difficulties and rewards of the field you
have chosen or are considering. Is your desire to be a teacher strong enough to withstand the challenges
you are likely to meet? What can you expect to encounter in your preparation program, and what lies ahead
after you become a teacher? This chapter (and subsequent chapters) will examine such topics, including
motivations for becoming a teacher, teacher supply and demand, pay scales, career preparation, and efforts
to improve the teaching workforce and to give teachers more decision-making power.

1-1 Choosing a Career in Teaching

The path to becoming a teacher begins when you choose teaching as a career. In this
section, we’ll review some motives for choosing a teaching career and the challenges
that accompany this choice. We’ll also examine the growing concern that too few
minority college students are becoming teachers.

1-1a Motivations for Choosing Teaching

We have many motives, both idealistic and practical, for choosing a career in teaching.
Often, a person’s reasons for wanting to teach stem from his or her personal philosophy
of education, a topic we will revisit throughout this book. If you are thinking of entering
the teaching profession, ask yourself why. Your motives may include (1) love of chil-
dren, (2) desire to impart knowledge, (3) interest in and excitement about teaching,
and (4) desire to perform a valuable service to society.
One study asked future teachers to state their reasons for selecting the teaching
profession. Of the respondents, 90 percent cited “helping children grow and learn”
as a reason. Next highest was “seems to be a challenging field” (63 percent), fol-
lowed closely by “like work conditions” (54 percent), “inspired by favorite teachers”
(53 percent), and “sense of vocation and honor of teaching” (52 percent). These rea-
sons also were cited in several other recent studies. Some of these studies further found
that admiration for one’s elementary and secondary teachers often shapes decisions
to become a teacher.1 This chapter’s From Preservice to Practice box also looks at the
reasons people decide to become teachers.

1-1b The Challenge of Teaching All Students

You probably are strongly motivated to perform effectively when you anticipate becom-
ing a teacher, but you are likely to encounter some difficulties in achieving this goal after
you actually begin teaching. As we point out in this section and in subsequent chapters,
numerous jobs will be open in schools, but many of them will require teaching disad-
vantaged students who live in difficult circumstances with which you may be unfamiliar.
Many of these jobs will involve working with special-education populations, stu-
dents who are just learning English, and/or distinctive racial or ethnic minority groups
with whom you may have had little contact. You probably will be well prepared to
teach subject matter in your chosen field, but many of the students you are assigned
may be performing poorly in reading comprehension and will need much help to
improve their understanding and to learn how to learn.

1
“Report Looks at Keeping Gen Y Teachers in the Profession,” 2011 posting by the American
Federation of Teachers, available at www.aft.org; Bob Kizlik, “‘Why I Chose Teaching as a
Career’ Statement,” 2014 posting by Adprima, available at www.adprima.com/wannateach
.htm; and Marie Cameron and Susan Lovett, “Sustaining the Commitment and Realizing the
Potential of Highly Promising Teachers,” Teachers and Teaching (February 2015).

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Choosing a Career in Teaching 3

From Preservice to Practice

Considerations
“Are each of you certain that you want to enter the teaching get a job teaching junior or senior high, maybe I could get some
profession?” Professor Johnson asked. “Remember, the chal- work shown locally, earn a few commissions, and be on my way.”
lenges of the profession often become stressors. About half of “I know I won’t get rich,” said Peter, “but there is something
the teachers who enter the profession leave within a few years. compelling about watching the ‘aha’ experience in a student’s
So, tell me why you want to become a teacher, Jennifer.” face. I’ve taught swimming and diving during the summers.
“My grandmother was a teacher, and my mother is a teacher. When a skill finally clicks in, the triumph of that young boy or
Both of them have told me how rewarding the career can be. I girl makes it all worthwhile. I want to teach physical education
like children. I’ve loved my experiences with children in summer in an elementary school.”
camps, so now I’m choosing elementary school teaching.” Professor Johnson replied, “Each of you seems to have consid-
“I want to coach and teach,” said Mark. “Some of the best ered this choice for some time. I will share a few other reasons
times in my life have been when I played basketball or tennis. mentioned by other students. Teaching is one profession you can
The coaches made it their business to see that I followed their use to travel the world. International schools and foreign private
discipline and that I paid attention to academics, too. These schools search regularly for people such as you. Teaching English
experiences taught me new values and new disciplines and as a second language has given many a free ticket to China, Japan,
gave me a vision for what I want to do with my life. I want to and Korea. Or you can teach as a missionary in church schools.
work at the high school level.” “Another primary consideration is that state retirement sys-
“I don’t have any great yearning to teach,” said Caitlin. “I tems usually provide fairly secure long-term benefits. That kind
have to support myself after I graduate—my parents made it of security can be hard to find in the business world today.
plain that I’m on my own financially after next year. I want to be “As a follow-up to this discussion, write a reflection paper
an artist, and I think I can do that if at first I support myself by about the discussion and your reasons for choosing education.
teaching. There are several galleries in the area, and if I could Bring it to class next week.”

