CVAC: Domestic Application of Electronics

Semester 2 Credit: 2

Semiconductors and sensors: Insulator, Semiconductor, Metal, elementary semiconductor devices,

Sensors and its applications (Diode, Transistor, FET. Photoresistors (LDR), Photodiodes
(Photovoltaic and Photo conducive Cells, and Photo Transistors). Metal detector (conceptually
discussed). LCD Displays: Types of Liquid crystals, principle of Liquid Crystal Displays,
Applications, Advantages over CRT Display. [6 Hrs]

Digital embedded system: Transition of analog to digital system, memory, microprocessor and
microcontroller, embedded system, 7seg LED (Elementary Discussion). Introduction to
communication, need for modulation, concept of AM and FM (qualitative discussion no derivation. [6
Hrs]
 CVAC: Domestic Application of Electronics

Protection of Electrical lines in House: Concept of RCB and MCB, different types of RCB and
MCB, Transmission of electricity: Basic elements: Generator, power transformer, transmission line,
main elements of long transmission line, concept of overhead transmission line and underground
cable. [6 hrs.]

Electrical machines: Microwave generator, Microwave oven-principle of microwave cooking,

Block diagram, Types. Washing machine: Electronic controller of washing machines. Air
conditioners: Air conditioning, Remote controlled air conditioner, Compressor. Loud speakers:
Features of Basic loud speaker, crystal loud speakers and woofers. [6 hrs.]

Power Supply in Home uses: Regulated power supply (Rectifier, Filter, Zener Diode, Transistor,
IC-78XX ,79XX and LM317 ). Inverter, converter and solar cell. [6 hrs.]
 Concept of RCB

➢ RCB Stands for Residual Current Breaker, and is also known as an RCCB (Residual Current
Circuit Breaker) or RCD (Residual Current Device).

➢ RCBs are used to protect electrical systems from earth leakage currents and electrical shock.

➢ RCBs disconnects the circuit as soon as it detects a current leak (5 mA to 30 mA) to the earth wire.

➢ They work by detecting earth faults and tripping, which measures the difference between neutral
and line current and reacts to any imbalances. Connected to Phase and Neutral Wire.

➢ RCBs are more sensitive than MCBs and react faster, tripping within 20 milliseconds. They are
only used for housing electrical systems, and come in two, three, and four-pole options, but not
single-pole.
 RCB Principle
RCB operates on the principle of detecting and responding to imbalances in electrical currents. The
key principle involves continuously monitoring the current flowing through the live and neutral
conductors. In a balanced circuit, where the current flowing in is equal to the current flowing out
(Kirchoff’s law), there is no residual current. However, if there's an imbalance, indicating leakage to
the ground or an unintended path, the RCB detects the difference in currents. Upon sensing such a
discrepancy, the RCB rapidly disconnects the circuit, preventing potential electric shocks or fires.
 Types of RCBs/RCDs

➢ Type AC: Detects residual sinusoidal alternating currents. Type AC RCDs are suitable for general
use and cover most of the applications in practice.

➢ Type A: In addition to the detection characteristics of type AC RCDs, Type A RCDs detect pulsating
DC residual current. Such waveforms can be caused by diode or thyristor rectifier circuit in
electronic loads. Type A RCDs are specifically intended to be used for single phase class 1
electronic loads.

➢ Type F: In addition to the detection characteristics of type A RCDs, type F RCDs are specially
designed for circuit protection where single phase variable speed drives could be used. In these
circuits, the waveform of residual current could be a composite of multi-frequencies including
motor frequency, convertor switching frequency and line frequency. For the reason of energy
efficiency, the use of frequency converters in certain loads (washing machine, air conditioner, …) is
increasing, and type F RCDs cover those new applications.
 Types of RCBs/RCDs

➢ Type B: Detects sinusoidal AC, pulsating DC, composite of multi-frequency as well as smooth DC
residual currents. In addition, tripping conditions are defined with different frequencies from 50Hz
to 1kHz. Type B RCD are intended to be used for loads with three-phase rectifier, such as variable
speed drives, PV system, EV charging station and medical equipment.
 Concept of MCB

➢ MCBs (Miniature Circuit Breakers) are switches that automatically turn off the power supply when
it detects a power surge thus protecting the electrical appliances.

