JAIPUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE AND RESEARCH CENTRE

JECRC Campus, Shri Ram Ki Nangal, Via-Vatika, Jaipur

LAB MANUAL

Lab Name : Environmental Engineering Design and

Lab

Lab Code : 6CE4-21

Branch : Civil Engineering

Year : III

Department of Civil Engineering

Jaipur Engineering College and Research Centre, Jaipur
 JAIPUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE AND RESEARCH CENTRE

JECRC Campus, Shri Ram Ki Nangal, Via-Vatika, Jaipur

(Affiliated to RTU, Kota)

INDEX

S. No. Contents Page

No.
1 Vision and Mission of the Institute iv
2 Vision and Mission of the Department v
3 Program Educational Objectives (PEOs) vi
4 Program Outcomes (POs) vii
5 PSO of the Department (PSOs) viii
6 RTU Syllabus with List of Experiments ix
7 Course Outcomes (COs) x
8 CO/PO-PSO mapping xi
9 Introduction about Lab &its Applications Xii
10 Instructions Sheet xiii
Experiment List (As per RTU, Kota Syllabus)
Experiment 1 Physical Characterization of water: Turbidity, Electrical Conductivity, 14
pH
Experiment 2 Analysis of solids content of water: Dissolved, Settleable, suspended,
18
total, volatile, inorganic etc.
Experiment 3 Alkalinity and acidity, Hardness: total hardness, calcium and
23
magnesium hardness
Experiment 4 Optimum coagulant dose 29
Experiment 5 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 32
Experiment 6 Dissolved Oxygen (D.O) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) 36
Experiment 7 Break point Chlorination 41
Experiment 8 Bacteriological quality measurement: MPN, 44
 JAIPUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE AND RESEARCH CENTRE

JECRC Campus, Shri Ram Ki Nangal, Via-Vatika, Jaipur

Vision of the Institute

To become a renowned centre of outcome based learning, and work towards academic,
professional, cultural and social enrichment of the lives of individuals and communities.

Mission of the Institute

M1: Focus on evaluation of learning outcomes and motivate students to inculcate research
aptitude by project based learning.

M2: Identify, based on informed perception of Indian, regional and global needs, areas of
focus and provide platform to gain knowledge and solutions.

M3: Offer opportunities for interaction between academia and industry.

M4: Develop human potential to its fullest extent so that intellectually capable and
imaginatively gifted leaders can emerge in a range of professions.

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 JAIPUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE AND RESEARCH CENTRE

JECRC Campus, Shri Ram Ki Nangal, Via-Vatika, Jaipur

Vision of the Department

To Produce competent and professional Civil Engineers for the sustainable development of
the society.

Mission of the Department

M1: To provide outcome-based education and promote research aptitude.

M2: To create a learning environment conducive to industrial requirements.

M3: To inculcate the pedagogy of continuous learning, ethical values, and social
responsibility.

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 JAIPUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE AND RESEARCH CENTRE

JECRC Campus, Shri Ram Ki Nangal, Via-Vatika, Jaipur

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

1. PEO 1: To provide students with the fundamentals of Engineering Sciences with

more emphasis on Civil Engineering by analyzing and exploiting engineering
challenges.
2. PEO 2: To train students with good scientific and engineering knowledge so as to
comprehend, analyze, design, and create novel products and solutions for real-life
problems in Civil Engineering.
3. PEO 3: To inculcate professional and ethical attitude, effective communication skills,
teamwork skills, multidisciplinary approach, entrepreneurial thinking, and an ability
to relate Civil Engineering issues with social issues.
4. PEO 4: To provide students with an academic environment aware of excellence,
leadership, written ethical codes and guidelines, and the self-motivated life-long
learning needed for a successful professional career in Civil Engineering.
5. PEO 5: To prepare students to excel in Industry and Higher Education by educating
them with high moral values and knowledge in Civil Engineering.