Case Questions
1. Why is it important that preservice teachers reflect on their motivations for selecting the teaching profession?
2. Why are you choosing the teaching profession?
3. Geographically, where do you think you might want to teach? Why? What are the projected job opportunities in that area at
the time you finish your education?

Despite the difficulties inherent or implicit in these kinds of situations, you will be
expected to help make sure that all students perform at an adequate level in accordance
with national and state laws, particularly the federal No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB).
Although historically relatively few schools and classrooms have had significant numbers
of hard-to-teach students in which most of them are performing adequately, the number
has been growing in recent years. We devote attention to these schools and classrooms in
subsequent material dealing with effective teaching and with unusually effective schools.

1-1c Teaching Force Diversity: A Growing Concern

Although the US school population is becoming increasingly diverse, the teaching force
has not kept pace. For example, African American, Asian American, and Hispanic Ameri-
can students make up more than 50 percent of the public-school student population, but
the proportion of elementary and secondary teachers from these minority groups is gen-
erally estimated at less than 20 percent. Although the number of minority public-school
teachers has about doubled in the past twenty years, the number of minority students
has increased about 75 percent, thus maintaining a wide shortfall in minority teachers.
The disparity is particularly acute in the largest urban districts, where minority students
in some locations comprise more than 90 percent of enrollment.

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4 CHAPTER 1: Motivation, Preparation, and Conditions for the Entering Teacher

This underrepresentation of minority groups in the teaching force is expected to

become even more severe in the future. Currently, only about 10 percent of teacher-
education majors are African American or Hispanic; yet members of these minority
groups are predicted to constitute a still higher percentage of elementary and second-
ary students in the near future. In recent years, the shortage of Asian American teach-
ers has also become an important problem. Asian Americans now constitute about
5 percent of the popu­lation of K–12 students, but they account for less than 2 percent
of the teaching force.2
Increasing teaching force diversity to better reflect the student population is
widely viewed as an important goal. For one thing, teachers from a cultural or ethnic
minority group generally are in a better position than are nonminority teachers to
serve as positive role models for minority students. In many cases, minority teachers
also may have a better understanding of minority students’ expectations and learning
styles (see Chapter 11, Social Class, Race, and School Achievement, and Chapter 12,
Providing Equal Educational Opportunity), particularly if minority teachers working
with low-income students grew up in working-class homes themselves. For example,
Lisa Delpit and other analysts have pointed out that many African American teachers
may be less prone than nonminority teachers to mistakenly assume that black students
will respond well to a teacher who is friendly in the classroom. In addition, teachers
FOCUS What do you think might from Asian American, Latino, and other minority groups are in demand for working
make teaching a more attractive career option with students who have limited English skills.3
for today’s college students, both minority Officials of the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE)
and nonminority? If you are a member have stated that data on the low proportion of minority teachers constitute a “devastat-
of a minority group, what attracts you to ing” crisis. Along with other organizations, the AACTE has proposed and helped initiate
teaching? How will you prepare to work with legislation for various new programs to increase the number of minority teachers, includ-
students who may have a different ethnic or ing increasing financial aid for prospective minority teachers, enhancing recruitment of
socioeconomic background from your own? minority candidates, and initiating precollegiate programs to attract minority students.4

1-2 Supply/Demand and Salaries

Will you find work as a teacher? How much money will you earn? These two ques-
supply and demand Market tions are related, following the economic principle of supply and demand. When
conditions that affect salaries such that pay teacher supply exceeds demand, salaries tend to decline. Conversely, high demand
decreases when there is a large supply of and low supply tend to increase salaries. As discussed in the chapter on The Teaching
teachers and rises when supply is low and
teachers are in high demand. Profession, supply and demand also affects the social status and prestige accorded to
a particular occupation.