➢ Earlier, this action used to be done by fuses. Though fuses have one disadvantage, they need to be
replaced every time there is a short circuit. An MCB, on the other hand, can be manually restarted
and is more durable.

➢ MCB acts as an electromechanical device that is designed to be triggered by high voltages or

electrical faults caused by overloads and electrical surges.

➢ MCBs are effective against overload currents during anomalies like electrical overloads, surges, or
thunderstorms, as well as short circuits. Furthermore, they are easy to install, operate, and
maintain.

➢ Like a fuse, MCB is connected in series with the main line in the household circuit.
 How does MCB work?
➢ MCBs are equipped with a bimetallic strip that is sensitive to heat. If there are high amounts of
current flowing through the circuit, it warms up the bimetallic circuit in the MCB which bends and
deflects from its original state. This deflection causes the MCB to “trigger” and release a
mechanical latch. This latch disconnects the circuit and disrupts the electrical flow from reaching
the connected device. The MCB can then be manually reset to close the circuit and resume the flow
of electricity through it.

➢ In the case of a short circuit, there is an abrupt rise in the flow of electricity through the circuit.
This sudden rise causes the MCB to trip, displacing the electromechanical plunger and stopping the
current flow.
 Types of MCBs

➢ Type B: Generally used in household circuits or in industrial units with small scale of operations. In
such MCBs, the trip occurs when the power exceeds 5 times more than the suggested limit. These
MCBs are considered to be the most sensitive.

➢ Type C: These MCBs often trip at surges that exceed 10 times the power capacity. So these are
strategically used in devices which have high power consumption requirements in commercial and
industrial units, electrical motors and fluorescent lighting devices.

➢ Type D: Considered to be the least sensitive MCB type, the Type D has a surge capacity of 10 to 20
times higher than the power threshold. Often these are used in devices such as X-ray machines,
motors and other equipment that has higher rush of power.
 RCB vs. MCB
MCB RCB

Designed to protect an electrical circuit from Designed to protect against electric shock caused
overloads and short circuits. by earth leakage currents.
Protect against overloads and short circuits by detect any imbalance between the live and neutral
automatically cutting off the flow of electricity in currents in a circuit, which can be caused by a fault
the event of a fault. or by something coming into contact with an
electrical appliance or wire, and tripping the circuit.
Available in a range of current ratings and are Available in a range of current ratings and are
typically used to protect individual circuits in a typically used to protect multiple circuits or an
building. entire building.
Does not protect against earth leakage currents. Specifically designed to detect and protect against
earth leakage currents.
Generally faster acting and can trip in as little as Take longer to trip, typically taking up to 0.3
0.1 seconds. seconds.
 RCB vs. MCB
MCB RCB

Can be used in conjunction with other protective Not designed to be used in conjunction with other
devices, such as surge protectors and voltage protective devices.
stabilizers.
Less expensive than RCCBs. More expensive than MCBs due to their additional
protective features.

MCBs and RCCBs serve different purposes in an electrical system. MCBs are
used to protect against overloads and short circuits, while RCCBs are used
to protect against electric shock caused by earth leakage currents.

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Transmission of electricity

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 Transmission of electricity: Power Transformer

➢ Power transformers are electrical instruments used in

transmitting electrical power from one circuit to another
without changing the frequency.
➢ They operate by the principle of electromagnetic
induction.
➢ They are used in transmitting electrical power between
generators and distribution primary circuits.
➢ Power transformers are used to step up or step down the
voltage in distribution networks.
➢ Voltage range varying between 33 kV-400 kV and a
rating above 200 MVA.
 Transmission of electricity: Power Transformer

➢ Power transformers are essential in minimizing substantial energy losses, due to Joule’s effect, in
the transmission of large amounts of electrical power over long distances by converting it into high-
voltage current then stepping it down to a safer low-voltage current. They are commonly found in
power plants, industrial plants, and electric utility companies.
➢ Power transformers operation is based on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction like that of
inductors, motors, generators, and solenoids.
➢ These instruments are considered static devices since they have no rotating or moving parts.
Transmission of electricity: Power Transformer

𝑉𝑝
𝑉𝑠 = × 𝑁𝑠
𝑁𝑝
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 = 𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝

➢ Step up transformers: 𝑉𝑠 > 𝑉𝑝 (𝐼𝑠 < 𝐼𝑝 )

