UNIT 2 NEURONS AND NERVE IMPULSE*

Structure

2.0 Learning Objectives

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Neuron: Structure and Function
2.2.1 Classification and Types of Neuron
2.2.2 Functions of a Neuron

2.3 Neural Conduction

2.4 Synaptic Transmission
2.4.1 Structure of a Synapse
2.4.2 Steps of Synaptic Transmission
2.4.3 Importance of Synapse
2.4.4 Neurotransmitters

2.5 Neuroplasticity: Neural Degeneration, Neural Regeneration, Neural

Reorganization and Recovery
2.6 Summary
2.7 Key Words
2.8 Review Questions
2.9 References and Further Reading
2.10 References for Figure
2.11 Online Resources

2.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
 describe the structure and function of a neuron;
 explain the classification and types of neuron;
 explain the process of neural conduction;
 discuss the process of synaptic transmission;
 state the functions of neurotransmitters; and
 discuss neuroplasticity and the related concepts of neural degeneration, neural
regeneration, neural reorganization and recovery.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Unit, you have learned about the field of biopsychology, its various
divisions, as well as how research is conducted in this area. The main purpose of this

* Dr. Meetu Khosla, Associate Professor of Psychology,Daulat Ram College,

University of Delhi, New Delhi.
32
Unit is to help you to understand about the cells of nervous system, that are neurons, Neurons and
Nerve Impulse
its structure, functions as well as its classification. This Unit will further explain how
a synapse takes place and the functions of various neurotransmitters. The dynamic
nature of brain, that is, neuroplasticity, neural degeneration, regeneration and
reorganization will be discussed in the end. Now, let us first understand what a
neuron is.
All organisms have cells. So, all organs within the human body also have cells, like
heart cells, liver cells, brain cells, etc. Our behavior, actions and thoughts are also
a product of interaction between complex system of cells, chemicals and organs.
Nervous system is one such complex arrangement of cells. It contains millions of
neurons and trillions of neural connections. The network of cells in the nervous
system carries information to and from all parts of the body.There are two kinds of
cells in the nervous system. They are neurons and glial cells. A neuron is the basic
cell of the nervous system (nerve cell). It is responsible for transmitting information
to and from the brain. For example, nerve cells carry information to the brain from
our eyes, or ears. Nerve cells also carry back response from brain to the body, like
muscle movements. It generates electrical impulses known as nerve impulse. In other
words, neurons help us to feel, taste, see, move, feel emotions, remember and
communicate. Also, each neuron has a different chemical makeup resulting in complex
behaviours. It is very difficult to ascertain the exact number of neurons in a person
and the number also differs from one person to the other. According to Williams &
Harrup (1988) there are approximately 100 billion neurons in an adult human brain.
There are 12 to 15 billion neurons in cerebral cortex and associated areas, 70 billion
neurons in cerebellum, and nearly 1 billion neurons in spinal cord. Neurons are of
varied shapes and sizes. Glial cells support and protect neurons.

Figure 2.1: Image of Golgi stained neurons in the dentate gyrus of an epilepsy patient. 40
times magnification

Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.og

33
Introduction to
Biopsychology Box 2.1
Santiago Ramon Y Cajal (often called as father of
neuroscience) first postulated (1887) that the
nervous system was made up of individual cells.
He was awarded Noble prize in Medicine/
Physiology, in 1906 for 'work on the structure of
nervous system'. He shared the award with Camilio
Golgi.
Image Source: https://www.nobelprize.org

2.2 NEURON: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

The cells of the nervous system that receive and send messages within that system
are known as neurons. Neurons receive and process information to and from the
brain. The electrical signal that the neuron conducts is known as a nerve impulse.
They are in varying size and shapes having varied functions to perform. The neuron
structure is related to its functions. Figure 2.2 is an illustration of external features of
one type of a neuron.

Figure 2.2: Structure of a typical Neuron

A typical neuron has the soma or the cell-body, axon, terminal buttons. The plasma
membrane of the neuron is the double layer of phospho-lipid molecules that is semi-
permeable to certain kinds of substances.The plasma membrane controls the movement
of the substances through it, hence it is involved in the nerve impulse.It also provides
sites for electrical activity that occurs during nerve impulse and for synaptic activity
between two neurons.