1-2a Job Opportunities

In the 1960s and 1970s, a falling birth rate resulted in a teacher surplus. As college stu-
dents and teacher educators recognized the substantial oversupply, enrollment in teacher-
education programs decreased. The percentage of college freshmen interested in becoming

2
Ulrich Bolser, “Teacher Diversity Revisited,” May 4, 2014, posting by the Center for American
Progress, available at www.americanprogress.org; Maisie McAdoo, “The New US Teacher—
Not What She Used to Be,” October 2, 2014, posting by the United Federation of Teachers,
available at www.uft.org; and Melissa Sanchez, “To Boost Teacher Diversity, State Scraps Limits
on Basic Skills Test-Taking,” Catalyst Chicago, March 12, 2014, available at www.catalyst
-chicago.org.
3
Lisa D. Delpit, “The Silenced Dialogue,” Harvard Educational Review (August 1988), pp. 280–298;
and “Review of ‘Other People’s Children’ by Lisa Delpit,” May 26, 2014, posting by Rhapsody in
Books, available at www.rhapsodyinbooks.wordpress.com.
4
Esther J. Cepeda, “The Need to Keep Minority Teachers,” Statesman Journal, June 30, 2014; and
Anna Egalite and Brian Kisida, “The Benefits of Minority Teachers in the Classroom,” March 6,
2015, posting by Real Clear Education, available at www.realcleareducation.com.

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 Supply/Demand and Salaries 5

Public- and Private-School Kindergarten through

Table 1.1 Grade 12 Enrollments, 1992 to 2022 (in Millions)

Private as Percentage
Total Public Private of Total
1992 48.5 42.8 5.7 11.8
2000 53.4 47.2 6.2 11.6
2022 (projected) 57.9 53.0 4.9 8.0

Note: Data include most kindergarten and some prekindergarten students. Projected sum differs from
100 percent due to rounding.
Source: William J. Hussar and Tabitha M. Bailey, Projections of Education Statistics to 2022 (Washington,
DC: US Government Printing Office, 2014), Table 1.

teachers declined from 23 percent in 1968 to 5 percent in 1982. Since then, the trend
has reversed. The percentage of college students interested in teaching rose by nearly
100 percent during the late 1980s and 1990s and has remained relatively high, although
it has declined by about 10 percent in recent years. In addition, many community col-
leges are now participating in teacher preparation, and economic recession appears to be
encouraging more individuals to apply for entry into preparation programs for teachers.5
Analysts predict many candidates in upcoming years but also many teaching
jobs. Several million new teachers will be needed in the next decade for the following
reasons:6

●● When the post–World War II baby boom generation began to produce its own
children, a mini baby boom developed. Most of those children now attend K–12
schools. In addition, many immigrant families have entered the United States in
recent years. As a result, school enrollment has been increasing (see Table 1.1).
●● A significant proportion of the current teaching force will reach retirement age in
the coming decade.
●● Educational reformers are attempting to reduce class size, expand preschool edu-
cation, place greater emphasis on science and mathematics, and introduce other
changes that require more teachers.
●● Higher standards for becoming a teacher are limiting the supply.
●● New charter schools are being established in many locations.
●● Employed teachers continue to leave the classroom and/or the profession at a
substantial rate.

Other educators, however, insist that the chances are slim of a widespread short-
age of teachers in the upcoming decade. For one thing, recent shortages have mainly
involved large urban districts and specialized fields such as math and science; many
districts have reported no general shortage of potential teachers. In addition, it may
be that fewer teachers are leaving the profession than in earlier years, and increased
enrollment of students may be leveling off. Improved salaries may also bring ex-
teachers back to the schools and attract people who trained as teachers but did not
enter the profession.7

5
Stephen Sawchuck, “Steep Drops Seen in Teacher-Prep Enrollment Numbers,” Education Week,
October 22, 2014.
6
Richard Ingersoll, Lisa Merrill, and Daniel Stuckey, Seven Trends (Philadelphia: Consortium for
Policy Research in Education, 2014).
7
Robert Hanna and Kaitlin Pennington, “Despite Reports to the Contrary, New Teachers Are
Staying in Their Jobs Longer,” January 8, 2015, posting by the Center for American Progress,
available at www.americanprogress.org.

