HSC Physics – Paper II Ch 7: Physical Optics

Chapter 7: Physical Optics

o Physical Optics deals with wave nature of light ▪ According to him, light travels in the form
▪ Reflection, Refraction, Interference, of electromagnetic waves composed of
Diffraction, Polarization etc. electric field waves and magnetic field
o Geometrical Optics deals with particle nature waves.
of light ▪ Electromagnetic waves are generated from
▪ Photoelectric Effect vibrating electric charges.
▪ In this the electric and magnetic fields are
Concept of Light:
perpendicular to each other and to the
o Corpuscular Theory: wave propagation.
▪ Scientist Newton gave the corpuscular ▪ Electromagnetic waves are transverse
theory of light. waves.
▪ luminous bodies are constantly swarming ▪ These waves do not require any medium to
with tiny massless elastic particles travel.
(Corpuscles) emanating in all directions ▪ With the help of this theory simple linear
and moving in straight lines at extremely motion, reflection, refraction,
fast speeds (the speed of light). interference, diffraction and polarization of
▪ Simple linear motion of light, reflection light can be explained
and refraction can be explained with the ▪ photoelectric effect, black matter radiation
help of this theory. cannot be explained.
▪ interference, diffraction, polarization etc. o Quantum Theory:
of light cannot be explained with the help ▪ Max Planck gave the quantum theory of
of this theory. light first.
o Wave theory ▪ Einstein explained logically in 1905
▪ Dutch scientist Christian Huygens came up ▪ It states that light travels in packets or
with the wave theory of light. quanta of energy and each quantum are
▪ According to him, light travels in waves in a known as a photon.
medium called ether. Although ether was ▪ Each photon carries a quantity of energy
not found to exist. The sensation of vision equal to the product of the frequency of
occurs when light waves strike the retina. vibration of that photon and Planck's
Different color sensations arise from the constant. 𝐄 = 𝐡𝛎
difference in wavelength. He formulated
Electromagnetic Wave:
the principle of wave propagation and
explained Electric & magnetic vibrations, moving at the speed
▪ simple linear motion, reflection, refraction, of light in vacuum, in which electric & magnetic
interference, diffraction can be explained fields are perpendicular to each other & both of
▪ polarization, photoelectric effect etc. them are normal to the direction of propagations of
cannot be explained. wave is called electromagnetic wave.
o Electromagnetic Wave theory:
▪ James Clark Maxwell introduced the
electromagnetic wave theory of light.
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HSC Physics – Paper II Ch 7: Physical Optics

o In vacuum its speed is 3X108 ms-1

1
o Intensity, E ∞ r2

Light Year:

o If alternate electric field vector ̅̅̅

(𝐸 ) and Distance travelled by light in 1 year is called 1 Light
magnetic field vector ̅̅̅)vibrates
(𝐵 Year.
perpendicularly then a wave perpendicular
We know, in vacuum, c = 3 X 108ms-1
on both ̅̅̅
(𝐸 ) and (𝐵̅̅̅) propagates at 3X108
ms-1 which is called electromagnetic wave. So, distance travelled by light in 1 year,

o Speed of this wave, C = f𝜆 s = vt = 3 × 108 × 365 × 60 × 60 m = 9.46 ×

1015 m = 9.46 × 1012 km
In vacuum, if c = speed of light,
Electromagnetic Spectrum:
E0 = peak value of electric field
The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of
B0 = peak value of magnetic field frequencies of electromagnetic radiation and their
In t sec, E = E0 sin (x – ct) respective wavelengths and photon energies.

B = B0 sin (x – ct) The electromagnetic spectrum covers

electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging
From Maxwell’s theory, E0 = CB0
from below one hertz to above 1025 hertz,
𝐄 𝐄 corresponding to wavelengths from thousands
C = 𝐁𝟎 = 𝐁
𝟎
of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of
Which shows that magnitude of c in vacuum for an atomic nucleus.
all types of EM wave is constant which not only
There are 7 electromagnetic waves as follows –
depends on λ and f.
Remember – Radio wave λmax , fmin
He also showed that,
𝟏
My – Micro wave
𝐂=
√𝛜𝟎 𝛍𝟎
Instructions – Infra – red rays
Where, μ0 = 1.26X10-6 Hm-1= permeability of
Visible – visible
vacuum
Under – Ultra-violet
And, ∈0= 8.851X10-12 Nm2C-2 = permittivity
constant X-ray – X-ray

Characteristics of EM waves: Glass – Gamma Ray λmin , fmax

̅
o Produces due to perpendicular oscillation of E These waves are according to Max wavelength to
̅
and B minimum wavelength.