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 JAIPUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE AND RESEARCH CENTRE

JECRC Campus, Shri Ram Ki Nangal, Via-Vatika, Jaipur

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural
sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of
the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modelling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to
the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader
in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10.Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

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JECRC Campus, Shri Ram Ki Nangal, Via-Vatika, Jaipur

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

PSO1. To prepare students to design multistory buildings with recent state of art and
technology.

PSO2. To design buildings with aspect of vastu shastra and green building technology.

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 JAIPUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE AND RESEARCH CENTRE

JECRC Campus, Shri Ram Ki Nangal, Via-Vatika, Jaipur

RTU Syllabus with List of Experiments

6CE4-21: Environmental Engineering Design and Lab

Class: 6th Sem. B. Tech. 3rd year Evaluation

Branch: CE Examination Time=Three (3) Hours
Credits: 1.5 Maximum Marks = 100
Schedule per week: 3 Hrs (Practical) [Internal Assessment/Sessional(40 )& End-
term Exam(60 )]

S. No. NAME OF EXPERIMENT

1 Physical Characterization of water: Turbidity, Electrical Conductivity, pH

2 Analysis of solids content of water: Dissolved, Settleable, suspended, total, volatile,

inorganic etc.

3 Alkalinity and acidity, Hardness: total hardness, calcium and magnesium hardness

4 Optimum coagulant dose

5 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

6 Dissolved Oxygen (D.O) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

7 Break point Chlorination

8 Bacteriological quality measurement: MPN,

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JECRC Campus, Shri Ram Ki Nangal, Via-Vatika, Jaipur

Course Outcomes
CO1. Students will be able to analyze population forecasting and water demand, and design
water treatment units such as sedimentation tanks and filters.

CO2. Students will be able to describe water quality parameters and conduct laboratory
analyses for turbidity, pH, hardness, and chemical oxygen demand.

CO3. Students will be able to evaluate treatment process effectiveness through lab
experiments and create innovative solutions for water quality improvement.

Mapping of Experiments with Cos & BT Level

S. Contents COs BT*

No.

1 Physical Characterization of water: Turbidity, Electrical Conductivity, pH CO2

2,3
Analysis of solids content of water: Dissolved, Settleable, suspended, total,
2 CO2 3,4
volatile, inorganic etc.
Alkalinity and acidity, Hardness: total hardness, calcium and magnesium
3 CO2 3,4
hardness
CO1,
4 Optimum coagulant dose 3,4
CO3

5 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) CO2 3,4

CO2,
6 Dissolved Oxygen (D.O) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) 3,4
CO3

7 Break point Chlorination CO3 3,5

CO2,
8 Bacteriological quality measurement: MPN,
CO3 3,5

* BT - Bloom's Taxonomy

x
 CO-4
CO-3
CO-2
CO-1

3
3
3
3
1
Engineering Knowledge

PO

3
3
2
2
2
Problem analysis

PO

2
3
1
1
3
Design/Development of Solution

PO

3
3
2
2
4
Conduct Invest. of complex problems

PO

3
2
1
1
5
Modern Tool Usage

PO

1
1
1
0
6
The engineer and society

PO

2
1
1
1
7
Environment and Sustainability

PO

xi
2
2
2
2
8
Ethics

PO

3
3
2
3
9
Individual and Team Work

PO
Mapping of Course Outcomes & POs/PSOs

2
2
2
2
Communication

10
PO

2
3
2
2
Project Management and Finance

11 12

2
2
2
2
Life-long Learning

PO PO Design Multistory Buildings

3
3
2
3
1
JECRC Campus, Shri Ram Ki Nangal, Via-Vatika, Jaipur
JAIPUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE AND RESEARCH CENTRE

PSO

Vastu Shastra & Green Building

0
0
0
0
2
PSO
 JAIPUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE AND RESEARCH CENTRE

JECRC Campus, Shri Ram Ki Nangal, Via-Vatika, Jaipur

INTRODUCTION ABOUT LABORATORY& APPLICATIONS

Environmental engineering plays a crucial role in designing sustainable solutions to address

environmental challenges, such as water and air pollution, waste management, and ecosystem
preservation. The Environmental Engineering Design Laboratory provides hands-on
experience in applying scientific principles and engineering techniques to assess, analyze,
and develop practical solutions for real-world environmental problems.

