302 Viva

1. Theory from Net

2. Read Experiment

Viva Questions
Sir questions

DC Motor Braking

Mechanical Braking -> Using mechanical means example friction. Eg in cycle

Electrical Braking -> Using the help of voltage and current

Advantages of Electrical Braking

⁃ We have control over the braking time

⁃ Mechanical Braking causes lots of wear and tear, which electrical braking
doesn’t, hence its more economical
⁃ Electrical Braking is Smooth

Motto of Electrical Braking

Extract the KE of running motor and reduce it to zero.

REGENERATIVE BRAKING (used in EVs and metros)

The KE of motor is converted to EE and is supplied back to the source.

Motor essentially acts as a generator.
This prevents waste of energy.

In motor: E = V-Iara
In generator: E = V+Iara

E>V in generators and as we know E is proportional to speed (omega).

So we increase motor emf by increasing speed of motor greater than no load
speed.
No motor essentially acts as a generator, but since it does not have a prime mover,
it supplies EE from its stored KE.
 As KE reduces, speed also reduces, motor can again acts a motor in this case, so
we need to ensure to continuously reduce terminal voltage as well so that it
remains below motor emf.

PLUGGING (used in forklifts where operator is constantly changing directions)

Speed of motor is essentially reduced by reversing its torque. Toque is promotional

to the product of ux and armature current.

In plugging, we reverse the armature terminals, keeping the eld constant. Due to
this eld as well armature now work together to deliver energy, and essentially acts
as a generator.

The value of armature current becomes -> (V+E)/ra , and it is opposite in sense to
the armature and hence armature current is reversed, which essentially reverses
the torque.

This value of current is very high and may cause sparking and damage to armature
windings, hence we add an external resistance in series with armature resistance
to reduce its value.
All energy is delivered as copper loss across armature resistance and external
resistance, in the form of heat.

From the dynamic equation of torque, as motor torque (plugging) reverses, load
and motor torque act in same direction as braking toque and cause deceleration.
Once the motor speed reaches zero, it starts rotating in reverse direction.

DYNAMIC BRAKING (used in cranes and conveyor belts)

Supply is removed and motor is allowed to dissipate its kinetic energy in the form f
heat across an externally connected resistor. Armature current is reversed and
hence true becomes negative.

In both plugging and dynamic braking, as the value of external resistance

increases, breaking time increases since the value of armature current reduces.

In general, plugging id faster than dynamic braking since it has a greater armature
current due to both motor emf and supply acting in the same sense.

In experiment, a double throw two way switch is used to change connections.

Experiment is performed on DC SHUNT motor.
Torque speed characteristics of DC shunt motor.
Transients in dynamic braking

AC Induction Motor Braking

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 Induction Motor -> Asynchronous as they never rotate at synchronous speed. They
are singly excited by 3 phase AC source in stator winding.

REGENERATIVE BRAKING

KE of motor converted to EE and supplied back to source. Motor acts as a

generator.
For generator action, speed of motor > synchronous speed.
So reduce speed by variable frequency method or pole changing method.
Switch of supply before speed of motor again becomes smaller than synchronous
speed.

DYNAMIC BRAKING

Remove the 3 phase AC supply on stator and replace by a DC supply. Due to DC,
the magnetic eld now produced is not rotating but stationary.
Hence slip, which is relative speed of magnetic eld to rotor, becomes negative,
causing the current to be negative and hence torque produces is also negative,
causing reduction in speed.
The MMF value is controlled by the current owing from the supply. Higher the
current, higher the MMF, and higher the torque, and faster the braking.
Rotor always tries to catch the magnetic eld, and since here speed of MF is 0,
rotor comes to rest.

PLUGGING

We change the sense of rotation of magnetic eld by changing the phase

sequence of the supply on stator terminals. As supply varies, the value of MMF
varies.
The torque produced now is negative to previous one as motor trues to catch up
with negative MMF.
The slip now produced is 2-s, s being previous slip.
From the dynamic equation, we can see that load torque and motor torque
(plugging torque) act together as braking torque to decelerate the motor.

In experiment, a double throw 3 pole switch is used to change connections.

Torque speed characterises of induction motor.

1 phase ACVR

AC voltage controller. : AC-AC

1. ACVR: xed ac ( xed v,f) -> var ac(var v, xed f)
2. Cycloconvertor : xed ac ( xed v,f) -> var ac(var v,f)
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ACVR Uses : Room heater, speed control of low power induction motor eg fan
⁃ To control of the rms value of voltage

1. Single phase half wave ACVR

Diode + SCR
Current For resistive load

⁃ Here average voltage is non zero

⁃ This dc current may cause input transformer to saturate, hence is harmful

1. Single phase full wave ACVR

SCR+SCR in antiparallel: allow current to ow in both directions

High power applications : 2SCR

Low/ medium application : traic

Triac is faster but lower rating

We vary potentiometer resistor, which controls the ring anger of traic in out home
fans
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For r load

For RL load

⁃ Conduction goes beyond pi as inductor takes time to discharge

If t2 starts conduction before t1 stops, we get continuous conduction and lose

control over output voltage.