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
went not long ago to the restaurant there with a party of young
friends. She wore a new and expensive Paris dress and her
handsomest jewels. The young people were all in evening dress, but
because the chaperon did not have on a décolleté gown they were
refused admission to the restaurant, and were obliged to content
themselves with dining in the grill-room! At the best hotels in New
York, such as Delmonico’s, the Astor, and the Plaza, ladies may wear
costumes with hats or full evening dress, as they find most
convenient. For afternoon dances at hotels and roof-gardens, men
usually come in business suits. After six o’clock evening dress is the
proper costume. The dinner-jacket, or informal evening dress, as it
may be called, is often worn for dancing at roof-gardens, because it
is more comfortable than the long-tailed dress-coat. It is also used
for unceremonious occasions at hotels and restaurants, as it would
be elsewhere (see Chapters IV and XII).
 XII

THEATER, OPERA, AND CONCERT-HALL

Arrangements for Formal and Informal Theater Parties—The Supper—The

Bachelor and His Duties as Host and as Guest—Dress and Behavior at the Theater,
Opera, and Concert-hall.

A N informal theater party may be an impromptu affair got up at

short notice. It may either be a Dutch treat, where every one
pays for himself, or one or more persons may act as hosts and invite
the others to go at their expense. If a gentleman and his wife ask
another lady to accompany them, they should either call for her or
invite her to dine with them. At the conclusion of the performance
they should take her home, or the husband alone could do so. It is
not necessary to have a carriage if the street-cars are near at hand.
If two ladies living in the same house are invited, the tickets may be
sent to them, asking them to meet their hosts at the theater. Unless
they are very young women, it will be proper for them to go
together, whereas for a lady alone it would not be quite pleasant to
do so. When the concert or play is over, the host will see them to
their carriage or to the street-car. If the hour is late, he will offer to
escort them home. If they assure him that they are not afraid to go
alone, he will not insist upon doing so, unless he believes this
necessary for their protection. Two young and pretty women are
liable to annoyance from rude passers-by at a late hour in the
evening.
 If a man wishes to take a young lady to the theater he must invite
her mother or other chaperon to be of the party. This is a safe and
excellent rule to follow, and few exceptions should be made to it. In
the case of cousins or old friends it is sometimes broken, especially if
the lady is not in her first youth. But young women should remember
that, as the world is very censorious, one who broke this rule often
would be the subject of unfavorable comment. A girl may, of course,
go to the theater with her brother. The gentleman may invite a
married lady to matronize the party, or he may ask the girl to choose
her own chaperon. He calls for both his guests; first for the matron,
then for the young lady. At the close of the performance he escorts
them both to their houses, leaving the younger woman first at her
residence, and then the elder one at hers. Where the chaperon has
been provided by the girl, the man may, if he prefers, send them the
tickets and meet them at the theater or concert-hall, waiting for
them in the lobby. He would certainly offer at least to escort them
home, unless they were going in a carriage. In this case he would
content himself with asking the man at the door to call it, or going to
find it himself, should this be necessary, and putting them safely into
their own conveyance. He should endeavor to find a sheltered place
for them to stand pending the arrival of the vehicle, and keep a
sharp lookout himself lest the carriage lose its place in the line and
so make the ladies wait for an undue length of time.
For a large and formal theater party, it is usual to invite the guests
to dinner, or to supper after the play or opera. In either case they
assemble at the house of the hostess, who provides an omnibus,
automobile, or other conveyance to take them to and from the
playhouse. She must name an hour early enough to enable the party
to reach the opera-house or theater in good season. If she asks her
friends to dine with her, she should for the same reason avoid a long
bill of fare. The guests should be careful to come punctually. Should
any of them be detained, they should telephone and ask the hostess
not to wait for them. To fail to keep an engagement for dinner is
considered one of the gravest social sins. How much worse it is to
spoil a theater party in addition by remaining away after promising to
come!
The affair is more likely to go off well if the hostess introduces
those guests who do not already know one another. Wholesale
introductions are now thought awkward and undesirable; hence it is
better to make the presentations gradually, one or two at a time.
Those who are to sit next each other should certainly be introduced.