̅ and B
o Perpendicular on both E ̅, it’s a
transverse wave.

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HSC Physics – Paper II Ch 7: Physical Optics

Radio Wave: Gamma ray:

o Source: Oscillating electric circuit, oscillating o Source: Fission and fusion of radioactive
charging in antenna elements
o Application: Radio and TV communication o Application: Medical treatment, to find defects
in metals
Microwave:
Poynting Vector:
o Source: Electromagnetic vibration in electric
circuit o EM wave can transfer energy from one point
o Application: Radar, telemetry, microwave to another.
ovens and electron spin resonance studies.
o Amount of energy passing through a unit area
Infra-red: perpendicular to the motion of EM wave per
unit time is called Poynting vector.
o Source: due to molecular vibration. Sun,
extremely heated solid bodies, infra-red lamp o It’s denoted by S.
etc. 1
o Mathematically, S̅ = ̅XB
E ̅=E
̅XH
̅
o Application: Heating, cooking, treatment, μ0
astronomy, photography, to see object in the ̅=
here, H
dark etc. ̅
B
magnetic intensity = , unit is Am−1 or
𝜇0
Visible Ray:
Wm-2
o Source: Sun, lamp, arc, laser, any illuminated
Wave front:
object,
o Application: Vision, photosynthesis Wave front is an imaginary surface representing
corresponding points of a wave that vibrate in
Ultra-violet ray:
unison. Locus of all the points which are in the same
o Source: Extremely hot objects, discharge phase is known as a wavefront.
tubes, sun
There are two types of wave front –
o Application: Photo electric effect, production
of vitamin D in human body, to promote Spherical wave front: If the locus of the particles in
chemical reaction, to identify fake notes, to a wave having same phase is spherical, then the
produce ionization, fluorescence, wave front is spherical wave front. As the distance
magnification of microscope etc. from the origin of waves goes on increasing, the
curvature of the spherical wave front goes on
X-ray:
decreasing.
o Source: X ray tubes
Wavefront of a point source is spherical
o Application: To find out bone fracture, tooth
decay, in research laboratories, in industries Plane wave front: If the locus of the particles in a
etc. wave having same phase is plane, then the wave
front is plane wave front.

Source at infinity forms nearly plane like shape.

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HSC Physics – Paper II Ch 7: Physical Optics

Laser light is highly coherent and monochromatic.

Superposition of wave:

when two or more waves overlap in space, the

resulting disturbance is equal to the algebraic sum
of the individual disturbances which is called
superposition of waves.

Huygens’ Principle: Interference:

To explain interference, diffraction and polarization Two light waves having the same frequencies and
Huygens gave two assumptions as: amplitudes emitted from two coherent sources pass
through the same point in a medium, the point
1. Each point on a wave front is a source of a new
becomes very bright when the two waves superpose
disturbance called second wave which travels with
at that point with the same phase and become dark
the same velocity as that of original waves provided
if the two waves superpose with opposite phase.
the medium is same.
This phenomenon of variation of intensity of light
created due to the superposition of light waves is
called the interference of light.

o The sources must be coherent to create

permanent interference of light.
o If two waves of equal frequency and amplitude
superposed in same phase causing minimum
2. The position and the shape of the new wave front amplitude or intensity for resultant wave, then
at any instance of time t is given by the envelope or the incident is called constructive interference.
tangential surface of the secondary wavelets at that o Intensity becomes maximum due to
instance. constructive interference of light.
o Phase difference between the waves at the
Outcomes of Huygens’ Principle: point of observation δ = 00 or 2nπ
o Huygens wave principle proved the concept of o If two waves of equal frequency and amplitude
reflection, refraction, diffraction and superposed in opposite phase causing
interference of light minimum amplitude or intensity for resultant
wave, then the incident is called destructive
o failed to prove the concept of polarization of
interference.
light, emission of light, absorption of light and
o Destructive interference of light results in
the photoelectric effect
minimum brightness i.e. zero or near
Coherent Source: zero brightness.
o δ = 1800 or (2n – 1) π; n = 1, 2, …. or, (2n+1)π; n
The sources of light which emits continuous light
= 0, 1, 2 …….
waves of the same wavelength, same frequency
and in same phase or having a constant phase
difference are called coherent sources.
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HSC Physics – Paper II Ch 7: Physical Optics