➢ Step down transformers: 𝑉𝑠 < 𝑉𝑝 (𝐼𝑠 > 𝐼𝑝 )
 Transmission of electricity: Transmission line
➢ Transmission lines carry electric energy from one point to another in an electric power system.
➢ They can carry alternating current or direct current or a system can be a combination of both.
➢ Electric current can be carried by either overhead or underground lines.
➢ The main characteristics that distinguish transmission lines from distribution lines are that they
are operated at relatively high voltages, they transmit large quantities of power and they transmit
the power over large distances.
➢ Short transmission line: length less than 80km, voltage level less than 69 kV.
➢ Medium transmission line: length more than 80 km but less than 250 km, operational voltage
level is from 69 kV to approximately 133 kV.
➢ Long transmission line: length more than 250 km, voltage level is above 133 kV.
 Transmission of electricity: Overhead transmission line
➢ An overhead transmission line may be used to transmit or distribute electric power.
➢ The successful operation of an overhead line depends to a great extent upon the
mechanical design of the line.
➢ While constructing an overhead line, it should be ensured that mechanical strength of the
line is such so as to provide against the most probable weather conditions.
 Transmission of electricity: Overhead transmission line
➢ In general, the main components of an overhead line are:
(i) Conductors which carry electric power from the sending end station to the receiving end
station.
(ii) Supports which may be poles or towers and keep the conductors at a suitable level above
the ground.
(iii) Insulators which are attached to supports and insulate the conductors from the ground.
(iv) Cross arms which provide support to the insulators.
(v) Miscellaneous items such as phase plates, danger plates, lightning arrestors, anti-climbing
wires etc.
 Transmission of electricity: Overhead transmission line
➢ Conductor Materials: High electrical conductivity, high tensile strength in order to withstand
mechanical stresses, low cost so that it can be used for long distances, low specific gravity so that
weight per unit volume is small. Most commonly used conductor materials for overhead lines are
copper, aluminium, steel-cored aluminium, galvanized steel and cadmium copper.
➢ Line Supports: Supporting structures for overhead line conductors are various types of poles
and towers having the properties: high mechanical strength to withstand the weight of conductors
and wind loads, light in weight without the loss of mechanical strength, cheap in cost and
economical to maintain, longer life, easy accessibility of conductors for maintenance. The line
supports used for transmission and distribution of electric power are of various types including
wooden poles, steel poles, R.C.C. (Reinforced Cement Concrete) poles and lattice steel towers.
 Transmission of electricity: Overhead transmission line
Insulators:
❑ The overhead line conductors should be supported on the poles or towers in such a way that
currents from conductors do not flow to earth through supports i.e., line conductors must be
properly insulated from supports. This is achieved by securing line conductors to supports with
the help of insulators.
❑ Insulators have high mechanical strength in order to withstand conductor load, wind load etc.
❑ Insulators are of high electrical resistance in order to avoid leakage currents to earth.
 Transmission of electricity: Overhead transmission line

Advantages
❑ High Power transmission.
❑ Low installation and material cost.
❑ Long-distance transmissions.
❑ The fault or damage in overhead lines can easily locate.
❑ Maintenance of the line is easier.
❑ Extension or joining can be performed easily and also it facilitates easy replacing.
Disadvantages
❑ As it is exposed to the surroundings the safety risk is high.
❑ A continuous pathway for the line creates obstructions.
❑ Vulnerable to lightning strikes.
 Transmission of electricity: Underground transmission line
The electric power transmission can be done using a method like undergrounding as an alternative
to overhead power transmission. These cables have low visibility and not affected by bad -weather.
But, the cost of these cables is high and laying process is time-consuming instead of overhead
building. The finding of faults in underground transmission lines takes much time for repairing as
well as locating. In urban areas, this type of transmission is enclosed with shielded with dielectric
liquid and a metal pipe that is either fixed or spread through pumps.
 Transmission of electricity: Underground transmission line

Advantages
❑ The underground transmission systems are safer than the overhead transmission system.
❑ Safer from lightning.
❑ Creates no obstructions
Disadvantages
❑ Installation process has difficulties, because of ground excavation.
❑ Installation cost is high as it requires a continuous trench or concrete ducts for cable installation.
Also, it has a high material cost due to the requirement of thick and insulated conductors.
❑ High cost of maintenance. Because the line needs to dig up before any repair activities and
required to reinstall again.
❑ High complications in fault detection and maintenance.
❑ High voltage transmission is difficult in underground transmission.
 Power Supply in Home uses

➢ An electronic circuit that produces a stable DC voltage of fixed value across the load terminals
irrespective of changes in the load is known as regulated power supply. Thus, the primary
function of a regulated power supply is to convert an AC power into a steady DC power.
➢ The regulated power supply ensures that the output power at the load terminals should remain
constant even if the input power varies. The regulated power supply receives an AC power as
input and generates a constant DC power as output.