The primary applications of the Environmental Engineering Design Laboratory include:

 Water and Wastewater Treatment – Analysis of contaminants, design of treatment

processes, and efficiency evaluation.
 Air Quality Monitoring – Measurement of pollutants, emissions control strategies,
and air dispersion modeling.
 Solid Waste Management – Characterization of waste materials, landfill design, and
recycling methods.
 Soil and Groundwater Remediation – Investigation of soil contamination, pollutant
transport, and remediation techniques.
 Sustainable Design and Green Technologies – Development of eco-friendly
systems, renewable energy integration, and life-cycle assessments.

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INSTRUCTIONS SHEET
We need your full support and cooperation for smooth functioning of the lab.
DO’s
 Perform the experimental work precisely as directed by the faculty member/instructor.
 Maintain lab cleanliness.
 Report any damage to equipment or furniture immediately to your faculty
member/instructor.
 Be sure to follow safety protocols while performing experiments.
 Shut off motors after performing the experiment.
 Switch off fan and lights when not in use.
DON’Ts
 Do not enter the laboratory without wearing shoes.
 Do not touch any equipment without prior permission.
 Do not engage in unruly behaviour or boisterous conduct in the laboratory.
 Do not give excessive displacement to torsional vibration equipment.
 Use of personal audio or video equipment is prohibited in the laboratory.
 Use of cell phones is strictly prohibited.
 Do not change the equipment setting without permission.
BEFORE ENTERING IN THE LAB
1. All the students are supposed to prepare the theory regarding the next experiment.
2. Students are supposed to bring the practical file and the lab copy.
3. Previous practical should be written in the practical file.
4. Any student not following these instructions will be denied entry in the lab.

WHILE WORKING IN THE LAB

1. Adhere to experimental schedule as instructed by the lab in-charge.
2. Get the previously executed experiment signed by the instructor.
3. Get the output of the current experiment checked by the instructor in the lab copy.
4. Take responsibility of valuable accessories.
5. If anyone is caught carrying any equipment of the lab outside without permission,
they will face strict disciplinary action.

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JECRC Campus, Shri Ram Ki Nangal, Via-Vatika, Jaipur

Experiment 01

Physical Characterization of Water: Turbidity, Electrical Conductivity, pH

Objective:

The objective of this experiment is to understand and perform the physical characterization of
water by measuring three important parameters:

1. Turbidity
2. Electrical Conductivity
3. pH

Introduction:

 Turbidity is a measure of the cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by large numbers

of individual particles that are generally invisible to the naked eye. It is an important
water quality parameter as it can affect aquatic life, water treatment processes, and the
aesthetic quality of water. Turbidity is commonly measured in NTU (Nephelometric
Turbidity Units).
 Electrical Conductivity (EC) is a measure of the ability of water to conduct an electric
current, which depends on the concentration of dissolved ions (such as salts, metals, and
other chemicals) in the water. Higher concentrations of dissolved ions result in higher
conductivity. EC is expressed in micro siemens per centimeter (µS/cm).
 pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of water, which indicates the concentration of
hydrogen ions in the water. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, where a pH less than 7
indicates acidic water, a pH of 7 is neutral, and a pH greater than 7 is alkaline. pH can
affect the solubility of various substances in water and influence biological processes.