The cell body is the largest part of the neuron that has number of organelles floating
in its cytoplasm such as golgi body, nissl bodies, mitochondria, rough endoplasmic
reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, etc. The cell body is the metabolic center
of the neuron and is also called as the soma (the word soma means body). There
is a nucleus in the centre. The dendrites (dendrite means 'tree-like') are the extensions
from the cell-body which look like branches of a tree. The dendrite tips have sensory

34
 Neurons and
receptors that receive the stimuli from other neurons and begin the process of nerve
Nerve Impulse
impulse by sending these impulses to the cell body. The axon is a long slender part
of the neuron that extends from a portion of the cell-body known as axon hillock.
Axon hillock is a cone-shaped region at the junction between axon and the cell-
body. It is often covered by the myelin sheath and carries information from the cell
body towards its distal ends known as terminal buttons. Myelin sheath is fatty
insulation around many axons. The axons vary in length and diameter, with larger
diameter indicating faster action potentials, influencing neural conduction. The axon
may have branches known as axon collaterals.

A brief chemical or electrical message that begins from the cell-body, travels down
the axon to the terminal buttons is known as an action potential. When the axons
divide at the rear end, it branches profusely and each branch ends in a knob.These
are known as terminal buttons.When the action potential travels down the axon it
reaches the terminal buttons, where a chemical substance is released known as
neurotransmitter. The function of the neurotransmitters is to either increase or reduce
the activity of the receiving neuron.

Though, neurons are present in large numbers in the brain, there are other primary
cells that provide support to the neurons, known as neuroglia, glial cells or glia.
Glial cells also affect thinking, learning, memory, perception and help in maintaining
a state of homeostasis of nervous system. Glial cells deliver nutrients to neurons,
produce myelin to coat axons, clean up waste products and dead neurons, help in
information processing and influence the generation of new neurons during prenatal
development. The role of glial cells in neurodevelopmental disorders, like Autism
Spectrum Disorder, degenerative disorder, like Alzeihmer Disorder and psychiatric
disorders like major depressive disorder and schizophrenia, is being investigated by
neuroscientists.There are four main types of glial cells. They are oligodendrocytes,
schwann cells, microglia, and astrocytes. Oligodendrocytes produce myelin for
neurons in the brain and spinal cord (the central nervous system) and Schwann Cells
produce the myelin sheath around the neurons of the body (the peripheral nervous
system). Myelin protects the shaft of the axon as well as it gives support. Such nerve
fibers are known as myelinated fibers.There are certain gaps between the myelin
sheath which are known as Nodes of Ranvier. Microglial cells are involved in
inflammation response, that is protecting the brain from invading microorganisms.
Astrocytes clean up the waste material of dying neurons.

2.2.1 Classification and Types of Neuron

There are different types of neurons. Each type has different functions to perform.
We know that neurons vary in their size and shape. Neurons are also classified
according to their structure and function.There are three kinds of neurons that are
classified according to their structure namely, unipolar neurons, bipolar neurons
and multipolar neurons.The classification is based on the number of processes
(projections) emerging from the cell body. The types of neurons are illustrated in
Figure 2.3.

35
Introduction to
Biopsychology

Figure 2.3: Classification of Neurons

The Pseudo-unipolar or Unipolar neurons have one axon that separates from the
soma and branches into two. These neurons are involved in sensory functions. They
send impulses received from the environment to the central nervous system.The
bipolar neurons are sensory neurons.They have one axon and one dendrite which is
profusely branched like a tree.The dendrite is placed at the opposite end of the
soma.They are very few and are the kinds that are present in the retina of the eye,
the inner ear and in the olfactory path. The multipolar neurons have only one axon
but several dendrites. They are most commonly found in the brain and spinal cord.They
are further classified as Golgi Type I and Golgi Type II neurons depending upon the
length of their axons and how much they branch. Golgi Type I have very long axons
and few branches and carry information further away as motor nerves. The Golgi
Type II neurons have shorter axons and branch repeatedly.These neurons act mostly
locally to nearby areas.
Neurons are also classified into types based on their functioning, namely, afferent
neurons, efferent neurons, and inter-neurons. Afferent neurons are the sensory
neurons that carry the nerve impulses to the Central Nervous System (CNS). They
are affected by the changes in the environment. The efferent neurons take the impulses
away from the brain or the spinal cord to the muscles or glands.They are also known
as the motor neurons. The inter-neurons lie within the CNS.They carry information
from the afferent neurons towards the efferent neurons (inside the spinal cord and
much of the brain). Neurons are placed in the form of a reflex arc to conduct
impulses to and from the brain and spinal cord.The most common reflex is the one
that consists of an afferent neuron, an interneuron and an efferent neuron.