Hence alpha has to be > phi for discontinuous conduction

Discontinuous conduction

Continuous conduction
2 STAGE ACVR

Centre tapped 1:2 tf

Harmonics are present in load voltage and source current, at low output voltage
levels.
Both thyristors can’t conduct together
Average output voltage is zero for ideal full wave ACVR.
Voltage and current THD is more for resistive load.
Sawtooth wave generator is a carrier.
Refernce is alpha
SCR:

4 - layer device, 3 junction device

2 - thyristor model
Minority carrier device due to PN junction

Reverse blocking, forward blocking, forward conduction

When voltage is applied between gate and cathode, gate cathode junction
becomes FB. Due to this, a regenerative process is set up, and we can remove
gate current, once anode current reaches above latching current.
Hence continuous gate current is not requires, and we go for pulse triggering.
⁃ We apply a gate pulse for duration more than minimum pulse width required.
⁃ Gate current is in milliamperes but sir anode is in amperes, hence gate circuit
is a low power circuit and hence we use a pulse transformer for isolation.
⁃ Size of transformer is inversely proportional to frequency.
⁃ We can reduce size of pulse transformer by using high frequency pulse
triggering.

Conduction angle: beta - alpha

Power factor with r load = sqrt(pu power)
Harmonics depend on magnitude of voltage variation

V/F Drives

Used for speed control of AC motor by varying the frequency and voltage of the
electrical supply. Eg in refrigeration systems

⁃ A VFD takes in xed-frequency AC power from the mains and converts it to

DC power using a recti er. Then, it converts the DC power back to AC at the
desired frequency and voltage using an inverter. By adjusting the frequency
and voltage of the output, the VFD controls the speed of the motor.
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⁃ Also consist of a control circuit to constantly monitor parameters and
adjusting the outputs to maintain desired frequency.
⁃ Some advantages of VFDs are: precise speed control, Soft starting and
stopping, increasing motor lifetime
⁃ Some applications are: HVAC systems (heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning), Pumping systems for water supply
⁃ 6 pulse Recti er (AC to DC) -> DC bus (Smooth DC) -> Invertor (DC to AC)
usually IGBTs with PWM
⁃ V/F ratio is kept constant for VFDs to maintain constant magnetic ux in the
motor's windings for stable operation.
⁃ Keeping the V/F ratio constant helps prevent the motor from entering
saturation conditions. Saturation occurs when the magnetic ux in the
motor's core reaches its maximum limit, leading to ine ciencies and potential
damage to the motor.

In experiment, we measure harmonic content of supply current.

Loaded operation: IM loaded by SE DC Generator
Current drawn by IM is larger in case of loaded operation
We observe voltage variation by varying frequency. In loaded operation, we try to
maintain constant load current
We divide measured current by 4 since there are 4 turns
In no load operation, line current os zero
Tachometer voltage is lower in loaded operation
The end point of linear range of v/f droves is its rating point
There is harmonic content present due to recti cation stage of VFD and using
PWM techniques in inverter switching, which can have several adverse e ects.
The frequency at which the voltage is switched in PWM control is typically much
higher than the fundamental frequency of the electrical system. The higher
switching frequency results in the generation of harmonic frequencies that are
multiples of the fundamental frequency (e.g., 120 Hz, 180 Hz, etc.).
Tachometer output and speed validify the accuracy of speed control.

Distortion Factor (DF): measure of the extent to which a waveform deviates from
its ideal sinusoidal shape due to the presence of harmonic components.
= ratio of fundamental to the total rms

Total Harmonic Distortion (THD): measure of the total harmonic content present
in a waveform relative to the magnitude of the fundamental frequency component.
= summing the squares of the RMS values of each harmonic component, taking
the square root of the sum, and dividing it by the RMS value of the fundamental

Soft starters have control only during start and dont have harmonics

Retardation Test

DC Shunt motor: to obtain moment of inertia

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 ⁃ Armature of motor is disconnected from supply but the eld is separately
excited. KE stored in motor is dissipated as friction, windage and iron losses.
⁃ Motor speed slows down, note down the time.
⁃ Armature and eld are both disconnected, as eld is absent, there is no ux,
so KE is dissipated as friction and windage loss
⁃ Using these two tests, we can separate out friction and windage loss

⁃ Circuit consists of a eld and armature rheostat.

⁃ During starting, failed is kept at min position and armature at max position.
So that ux is maximum and and starting current is limited.
⁃ 3 modes of operation
⁃ Start motor with the help of rheostat. Once motor reaches a speed slightly
greater than rated speed by rst adjusting armature rheostat to apply rated
voltage to armature winding, then adjust eld rheostat, bring speed above
rated speed. Now disconnect the motor as well as eld and note time taken
by it to come to rest, the energy in this case is dissipated on friction and
winding loss
⁃ Start the motor again and run at speed slightly greater than rated speed. Now
open only armature winding. Note time taken by motor to come to rest, the
energy is dissipated in friction and winding loss and iron loss (stray loss)
⁃ Start the motor again and run at speed slightly greater than rated speed. Now
open armature switch and connect it to external resistance. In this case KE of
motor is dissipated across external resistance as Copper loss + mech loss
(friction and winding loss) + iron loss
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In our experiment, since machine rating is low, we didnt carry out step 3,

High moment of intertia machines are heavy and stable and low are vice versa