Apparatus and Materials:

 Turbidity Measurement:
1. Turbidimeter or Nephelometer
2. Standard turbidity solutions (e.g., for calibration)
3. Distilled water sample

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JECRC Campus, Shri Ram Ki Nangal, Via-Vatika, Jaipur

4. Sample cuvettes
 Electrical Conductivity Measurement:
1. Conductivity meter
2. Distilled water
3. Conductivity standard solutions
4. Beakers for sample collection
 pH Measurement:
1. pH meter
2. pH calibration buffers (usually pH 4.00, 7.00, and 10.00)
3. Distilled water
4. Sample water

Theory:

 Turbidity: Turbidity arises due to suspended particles in the water, which scatter light.
The more particles present, the higher the turbidity. This can be caused by organic matter,
microorganisms, sediment, or pollutants in the water. A turbidimeter measures the
intensity of scattered light at a specific angle, usually 90° to the incident beam.
 Electrical Conductivity: Water conducts electricity because of the presence of dissolved
salts and ions, such as sodium, calcium, chloride, sulfate, etc. The conductivity meter
measures the ability of water to pass an electrical current between two electrodes, and
this measurement is related to the ion concentration in the sample.
 pH: The pH scale measures the hydrogen ion concentration [H+] in water. The pH meter
determines the voltage difference between two electrodes immersed in the sample. This
voltage is proportional to the pH of the solution.

Procedure:

Turbidity Measurement:

1. Calibrate the Turbidimeter:

o Turn on the turbidimeter and let it warm up for a few minutes.
o Prepare the calibration standard according to the manufacturer's instructions,
typically using a standard solution with known turbidity.

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JECRC Campus, Shri Ram Ki Nangal, Via-Vatika, Jaipur

oPlace the standard turbidity solution in the sample compartment of the

turbidimeter and adjust the reading to match the known turbidity value.
2. Measure the Turbidity:
o Take a clean cuvette and fill it with the water sample.
o Place the cuvette in the sample compartment of the turbidimeter.
o Close the lid and record the turbidity value in NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity
Units) displayed on the meter.
o Repeat the measurement for at least three samples to ensure accuracy.

Electrical Conductivity Measurement:

1. Calibrate the Conductivity Meter:

o Turn on the conductivity meter.
o Prepare the standard conductivity solutions (usually 1413 µS/cm for calibration).
o Submerge the conductivity probe in the standard solution and adjust the reading
on the meter according to the standard.
2. Measure the Conductivity:
o Rinse the conductivity probe with distilled water and then immerse it into the
water sample.
o Wait for the reading to stabilize and record the conductivity value in µS/cm.
o Repeat the measurement for at least three samples to ensure accuracy.

pH Measurement:

1. Calibrate the pH Meter:

o Turn on the pH meter and rinse the electrode with distilled water.
o Calibrate the pH meter using standard pH buffers (usually pH 4.00, 7.00, and
10.00).
o Adjust the meter according to the manufacturer’s instructions for calibration.
2. Measure the pH:
o Rinse the pH electrode with distilled water and immerse it into the water sample.
o Wait for the reading to stabilize and record the pH value.
o Repeat the measurement for at least three samples to ensure accuracy.

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Observations and Calculations:

 Record the turbidity, conductivity, and pH values for each water sample.
 Compare the obtained values with standard or reference values, if available, to assess the
quality of the water sample.

Observation Table

Parameter Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3

Turbidity (NTU)

Conductivity (µS/cm)

pH

1.1.1 Precautions:

1. Ensure all equipment is clean and free of contaminants before use.

2. Handle the pH electrode carefully, as it is sensitive to mechanical damage and must be
stored properly.
3. Always rinse the turbidity and conductivity meters between measurements with distilled
water to avoid cross-contamination.
4. Be sure to calibrate instruments before starting measurements to ensure accurate results.
5. Store all samples and reagents properly after use.

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Experiment-02
Analysis of solids content of water: Dissolved, Settleable, suspended, total, volatile,
inorganic etc.

Objective:

The primary objective of this experiment is to analyze and quantify different types of solids
present in water, which include:

 Dissolved solids
 Settleable solids
 Suspended solids
 Total solids
 Volatile solids
 Inorganic solids

Apparatus and Equipment:

 Analytical Balance – For precise measurement of solid samples.