2.2.2 Functions of a Neuron

Neurons are involved in all reflex actions ranging from simple and complex problem
solving to communication between sensory and motor neurons.Hence, no behavior
is possible without the appropriate functioning of the neurons. For example, if we are
able to see an object, it is possible because the receptors in the eye communicate
this to the brain which helps us to perceive things clearly. Similarly, when we hold
a glass in our hand, it is possible only because of the co-ordination of the sensory
neuron with motor neuron which signals the muscles to hold the glass.There is an
intricate network of connections between these neurons in the brain and spinal cord
36
that makes possible the proper functioning of the body. There are genetic as well as Neurons and
Nerve Impulse
environmental factors that influence the development of the nervous system.

Check Your Progress 1

1) Label the external features of a neuron.

2) Discuss the classification of neurons.

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3) List types of glial cells.
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5) Myelin Sheath
Check your answer of 1.1) Dendrites 2) Axon 3) Nucleus 4) Nodes of Ranvier

2.3 NEURAL CONDUCTION

A neuron that is at rest, that is not firing a nerve impulse or a message, is actually
electrically charged. There is a jelly-like solution inside and outside the cell which
consists of charged particles known as ions.There are electrical charges across the
neural membranes which constitute the positively charged ions, known as cations and
negatively charged ions known as anions. Both positive and negative charged ions
are present inside and outside the cell. There are mostly negatively charged ions
inside the cell and positively charged ions outside the cell. This is because of diffusion
(process of ions moving from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration)
and electrostatic pressure (the balance of electrical charges when the ions are at
rest). The positively charged ions are sodium (Na+), Calcium (Ca2+),
37
Introduction to Potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl-).There is relatively more positive charge next to
Biopsychology
the plasma membrane on the outside and a relatively more negative charge on the
inside of the membrane. This difference in electrical charge across the membrane is
known as the membrane potential. In an inactive state the neuron is said to be
resting.It displays membrane potential or resting potential of -70mV. This is known
as resting membrane potential. The magnitude of the potential difference is measured
in volts (V) or millivolts (mV). The Resting Membrane Potential (RMP) is maintained
with the help of principle of diffusion, electrostatic pressure, ion channels, and sodium
potassium pump.

Figure 2.4: Diagram showing the ionic basis off resting potential
Image Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org
The nerve impulse is brief and it goes through the cell body to the axon to the
terminal buttons.When there is a stimulus at the spike initiating region that reaches the
threshold of excitation, it depolarizes the membrane.This leads the sodium ions to
move into the cell with the help of forces of diffusion or via electrostatic pressure.
This makes the inside of the membrane more positive with respect to outside for a
temporary period of time from -70 mV to +50mV.The action potential (electrical
charge reversal at a particular point along the axon) reaches its peak in about
1millisecond. No more sodium can enter the cell and potassium ions start leaving the
cell. This causes the membrane potential to restore itself to its resting state.
Box 2.2

Ion channels: Ion channels are present in the membranes of all excitable cells. It can be
defined as pore-forming membrane proteins that allow ions to pass through the channel
pore. They are responsible for establishing a resting membrane potential, shaping action
potentials and other electrical signals by gating the flow of ions across the cell membrane,
controlling the flow of ions across secretory and epithelial cells (type of cells found near
the surfaces of the body, eg. skin, organs, urinary tract and blood vessels), and regulating
cell volume.

Sodium potassium pump: Also known as Na+/K+ pump. It is an enzyme found in the
plasma membrane of all animal cells. In cellular physiology, it is responsible for maintaining
the internal concentration of potassium ions [K+] higher than that in the surrounding
medium (blood, body fluid, water) and maintains the internal concentration of sodium
38 ions [Na+] lower than that of the surrounding medium.
The action potential is an all-or-none phenomenon, such that whenever it is initiated, Neurons and
Nerve Impulse
it goes down the axon to its terminal buttons or it does not occur at all.Thus,
information is sent down axons via small electrical impulses called as action potentials.
The amplitude or the size of the nerve impulse depends upon the particular neuron
as well as the rate at which the neuron conducts impulses. When the potassium ions
begin leaving the cell it causes a state of depolarization of the membrane. Once
enough positively charged potassium ions are released out of the cell, the membrane
reaches its resting state. Sometimes too many potassium ions leave the cell, thus
making the membrane slightly hyperpolarized, but then the potassium channels close
making the membrane potential reach its normal resting state again.
Check Your Progress 2
1) What do you mean by membrane potential?
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2) Differentiate between resting membrane potential and action potential.
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3) What is all-or-none law?
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2.4 SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION

The information passes from one neuron to another through the synapse. So, the
action potential reaches the end of the axon, it reaches the terminal boutons.The
point where the terminal button from one neuron contacts with the dendrite of
another neuron is known as a synapse. Information passes at these junctions formed
with the next neuron. Synapses occur at three places on the next neuron, mainly on
the dendrites, soma or axons. Thus, synapses are known as axondendritic, axosomatic,
and axoaxonic synapses. There are two kinds of synapses, electrical synapses and
39
Introduction to chemical synapses.The electrical synapses are rare.In this case, the information from
Biopsychology
the transmitting neuron is sent to the next neuron via certain channels that come close
to one another. By coming next to one another, the ions pass though the neurons
easily and more efficiently. They are direct and operate more quickly sending
information in either direction. Chemical synapses involve the transfer of
neurotransmitters from one neuron to the other. When the membrane of the cell that
sends the information (presynaptic membrane) comes in contact with the membrane
of the cell that is receiving the information (postsynaptic membrane) there is a slight
gap known as the synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitters are released by the vesicles in
the terminal button of the presynaptic neuron and they go into the cleft.There they
reach receptors that are located on the membrane of the postsynaptic neuron. This
is a chemical synapse that is more commonly occurring.
There are certain steps involved in synaptic transmission, but let us first understand
the structure of a synapse.

2.4.1 Structure of a Synapse

The synapse is made of three structures that we need to understand.These are,the
synaptic knob, the synaptic cleft and the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic
neuron.

Synaptic
Cleft
Dendritic
Spine

Figure 2.5: Illustration of a synapse

The synaptic knob is a tiny bulge that is there when the terminal buttons end. There
are number of vesicles or sacs in the bulge which contain numerous
neurotransmitters.The synaptic cleft is the space between neurons (between the
axon terminal of the pre-synaptic neuron and the dendrite of the post-synaptic neuron).
Information cannot pass directly from one neuron to the other. The information is
transmitted by converting the electrical signal of the first neuron to a chemical signal
that passes across the gap before it is converted back into an electrical signal in the
second neuron. Presynaptic terminals consist of synaptic vesicles ("fluid-filled sac").
The chemical molecules, known as neurotransmitters, are released from the synaptic
vesicles into the cleft and move about with the help of the extracellular fluid that is
present in the cleft. The plasma membrane of the postsynaptic neuron is the membrane
of the neuron where the information is going. Certain receptors are present on this
membrane where the neurotransmitter molecules come and attach themselves.
40
 Neurons and
2.4.2 Steps of Synaptic Transmission Nerve Impulse
When the nerve impulse reaches the terminal buttons of the presynaptic neuron,the
calcium ions move inside the membrane very rapidly.This causes the vesicles to move
about in the synaptic knob and merge with the walls of the presynaptic neuron
membrane.When this happens, then the neurotransmitters are released from the
vesicles.The neurotransmitters move across the synaptic cleft and try to reach the
plasma membrane of the postsynaptic neuron.There they bind with the receptors
placed on the membrane of the postsynaptic neuron.This causes a local postsynaptic
potential. The excitatory neurotransmitters cause the sodium ions to come inside the
membrane much faster than the potassium ions moving out from the membrane.This
state is known as excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP).Once, the threshold
point of EPSP is reached, the action potential is initiated in the postsynaptic membrane.
The inhibitory neurotransmitters open the potassium channels causing the potassium
ions to move inside.This makes the membrane much more negative than at resting
position.This temporary state of hyper-polarization is known as inhibitory postsynaptic
potential (IPSP). Neurotransmitters that do not bind to the receptors are then sent
back to the synaptic knob.There they are either taken back into the synaptic vesicles
to be used again in a process known as reuptake or are degraded using the synaptic
enzymes. In this way, the synapse is cleared for the next release of neurotransmitters.
(For instance, highly addictive stimulant drug like cocaine, when consumed affects
the nervous system thereby blocking the reuptake process).

2.4.3 Importance of Synapse

Synapse plays an important part in the functioning of the nervous system.
 It helps to connect the neurons together via synapses and hence send information
that mediates behavioral responses. If there is any dysfunction in the synaptic
activity, then it may lead to change in behavior and cause depression, schizophrenia
etc.
 Synapse makes sure that impulses traveling across neurons should follow one
direction only. But how, neurons ensure one-directionality of impulses? Since,
transmitters are present only in the pre-synaptic membrane and receptors molecules
can be found only on the post-synaptic membrane. Due to this, impulses travel in
one direction only.
 Synapse help in integrating the impulses travelling down from different neurons.
 It helps in filtering out unwanted and unnecessary stimuli. In order to cross a
synaptic cleft, an impulse must reach an action potential of +40mV. If an impulse is
weak i.e., less than +40mV, then it will not be able to generate enough
neurotransmitters and thus no communication will occur between neurons. As a
result of this, our body will not react to such stimuli and thus help in filtering out
unnecessary stimuli.