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Regulated Power Supply
 Regulated Power Supply

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 Regulated Power Supply

➢ The step-down transformer used in the circuit of the regulated power supply changes the input
AC voltage to the desired lower voltage value. Also, this transformer provides an electrical
isolation between two circuits. The reduced output AC voltage of the step-down transformer is
used as the input to the rectifier circuit.

𝑉𝑝
𝑉𝑠 = × 𝑁𝑠
𝑁𝑝
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 = 𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝

Step down transformers:

𝑉𝑠 < 𝑉𝑝 (𝐼𝑠 > 𝐼𝑝 )

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 Regulated Power Supply

➢ The rectifier circuit is used to convert the input AC voltage into a DC voltage. It consists of
diodes that perform the rectification process, i.e. conversion of the AC voltage into the DC
voltage. However, the output of the rectifier is a pulsating direct voltage. In practice, a full wave
rectifier is used for the rectification due to its technical advantages. This full wave rectifier can be
a center-tapped full-wave rectifier or a bridge rectifier. The full wave rectifier converts both
positive and negative cycles of AC voltage into DC voltage.
 Regulated Power Supply
➢ Since the output of the rectifier is a pulsating direct voltage which has very high ripple content.
Hence, the raw output of the rectifier is undesirable. In order to get a pure ripple free direct
voltage, a DC filter circuit is used. We have different types of filter circuits such as capacitor
filter choke input filter, π-filter, and LC filter. Therefore, the filter circuit converts the pulsating
direct voltage into the constant direct voltage having almost zero ripple content.

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 Regulated Power Supply
➢ The voltage regulator constitutes the last block of the regulated power supply. It monitors and
corrects the fluctuations in the output voltage of the power supply. The output voltage may
change or fluctuate due to any change in the input AC voltage or the change in the load or change
in any physical parameters such as temperature of the circuit. Thus, the voltage regulator takes
care of this problem. The voltage regulator maintains the DC voltage constant at the output
terminals.
➢ Zener Diode: Heavily doped p-n junction diode used as voltage regulator.

anode (p)

cathode (n) anode (p) cathode (n)

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 Regulated Power Supply
Zener Diode Characteristics:

Reverse bias circuit

➢ Zener diode is operated in reverse bias mode in the breakdown down region in voltage
regulator circuit
 Regulated Power Supply
IC 78XX:
 Regulated Power Supply
IC 79XX:
 Regulated Power Supply
LM317:
The LM317 is a three-terminal, adjustable, positive-voltage regulator that can supply more than 1.5
amps over an output voltage range of 1.25–37 volts. It's used in many types of electronic circuits
that require a stable and regulated voltage, including:
❑ Local, on-card regulation
❑ Programmable output regulator
❑ Precision current regulator
❑ Battery charger circuit

𝑅2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 1+
𝑅1

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LM317
 Inverter
➢ An inverter is a power electronic device or circuitry that changes direct current (DC) to
alternating current (AC).
➢ Inverters do the opposite of rectifiers which converts AC to DC.
➢ The inverter does not produce any power; the power is provided by the DC source.
➢ The input voltage, output voltage and frequency, and overall power handling depend on the
design of the specific device or circuitry.
➢ Input voltage: Inverter requires a stable DC power source capable of supplying enough current
for the intended power demands of the system.
❑ 12 V DC, for smaller consumer and commercial inverters that typically run from a
rechargeable 12 V lead acid battery.
❑ 24, 36, and 48 V DC, which are common standards for home energy systems.
❑ 200 to 400 V DC, when power is from photovoltaic solar panels.
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 Inverter
➢ Output Waveform: An inverter may produce a square wave, sine wave, modified sine wave,
pulsed sine wave, or near-sine pulse-width modulated wave (PWM) depending on circuit
design. Common types of inverters produce square waves or quasi-square waves.