 Filtration setup – Filter paper, Buchner funnel, vacuum pump (or gravity filtration
setup) for separating solids.
 Evaporation Dish/Crucible – For drying and igniting the sample.
 Hot Air Oven – For drying the sample at a constant temperature.
 Muffle Furnace – For igniting the solids to determine volatile and inorganic solids.
 Desiccator – For cooling hot items and avoiding moisture uptake.
 Graduated Cylinder – For measuring water samples.
 Weighing Boat or Paper – For handling small quantities of solids.
 Burette – For accurate measurement of liquid.
 Thermometer – For controlling drying temperatures.
 Glassware – Beakers, flasks, etc., for sample preparation.

Chemicals and Reagents:

1. Distilled Water – For cleaning and dilution purposes.
2. Filter Paper – Used for separating suspended solids.
3. Desiccant (e.g., Silica Gel) – For moisture removal.

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Procedure:
1. Determination of Total Solids (TS):

Total Solids refer to the total amount of dissolved and suspended solids present in the water
sample.

 Step 1: Weigh a clean, dry evaporating dish (or crucible) and record its weight as W1.
 Step 2: Take a known volume of water (say, 100 ml) and pour it into the evaporating
dish.
 Step 3: Place the dish in a hot air oven at 103°C to 105°C and dry it until all water has
evaporated (typically 24 hours).
 Step 4: After drying, cool the dish in a desiccator to room temperature and weigh it
again. Record the weight as W2.
 Step 5: Calculate the total solids (TS) using the formula:

Total Solids (TS)= (W2−W1/Volume of Sample)×1000 mg/L

2. Determination of Suspended Solids (SS):

Suspended Solids are those that are suspended in the water and can be removed by filtration.

 Step 1: Set up a filtration system with a pre-weighed filter paper.

 Step 2: Filter a known volume of water (e.g., 100 ml) through the filter paper.
 Step 3: After filtration, dry the filter paper and solids in the oven at 103°C to 105°C for
24 hours.
 Step 4: After drying, cool the filter paper in a desiccator and weigh it. Record the weight
as W3 .
 Step 5: Calculate the suspended solids (SS) using the formula:

Suspended Solids (SS)=(W3−W1 ) ×1000 mg/L /Volume of Sample

3. Determination of Settleable Solids:

Settleable Solids are those that settle down under the influence of gravity over a given period.

 Step 1: Fill a graduated cylinder with a known volume of water (e.g., 1 liter).
 Step 2: Allow the water to stand undisturbed for 1 hour.

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JECRC Campus, Shri Ram Ki Nangal, Via-Vatika, Jaipur

 Step 3: After settling, measure the volume of settled solids at the bottom of the graduated
cylinder.
 Step 4: Calculate the settleable solids (SS) as follows:

Settleable Solids (SS)= (Volume of settled solids/Volume of Sample)×1000 mg/L

4. Determination of Dissolved Solids (DS):

Dissolved Solids are those that remain in solution and do not settle or filter out.

 Step 1: Filter the sample of water using a filtration system to remove suspended solids.
 Step 2: Measure the total solids in the filtered sample using the same procedure as for
total solids.
 Step 3: The dissolved solids can be calculated as:

Dissolved Solids (DS)=Total Solids (TS)−Suspended Solids (SS)

5. Determination of Volatile Solids:

Volatile Solids are those that can be lost upon heating at high temperatures (such as organic
materials).

 Step 1: Weigh the sample of total solids that was used for determining total solids.
 Step 2: Place the sample in a muffle furnace and ignite it at 550°C for 1-2 hours.
 Step 3: After ignition, cool the sample in a desiccator and weigh it.
 Step 4: Calculate the volatile solids (VS) using the formula:

Volatile Solids (VS)=Total Solids (TS)−Inorganic Solids (IS)

Where Inorganic Solids (IS) are determined by the weight of the sample after ignition.