2.4.4 Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitter is a chemical found in the synaptic vesicles and when released has
an effect on the next cell. As the name suggests, it is inside a neuron and they transmit
a message. When neurons fire, neurotransmitters are released from their terminal
buttons. More than 100 neurotransmitter substances have been identified.
Neurotransmitters are classified in three classes of small-molecule neurotransmitters,
namely, the amino acids, the monoamines, and acetylcholine. There is a fourth group
in this category known as unconventional neurotransmitters. There is one-group of
large-molecule neurotransmitters, namely the neuropeptides. Most often,
41
Introduction to neurotransmitters produce either excitation or inhibition. But a few neurotransmitters
Biopsychology produce excitation under one situation and inhibition in the other situation.
There are various kinds of neurotransmitters as excitatory neurotransmitters such as
acetylcholine (ACh), catecholamines, glutamate, histamine, serotonin and some
neuropeptides. ACh was the first neurotransmitter identified. ACh plays an important
role in neuro-muscular function, sleep regulation, learning and memory. It also stimulates
the skeletal muscles to contract but slows contraction in heart muscles. The inhibitory
neurotransmitters include Gama-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA), glycine, and some
peptides. Amine neurotransmitters are responsible for emotions, control of motor
actions etc. Monoamines are like dopamine, nor-epinephrine, epinephrine, melatonin
and serotonin. Epinephrine and nor-epinephrine are involved in motor functions.
Dopamine (DA) is found in the brain. It helps to maintain body balance. When it is
deficient, then it leads to tremors and over stimulation of the muscles, responsible for
Parkinsonism. If too much DA is released, it may be a cause of Schizophrenia.
Dopamine (DA) may have both excitatory and inhibitory effect depending on the
synapse being affected. It is involved in regulating mood, emotions, sleep and appetite.
Amino acids are most common neurotransmitters that are involved in protein synthesis.
Any imbalance in the presence of the neurotransmitter GABA, may also predispose
conditions for stroke when certain neurons are destroyed by glutamate. GABA is a
major neurotransmitter with inhibitory effect. It helps in reducing anxiety. On the
other hand, Glutamate is the major neurotransmitter with excitatory effect. An excess
of glutamate may result in overactivation and neuronal damage. Neuropeptides have
pain reducing effects on the body, called as endorphins.
Table 2.1: Important neurotransmitters and their functions

Neurotransmitters Functions

Acetylcholine (ACh) Affects movement, learning, memory, REM sleep

Gaba-Aminobutyric Acid Facilitates neural inhibition in the central nervous

(GABA) system (too much action potential)

Endorphins Provide relief from pain and feelings of pleasure and

well-being

Dopamine (DA) Controls voluntary movements of the body and affects

movement, attention, learning, reinforcement, pleasure

Norepihephrine (NE) Affects eating, alertness, wakefulness

Epinephrine Affects metabolism of glucose, energy release during

exercise.

Serotonin (5HT) Affects mood, sleep, appetite, impulsivity, aggression

The preceding account of neurotransmitters reflects on how the chemical substance
may have an excitatory or inhibitory effect. This helps us to understand why certain
drugs are prescribed by physicians to treat a disorder or drugs that are dangerous
and should be avoided. Drugs may act as an agonist that is, the chemical substance
may imitate or increase the effect of neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next
cell, thereby increasing or decreasing the activity of the cell. For eg., anti-anxiety
medication like Diazepam, is agonist for GABA. As you have learned that GABA
is an inhibitory neurotransmitter, the inhibitory action is increased by the drug and the
drug directly calms the specific brain areas that play a role in controlling anxiety.
Drugs may also act as antagonist, that is the chemical substances that block or
reduce a cell's response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters. If the
42 neurotransmitter that the antagonist affects is inhibitory, there will be actual increase
in activity of the cell, that would otherwise, would have been inhibited. There are Neurons and
Nerve Impulse
some drugs that affect the reuptake or enzymatic degradation process. Drugs that are
used to treat depression, like SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor), block
the reuptake of serotonin, leaving more serotonin in the synapse to bind with the
receptor sites, which over the period of time helps in improving the mood of the
person.
Dopamine Hypothesis and the role of Glutamate in Schizophrenia
Abnormalities in dopamine transmission is one of the causes of psychotic disorder,
such as schizophrenia. Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia states that schizophrenia
is caused due to excess activity at dopamine synapses in certain brain areas. Researches
have concluded that there is an increase in dopamine release in people showing the
first symptoms of schizophrenia (hallucinations and delusions). Drugs that are most
effective in treating schizophrenia, are the most effective at blocking dopamine
receptors.This hypothesis is further supported by researches who have concluded
that continuous use of drugs like amphetamine, cocaine, etc. also show psychotic
symptoms and causes substance-induced psychotic disorder. These drugs increase
the activity at dopamine synapses.
Apart from dopamine hypothesis, glutamate hypothesis also has a role in schizophrenia.
Dopamine inhibits glutamate cells in many brain areas, and glutamate stimulates
neurons that inhibit dopamine. Thus, the effects of increasing dopamine are similar to
those of decreasing glutamate. So, the effect of anti-psychotic drugs that block
dopamine are in consonance with either excess-dopamine hypothesis or deficient-
glutamate hypothesis.