It is well to plan beforehand the seating of the guests. If the hostess
has a party of young people and is quite at a loss as to their
preferences, she may like to consult one of them beforehand on this
important matter. To each man should be handed two tickets. These
may be inclosed in an envelope, with a card bearing the name of the
lady who is to sit next him at the theater. She also receives an
envelope containing the name of her theater partner. This
arrangement is convenient where many people go together. If the
party were to sit in a private box it would be unnecessary. There the
ladies sit in front, the gentlemen behind. The older women are
offered the best seats, but usually prefer to let the younger ones
take the places where they can see and be seen. At the close of the
performance the theater-carriage conveys all to their homes, leaving
the women guests first, the hostess next, the men last of all,
although the latter often choose to walk.
If there is to be a supper, it may be either at the house of the
hostess or at a restaurant of unblemished reputation. The meal may
be simple or elaborate. A course supper is very much like a dinner or
luncheon, except that it is less formal and the bill of fare is lighter
and daintier. Few people care to eat a heavy meal late in the
evening. Raw oysters or Little Neck clams, bouillon in cups, an entrée
of some sort, salad with or without game, ices, fruit, bonbons, and
black coffee may be served in the order named by those who care
for a full menu. For a theater party it is not necessary to offer such
an elaborate bill of fare. Oysters, cold chicken with salad, and ices
are quite enough for the hostess to provide. A chafing-dish supper
produces much fun and jollity among young people, or among those
who know one another well. It is not to be recommended for all sorts
and conditions of men, however. An informal meal of this sort would
jar upon the taste of those persons who like to have everything done
according to conventional methods and in a stereotyped fashion. The
chafing-dish sets and stands now furnish every convenience for
preparing readily one or more hot dishes. Welsh rarebit, oysters,
lobster, eggs, and mushrooms are all excellent cooked in this way, to
say nothing of the more complicated dishes which require an expert
to handle successfully. Where the supper is given at the house of the
hostess, their maids call for the young ladies there, and it is not
necessary for her to send them home.
If a bachelor wishes to give a theater party, and to invite young
women to be his guests, he must engage some married lady of good
social position and of a certain age to act as chaperon. A young
married woman is sometimes as full of fun and high spirits as a girl.
No one objects to her natural gaiety if she keeps it within due
bounds. But it is not considered quite the thing for a woman of this
sort to matronize young girls. A chaperon should have the dignity
which years and experience bestow, though she need not be dull and
stupid. The guests all meet at the residence of this lady, the bachelor
host arriving a little earlier than the rest in order to receive his
friends, to introduce them to the chaperon, and to make such other
introductions as the occasion demands. People of moderate means
go to the theater in the street-cars if the evening is pleasant. The
more elegant method is to provide a theater-carriage; but not every
bachelor can afford so much expense as this would involve. He
should, however, pay his guests’ fare, and for this purpose it is well
to buy car tickets beforehand. Otherwise another man of the party
may reach the ticket-booth first and purchase them before the host
has an opportunity to do so.
At the theater or concert-hall the ladies are permitted to pass
through the wicket first, the host standing on one side and showing
the tickets. He precedes the rest of the party going down the aisle to
the seats, in order to point out to all where they are to sit. It may be
arranged to have the chaperon go in first and take the innermost
seat, or she may be placed next the host, who sits nearest the aisle.
 Our bachelor may take the party to a restaurant for supper, to his
club if this possesses a dining-room for ladies, or to his own
apartment or studio, should this be large enough and conveniently
located. In either of the first two cases the table should be engaged
and the menu made out beforehand. If supper is to be given in his
own rooms, he should have one or more competent persons to set
the table, do any cooking that may be necessary, and have all in
readiness on the arrival of the party. There should also be one or
more servants to wait on the table, unless the affair is an extremely
informal one. The host leads the way to the dining-room, all
following without ceremony. The chaperon sits at his right, or on the
opposite side of the table. When supper is over he may escort her,
together with the young women, to her house, or the theater-
carriage may leave them at their houses, provided the matron of the
occasion is of the party and remains with it until all the young girls
have been taken to their respective residences. The host gets out