6. Determination of Inorganic Solids:

Inorganic Solids are the residue left after the combustion of volatile solids.

 Step 1: After determining the volatile solids (VS), the remaining residue in the muffle
furnace will represent inorganic solids.
 Step 2: The inorganic solids can be calculated as:

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Inorganic Solids (IS)=Total Solids (TS)−Volatile Solids (VS)

Observations Table:
Weight Weight
Volume of Weight of Weight of
after after Settleable
Parameter Sample Crucible Filter Paper
Drying Drying Solids (ml)
(ml) (W1) (W1)
(W2) (W3)

Total Solids
100
(TS)

Suspended
100
Solids (SS)

Settleable
100
Solids

Dissolved
100
Solids

Volatile
100
Solids (VS)

Inorganic
100
Solids (IS)

Calculations:

Results:

Record the values of:

 Total Solids (TS)

 Suspended Solids (SS)
 Settleable Solids
 Dissolved Solids (DS)
 Volatile Solids (VS)
 Inorganic Solids (IS)
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Precautions:

1. Ensure all glassware and equipment are clean and free of contamination.
2. Handle the muffle furnace with care as it operates at high temperatures.
3. Use appropriate safety gear, including gloves, goggles, and a lab coat.
4. Ensure proper ventilation in the lab to avoid inhaling fumes, especially during the
ignition process.

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JECRC Campus, Shri Ram Ki Nangal, Via-Vatika, Jaipur

Experiment 03

Analysis of Alkalinity, Acidity, and Hardness in Water: Total Hardness, Calcium Hardness, and
Magnesium Hardness.

Objective:

The main objective of this experiment is to determine the alkalinity, acidity, and hardness of
water, which are essential parameters in assessing water quality for domestic and industrial uses.
The hardness will be divided into total hardness, calcium hardness, and magnesium hardness.

Apparatus and Equipment:

 Burettes – For titration.

 Pipettes – For accurate measurement of liquid volumes.
 Conical flasks – For titration reactions.
 Beakers – For preparing solutions.
 Volumetric Flasks – For accurate preparation of standard solutions.
 Pipette fillers – For safe and accurate pipetting.
 Titration Stand – For holding the burette.
 pH meter or pH paper – For measuring pH.
 Hot plate or water bath – For heating water samples (if needed).
 Graduated Cylinders – For accurate measurement of water sample volume.
 Funnel – For transferring solutions.
 Filtration Setup – For filtering if required.
 Titration Indicator Solutions – Methyl orange, phenolphthalein, etc., for detecting pH
endpoints.

Chemicals and Reagents:

 Standard Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) – For titration of alkalinity and acidity.

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JECRC Campus, Shri Ram Ki Nangal, Via-Vatika, Jaipur

 Standard Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) – For titration of alkalinity.

 Ethylenediaminetetraacetic Acid (EDTA) – For determination of hardness.
 Murexide Indicator – For hardness titration.
 Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl) – To buffer the solution during hardness determination.
 Calcium Carbonate (CaCO₃) – For standardization of EDTA.
 Phenolphthalein Indicator – For detecting alkalinity and pH changes.
 Methyl Orange – Used for determining acidity.
 Distilled Water – For cleaning glassware and diluting chemicals.


Procedure:

1. Determination of Alkalinity:

Alkalinity in water is mainly due to the presence of hydroxide ions (OH⁻), carbonate ions
(CO₃²⁻), and bicarbonate ions (HCO₃⁻).

 Step 1: Pipette 50 mL of the water sample into a clean conical flask.

 Step 2: Add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator.
 Step 3: Titrate with a standard 0.1 N HCl solution until the color changes from pink to
colorless. This represents the neutralization of hydroxide ions (OH⁻).
 Step 4: Record the volume of HCl used for the titration.
 Step 5: Now add 2-3 drops of methyl orange indicator to the same flask.
 Step 6: Titrate again with the same standard 0.1 N HCl until the color changes from
yellow to red. This represents the neutralization of bicarbonate and carbonate ions.
 Step 7: Note the volume of HCl used.