2.5 NEUROPLASTICITY: NEURAL

DEGENERATION, NEURAL REGENERATION,
NEURAL REORGANIZATION AND RECOVERY
In the first three sections of this Unit, you learned about the structure, types, and
functions of neurons, neural conduction and synaptic transmission. This section will
now focus on neuroplastic responses, namely neural degeneration, neural regeneration,
neural reorganization and recovery.
It was earlier believed that any damage to the central nervous system (brain and the
spinal cord) is permanent or more or less permanent. It was also hypothesized that
the adult (mature) brain was incapable of any reorganization. But the recent advances
in research by neuroscientists (1980s onwards) have concluded that the brain has the
ability to constantly change the structure and functions of the cells in response to any
experience, injury or any trauma. The mature brain is constantly changing and adapting.
This ability of the brain is known as neuroplasticity. The brain keeps changing in the
course of a persons' life, with changes in synaptic activity, genetic and environmental
influences.There may be changes in the neuronal activity or more complex changes
in cortical mapping in response to an injury or trauma.Throughout the lifespan, neurons
continuously die out and it was assumed that old cells are lost without being replaced
by the new ones. The recent evidence on neurogenesis (growth of new neurons)
throws light on the capability of an adult brain to generate new nerve cells. The adult
neurogenesis comes from hippocampus and olfactory bulb. Hippocampus is the
unique structure located in the medial temporal lobe of the brain and is involved in
memory, emotions and mood. Olfactory bulbs are the first cranial nerves, whose
output goes primarily to amygdala and piriform cortex. Diet and enriched environment
43
Introduction to play an important role in neurogenesis while as, sleep deprivation and stress impede
Biopsychology
neurogenesis.
Box 2.3 : Case Study of Henry Molaison (H.M.)
At the age of 29 years old, HM
underwent a brain surgery to lessen
the severity of epileptic seizures. In
the surgery, a part of the brain,
known as Hippocampus (both sides
of medial temporal lobes were
removed) and the surrounding
cortical regions were removed. The
surgery could control epileptic
seizures and did not affect his
intelligence and personality. But the
surgery caused a serious deficit in Figure 2.6: Henry Gustav Molaison
his long-term memory (known as Image Source: https://en.wikipedia.org
amnesia). Though, his working
memory was intact. Thus, the results
indicated that hippocampus and the surrounding cortical regions are critical for long-
term memory. Hippocampus plays an important role in long-term memory encoding and
long-term memory retrieval.