V(t)

one of the simplest waveforms an inverter

design can produce and is best suited to
t low-sensitivity applications such as
lighting and heating.

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 Inverter
➢ Output Frequency: The AC output frequency of a power inverter device is usually the same as
standard power line frequency, 50 or 60 Hz.
➢ Output Voltage: The AC output voltage of a power inverter is often regulated to be the same as
the grid line voltage, typically 120 V or 240 V AC at the distribution level.
➢ Output Power: An inverter will often have an overall power rating expressed in watts or
kilowatts. This describes the power that will be available to the device the inverter is driving
and, indirectly, the power that will be needed from the DC source. Smaller popular consumer
and commercial devices designed to mimic line power typically range from 150 W to 3000 W.

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 Inverter
➢ Runtime: The runtime of an inverter powered by batteries is dependent on the battery power
and the amount of power being drawn from the inverter at a given time. As the amount of
equipment using the inverter increases, the runtime will decrease. In order to prolong the
runtime of an inverter, additional batteries can be added to the inverter.
Battery power is defined in the unit of ampere-hour (Ah).
Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Load (In Watts) × Usage Time (in hours) / Input Voltage (V)

Problem: Consider the battery capacity 150 Ah, an inverter is operated at an input voltage 12 V to
drive a total load of 200 W (say, two fans and 2 LEDs). How long will the battery drive the loads?

Battery capacity × Input voltage 150 × 12

Usage time = = h=9h
Total load 200

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 Inverter
➢ Applications:
❑ DC power source uses: An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as
batteries or fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage; in
particular it can operate AC equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to
produce DC at any desired voltage.
❑ Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS): Uses batteries and an inverter to supply AC
power when mains power is not available. When mains power is restored, a rectifier
supplies DC power to recharge the batteries.
❑ Electric motor speed control
❑ Solar inverter

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 Converter
➢ A converter converts the voltage of an electric device, usually alternating current (AC) to direct
current (DC).
➢ Types:
❑ Analog-to-digital converter (ADC): A device that converts the input analog voltage to a
digital number proportional to the magnitude of the voltage or current.
❑ Digital-to-analog converter (DAC): A device that converts a digital code to an analog
signal. DAC are found in CD players, digital music players and PC sound cards.
❑ Digital-to-digital converter (DDC): A device which converts one type of digital data to
another type of digital data.

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 Converter
➢ Applications: Converters are used to convert AC power to DC power. Virtually all the
electronic devices require converters. They are also used to detect amplitude modulated radio
signals. They are also used to supply polarized voltage for welding.
➢ Disadvantages: Poor current overload capacity, good quality Automatic regulators are more
expensive than Mechanical regulators.

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 Solar Cell

A solar cell or photovoltaic cell (PV cell) is an electronic device that

converts the energy of light directly into electricity by means of the
photovoltaic effect. It is a form of photoelectric cell, a device whose
electrical characteristics (such as current, voltage, or resistance) vary
when it is exposed to light. Individual solar cell devices are often the
electrical building blocks of photovoltaic modules, known colloquially
as "solar panels". Almost all commercial PV cells consist of
crystalline silicon, with a market share of 95%. Cadmium telluride
thin-film solar cells account for the remainder. The common single-
junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum open-circuit voltage
of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts.

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 Solar Cell

Solar cell is made of semiconducting materials, such as

silicon, that have been fabricated into a p–n junction. Such
junctions are made by doping one side of the device p-
type and the other n-type.
Photons in sunlight hit the solar cell and are absorbed by
the semiconductor. When the photons are absorbed,
electrons are excited from the valence band to the
conduction band, producing electron-hole pairs. If the
electron-hole pairs are created near the junction between
p-type and n-type materials the local electric field sweeps
them apart to opposite electrodes, producing an excess of
electrons on one side and an excess of holes on the other.
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 Solar Cell

When the solar cell is unconnected (or the external electrical load is very high) the electrons and
holes will ultimately restore equilibrium by diffusing back across the junction against the field and
recombine with each other giving off heat, but if the load is small enough then it is easier for
equilibrium to be restored by the excess electrons going around the external circuit, doing useful
work along the way.
An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC)
electricity. An inverter can convert the power to alternating current (AC).