first, assists each of his fair guests in turn to alight, opens the door
for her with the latch-key or rings the bell, and does not leave her
until she has been admitted to the house. Where the theater party is
given by a lady, the gentleman sitting nearest the door of the
conveyance performs this service, unless there is a footman in
attendance.
Evening dress is the proper costume for men at all performances
at the opera, theater, and concert-hall that take place in the evening.
This is de rigueur for a theater party, and at the grand opera under
all circumstances. For English opera and informal excursions to the
theater, the dinner-jacket is often worn. Indeed, our countrymen are
very independent in these matters and claim the right to dress as
they please. In Europe the rules are stricter. A gentleman of my
acquaintance once went to the opera in Paris, in the days of the old
régime, wearing an ordinary black coat. He was refused admission on
the ground that evening dress was necessary. Being a Yankee of an
ingenious turn of mind, he went out, procured a paper of pins,
fastened up the offending coat-tails into the required shape, and
again presented himself at the opera-house. The authorities, arguing
doubtless that he had fulfilled the letter of the law, admitted him, so
admirable is the logic of the Frenchman!
The proper costume for women at the theater and opera is
evening dress. At the grand opera in New York and other large cities,
many ladies wear décolleté gowns, together with a great deal of
jewelry, although, as we have said elsewhere, this is by no means a
universal custom. All who sit either in the boxes or in the orchestra
seats appear in handsome toilettes and wear long white or black kid
gloves. A long evening wrap made of silk, satin, or other expensive
material forms an important part of opera costume. One sees only a
sprinkling of low-necked gowns at the theater, American ladies
usually preferring to appear there in dresses either high-necked or
only slightly cut down. Many wear a pretty, light-colored, dressy
waist with a dark skirt, since the latter shows little, unless one is
sitting in a private box. For a concert the costume is the same as for
the theater. Something will depend on the season of the year, the
nature of the occasion, and the locality. For a special performance,
with high-priced tickets, the costumes would be more elaborate than
for one with an ordinary programme.
Good form demands that we should always be mindful of the
rights, comfort, and pleasure of other people when we attend a
theatrical or a musical performance. The persons composing the
audience have paid for their seats, in the great majority of cases at
least, and it is extremely ill-bred to interfere with their pleasure by
talking or laughing. The men and women who fancy that it is smart
to do so show themselves lacking in true politeness. One should
endeavor to be punctual, in order not to disturb one’s neighbors after
the curtain has gone up or the music has begun. Some one has to
come last, of course, and the earlier arrivals should stand up and
allow the seats of their chairs to fold back in order to allow people to
pass by them with as little discomfort as possible. A man sitting next
the aisle should step into it when a lady is about to pass in. It is
courteous but not obligatory for the latter to do the same thing.
Those who arrive after the performance has begun should remove
their wraps before they go to their seats, in order not to obscure
their neighbor’s view of the stage while they are doing so. They must
also be careful not to disturb the latter by rising or bustling about
toward the end of the play. The going in and out between the acts is
rather trying to those who are obliged to rise constantly in order to
let others pass by. Hence, unless one has an aisle seat, it is best to
go out only once in the course of the evening. Where a large number
of the audience do so, as at the opera, the case is different. The
walking up and down the foyer and the corridors, the consuming of
ices and lemonade, are often a part of the regular programme. One
should be careful to return to one’s seat when the warning-bell rings.
It is now thoroughly understood that all ladies should remove their
hats at the theater, opera, and concert-hall. Occasionally they are
kind enough to do so at a lecture. A man who is with a party of
ladies may excuse himself for a short absence, if he sees some one
to whom he wishes especially to speak. But if he should do so often,
he would be thought neglectful and lacking in courtesy by the
members of his party. If he is acting as escort to one lady, he should
not leave her in order to speak to any one else, unless another man
should come to talk to her, in which case he could excuse himself,
but should return before the curtain rises again.
Transcriber’s Note:
Missing or obscured punctuation was corrected.
Typographical errors were silently corrected.
Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were
made consistent only when a predominant form
was found in this book.
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