Neural Degeneration
Neural degeneration is a result of brain development and disease. It is affected by
nearby glial cells, degenerating neurons and any process or disease that triggers
degeneration. When the axon of the neuron is cut, it causes two kinds of degeneration
or deterioration.When the axon breaks from the point of cut towards the terminal
button, it is known as anterograde degeneration and the distal end of the axon
degenerates.When the neuron breaks from the centre of the axon including the cell
body, it is known as retrograde degeneration. It is the degeneration of the segment
that is proximal cut between the cut on the axon and the cell body.
Neural Regeneration
Neural regeneration is the regrowth of damaged neurons. Once the neurons are
destroyed in the CNS in adult mammals, they do not recover. However, in the
peripheral nervous system (PNS), they do try to regenerate, but the normal functions
may not be possible.If the recovery process does take place then there are different
ways. If the myelin sheath is intact, then the regenerating axons may grow through
them to their desired target areas. If the nerve is severed and the ends of the myelin
sheath moves apart, then no meaningful regeneration will take place. If the nerve is
severed and the myelin sheath ends slightly gets separated from one another, then
incorrect myelin sheaths develop that reaches out to undesired target areas. The
PNS neurons have the inherent capability to regenerate, while as, CNS neurons
cannot regenerate. Some CNS neurons are capable of regeneration if transplanted
to the PNS, while some PNS neurons transplanted to CNS are not capable of
regeneration. This clearly indicates the environment of PNS that promotes regeneration.
When an axon degenerates, new axons branch out from adjacent healthy axons and
synapse at the place vacated by degenerating axon. This is known as collateral
sprouting. Collateral sprouts may grow from axon terminal branches or the nodes of
Ranvier on adjacent neurons (refer to Fig. 2.2).
Neural Reorganization
Studies conducted on laboratory animals to study neural reorganization after brain
44
damage have primarily focused on sensory and motor cortex areas of the brain. The Neurons and
Nerve Impulse
results of the studies by Kaas and Colleagues (1990), Pons and Colleagues (1991)
and Sanes, Suner, and Donaghue (1990) clearly indicate cortical reorganization
following damage in laboratory animals. Experiments conducted on adult mammalian
brain also conclude that adult brain can reorganize its primary motor and sensory
functions after gaining sufficient experience. Mechanisms like strengthening of existing
connections, collateral sprouting, adult neurogenesis, etc. have a role to play in neural
reorganization.
Recovery
Recovering the brain function after damage is very difficult. It is difficult to do
cognitive experiments on brain damaged patients and hence it is poorly understood.
But there is some evidence that education and intelligence create cognitive resources
to help in recovery functions, referred to as cognitive reserve. Cognitive and physical
exercise helps to recover from nervous system damage. Cognitive reserve has been
used to explain that educated people are less vulnerable to the impact of ageing-
related brain deterioration (Reuters-Lorenz & Cappell, 2008). With the discovery of
neuroplasticity, neuroscientists are conducting studies on neurotransplantation (eg. to
transplant human fetal dopamine cells to treat Parkinson's disease) as a treatment for
CNS damage, as well as rehabilitative training to promote recovery from CNS
damage.
Check Your Progress 3
1) Explain the structure of a synapse.
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2) Elucidate the steps of synaptic transmission.
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3) List the main neurotransmitters.
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Introduction to
Biopsychology 4) What do you understand by neuroplasticity?
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2.6 SUMMARY
Now that we have come to the end of this unit, let us recapitulate all the major points
that we have already learnt in this unit.
 Neuron is the cell of the nervous system that is specialized to convey the information
to and from the nervous system.
 The main parts of a neuron are axon, dendrites, cell-body and terminal buttons.
 Though, neurons are present in large numbers in the brain, there are other primary
cells that provide support to the neurons, known as neuroglia, glial cells or glia.
 There are different types of neurons. Neurons can be classified according to their
structure and function. There are three kinds of neurons that are classified according
to their structure namely, unipolar neurons, bipolar neurons and multipolar neurons.
Neurons are also classified into types based on their functioning, namely, afferent
neurons, efferent neurons, and inter-neurons.
 The information passes from one neuron to another through the synapse. The
point where the terminal button from one neuron contacts with the dendrite of
another neuron is known as a synapse. There are two kinds of synapses, electrical
synapses and chemical synapses.
 The synapse is made of three structures, the synaptic knob, the synaptic cleft and
the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic neuron.
 Chemical found in the synaptic vesicles is known as neurotransmitter.They are
responsible for transmitting message across neurons. When neurons fire,
neurotransmitters are released from their terminal buttons. Neurotransmitters can
be classified into three types; the amino acids, the monoamines, and acetylcholine.
 The recent advances in research by neuroscientists (post 1980s) have concluded
that the brain has the ability to constantly change the structure and functions of the
cells in response to any experience, injury or any trauma and this is known as
neuroplasticity. The brain keeps changing in the course of a persons' life, with
changes in synaptic activity, because of genetic and environmental influences.

2.7 KEY WORDS

Axon : It is a long slender part of the neuron that
extends from a portion of the cell body known
as axon hillock. It is often covered by the myelin
sheath and carries information from the cell body
towards its distal ends known as terminal
46 buttons.
Neuron : The cells of the nervous system are known as Neurons and
Nerve Impulse
neurons. Neurons receive and process
information to and from the brain.
Myelin sheath : It is an insulating cover that surrounds an axon
with the layer of myelin (a mixture of protein
and phospholipids).
Nodes of Ranvier : It is the gap between the myelin sheath.
Action Potential : When a cell gets activated by a stimulus, a
momentary change in electrical potential occurs
across plasma membrane of a neuron, known
as action potential.
Membrane potential : Membrane potential of a neuron is the relative
difference in electrical potential between inside
of the cell and the surrounding extracellular fluid.
Synapse : The point where the terminal button from one
neuron contacts with the dendrite of another
neuron is known as a synapse.