Conditions for Interference of Light: is obtained on the screen. In YDSE alternate bright
and dark bands obtained on the screen. Which is
o Sources should be coherent.
called Interference. And the bands are called
o Sources should be very fine and small Fringes.

o Sources should be very close to each other

o Amplitude of the two sources should be very

close to each other

o Interference is produced when two coherent

sources superposed at a point in a medium.

o For alternate bright and dark points, the path

difference between the waves should be even
o Distance from central maxima to nth bright
& odd multiples respectively, i.e. nDλ
fringe, OP, xn = d
λ
▪ ∆x = nλ = 2n × 2 for Bright Fringe and o Distance from central maxima to nth dark
Dλ
λ
▪ ∆x = (2n − 1) × 2 for dark Fringe fringe, xn = (2n − 1) 2d

o Normally the width of the interference fringes where n = 1, 2, 3, ……. For 1st fringe, 2nd fringe
etc.
is equal.
o Distance between the bright & dark fringes are Or, xn = (2n + 1) 2d
Dλ

equal.
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ……. for 1st fringe, 2nd
o The intensity of all the bright fringes is equal
fringe etc.
Phase difference & Path Difference: Better is to use the first one
Dλ
o Fringe gap, ∆x =
The phase difference is the difference in the phase d
Dλ
angle of the two waves. o Fringe width, x = 2d

Path difference is the difference in the path Diffraction:

traversed by the two waves. When light passes along a sharp edge or through a
Mathematically, slit it bends a little and enters into the shadow
area. This phenomenon is called diffraction of light.
𝟐𝛑
phase difference = (𝐩𝐚𝐭𝐡 𝐝𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞)
𝛌 Characteristics of Diffraction of light:
2π
δ= × Δx o The diffraction is caused by the interference
λ
of the secondary waves emitted from
Young’s double slit experiment: different parts of a wave front.
Monochromatic light (single wavelength) falls on o In the case of diffraction, the width of the
two narrow slits S1 and S2 which are very close fringes is never equal.
together acts as two coherent sources, when waves
o In the case of diffraction, the distance
coming from two coherent sources, (S1, S2)
between the bright and the dark fringes
superimposes on each other, an interference pattern
gradually decreases.
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HSC Physics – Paper II Ch 7: Physical Optics

o In the case of diffraction, dark fringes are not Condition for Diffraction:
completely dark. xn
o Angular displacement, tanθ = D
o The light intensity of the bright fringes is
never the same. The intensity at the central o Path difference, a sin θ = nλ for dark fringe
position is maximum and gradually decreases
λ
at both sides. o Path difference, a sin θ = (2n+1) 2 for bright

Conditions for Diffraction: fringe

o For straight edge: sharp edge and its width Diffraction grating:
should be equal or nearly equal to the
The special device for the production of diffraction
wavelength of light.
is called Grating.

o For narrow slit: pin hole diameter must be

It consists of a very large number of narrow slits of
equal or nearly equal to the wavelength.
equal width side by side. Distance from the starting
Fresnel & Fraunhofer Diffraction: of a slit to the starting of the next slit is called
o Fresnel Diffraction: If either source or screen Grating Constant
or both are at finite distance from the
Grating Constant, d = a + b
diffracting device (obstacle or aperture), the
diffraction is called Fresnel type. In the length ‘d’ of the grating, number of line = 1
▪ This type of diffraction is obtained when 1 1
So, the number of lines in unit length, N = 𝑑 = 𝑎+𝑏
spherical wave of light is incident on
needle, fine wire or narrow slit.
Condotion for maxima: d sin θ = nλ
▪ In this case diffraction lens is not used.
λ
o Fraunhofer Diffraction: If both source and Condition for minima: d sin θ = (2n - 1) 2
screen are effectively at infinite distance from
the diffracting device is called Fraunhofer
Diffraction.
▪ This type of diffraction is produced by
single slit, double slit and diffraction
grating.
▪ Lens is used to make the light rays parallel

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