2.8 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) Which of the following are the parts of neurons?
a) Brain, spinal cord, and vertebral column
b) Dendrite, axon, and cell body
c) Sensory and motor
d) Cortex, medulla, and sheath
e) Sympathetic and parasympathetic
2) A dendrite conducts nerve impulses ________ the cell body.
a) Away from
b) Towards
c) Both away and towards
d) Around bypassing
e) Only inside
3) Schwann cells produce layers of membrane containing myelin, which provides
nutrition for the dendrites.
a) True
b) False
4) The resting potential indicates that the inside of the neuron is ______ compared to
the outside.
a) Under ionic pressure
b) Positive
c) Negative
d) All of the above
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Introduction to 5) Why do nerve impulses move faster along myelinated neurons?
Biopsychology
6) Explain the difference between depolarization of a neuron and an action potential.
7) Describe what is meant by "excitatory" and "inhibitory" when referring to the effects
of neurotransmitters on the postsynaptic membrane.
8) Differentiate between: (i) postsynaptic potential, (ii) resting potential and, (iii)
membrane potential.
9) Explain the terms; (i) neural degeneration, (ii) neural regeneration and (iii) neural
reorganization.

2.9 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Breedlove, S. M., Watson, N. V., & Rosenzweig, M. R. (2010). Biological
psychology (pp. 45-46). Sunderland: Sinauer Associates.
Ciccarelli, S.K., & White, J.N. (2018). Psychology. Pearson Education Limited.
Slotnick, Scott D.(2017). Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory. Cambridge University
Press.
Commins, Sean (2018). Behavioural Neuroscience. Cambridge University Press.
Greene, S. (2013). Principles of biopsychology. Psychology Press.
Henry Gustav (2011). In Simply Psychology. Retrieved October 30, 2018, from
https://www.simplypsychology.org/anterograde-amnesia.html
Kaas, J.H., Krubtzer, L.A., Chino, Y.M., Langston, A., Polley, E.H., & Blair, N.
(1990). Reorganization of retinotopic cortical maps in adult mammals after lesions of
the retina. Science, 248, 229-231.
Kalat, J. W. (2015). Biological psychology. Nelson Education.
Khosla, M. (2017). Physiological Psychology: An Introduction. Sage Publication.
New Delhi, India.
Pinel, John. P.& Barnes, Steven J. (2017). Biopsychology. Pearson education.
Pons, T.P.,Garraghty, P.E., Ommaya, A.K., Kaas, J.H., Taub, E., & Mishkin, M.
(1991). Massivecortical reorganization after sensory deafferentation in adult macaques.
Science, 252, 1857-1860.
Reuters-Lorenz, P.A.,&Cappell, K.A. (2008). Neurocognitive aging and the
compensation hypothesis. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 177-
182.
Sanes, J.N.,Suner, S., &Donaghue, J.P. (1990). Dynamic organization of primary
mortar cortex output to target muscles in adult rats. I. Long-term patterns of
reorganization following motor or mixed peripheral nerve lesions. Experimental
Brain Research, 79, 479-491.

2.10 REFERENCES FOR FIGURE

 Image of Golgi stained neurons in the dentate gyrus of an epilepsy patient. 40
times magnification.Retrieved September 30, 2018, from https://commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gyrus_Dentatus_40x.jpg
48
 Santiago Ramon Y Cajal. Retrieved September 30, 2018, from https:// Neurons and
Nerve Impulse
www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1906/cajal/biographical/
 Diagram showing the ionic basis off resting potential. Retrieved September 30,
2018, fromhttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Basis_of_Membrane_
Potential2.png
 Henry Gustav. Retrieved September 30, 2018, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Henry_Gustav_1.jpg

2.11 ONLINE RESOURCES

 For more information on neurons, visit;
– web.mst.edu/~rhall/neuroscience/01_fundamentals/neuron.pdf
– https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/human-biology/neuron-
nervous-system/a/overview-of-neuron-structure-and-function
– https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21535/
 For more understanding on neuron transplantation, visit;
– www.ucdenver.edu/academics/colleges/medicalschool/departments/medicine/
ClinicalPharmacologyToxicology/Pages/NeurotransplantationCenter.asp
– www.neurosurgery.pitt.edu/centers-excellence/image-guided-neurosurgery/
neuron-transplantation
 For more on Sodium-potassium pump, visit;
– http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Biology/nakpump.html
 For more understanding on synapse, visit;
– https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/human-biology/neuron-
nervous-system/a/the-synapse
– http://www.biologymad.com/nervoussystem/synapses.htm
– https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/synapse.html
– https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3243741/
 For an article on HM, visit;
– www.nytimes.com/2008/12/05/

Answers for Multiple Choice Questions

1) (b), 2) (b), 3) (b), 4) (c)

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