Calculation for Alkalinity (as CaCO₃):

 For hydroxide alkalinity:

OH−=(V1×NHCl)×1000/Volume of Sample

For total alkalinity (from phenolphthalein and methyl orange):

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Total Alkalinity (as CaCO₃)= (V2×NHCl)×1000/Volume of Sample

Where:

 V1 and V2= volumes of HCl used (in mL),

 NHCl= normality of HCl,
 Volume of sample = volume of water used for titration.

2. Determination of Acidity:

Acidity of water refers to the capacity of water to neutralize bases, primarily due to the presence
of free acids like carbonic acid.

 Step 1: Pipette 50 mL of the water sample into a clean conical flask.

 Step 2: Add 2-3 drops of methyl orange indicator.
 Step 3: Titrate with standard 0.1 N NaOH solution until the color changes from red to
yellow.
 Step 4: Record the volume of NaOH used.

Calculation for Acidity (as CaCO₃):

Acidity (as CaCO₃)= (VNaoH x NNaoH)X1000/Volume of sample

Where:

 VNaoH= volume of NaOH used (in mL),

 NNaOH = normality of NaOH,
 Volume of sample = volume of water used.

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3. Determination of Total Hardness:

Total hardness is the sum of calcium hardness and magnesium hardness in water, often expressed
as CaCO₃.

 Step 1: Pipette 50 mL of the water sample into a clean conical flask.

 Step 2: Add 1 mL of ammonium buffer solution to the flask.
 Step 3: Add a few drops of murexide indicator. The solution will turn purple if calcium
is present.
 Step 4: Titrate the sample with standard 0.01 N EDTA solution until the color changes
from purple to blue.
 Step 5: Record the volume of EDTA used.

Calculation for Total Hardness:

Total Hardness (as CaCO₃)= (VEDTA×NEDTA)×1000/Volume of Sample

Where:

 VEDTA = volume of EDTA used (in mL),

 NEDTA = normality of EDTA,
 Volume of sample = volume of water used.

4. Determination of Calcium Hardness:

Calcium hardness refers specifically to the calcium ions in water.

 Step 1: Pipette 50 mL of the water sample into a clean conical flask.

 Step 2: Add 1 mL of ammonium buffer solution.
 Step 3: Add a few drops of murexide indicator. The solution will turn purple if calcium
is present.
 Step 4: Titrate the sample with standard 0.01 N EDTA solution until the color changes
from purple to blue.
 Step 5: Record the volume of EDTA used.

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Calculation for Calcium Hardness:

Calcium Hardness (as CaCO₃)=(VEDTA×NEDTA)×1000/Volume of Sample

Where:

 VEDTA = volume of EDTA used (in mL),

 NEDTA = normality of EDTA,
 Volume of sample = volume of water used.

5. Determination of Magnesium Hardness:

Magnesium hardness is the portion of total hardness that is attributed to magnesium ions.

Magnesium Hardness can be calculated using the formula:

Magnesium Hardness=Total Hardness−Calcium Hardness

Observations Table:

Volume of Volume of Normality of Result (mg/L as

Parameter
Sample (mL) Titrant (mL) Titrant CaCO₃)

Alkalinity (as CaCO₃) 50

Acidity (as CaCO₃) 50

Total Hardness (as

50
CaCO₃)

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Volume of Volume of Normality of Result (mg/L as

Parameter
Sample (mL) Titrant (mL) Titrant CaCO₃)

Calcium Hardness (as

50
CaCO₃)

Magnesium Hardness
50
(as CaCO₃)

Calculations & Result.......

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Experiment 04

Optimum Coagulant Dose

Objective:

The objective of this experiment is to determine the optimum coagulant dose required for
effective coagulation and flocculation in water treatment processes. The determination of the
optimum coagulant dose helps in achieving efficient particle removal from water, ensuring
clarity and quality.

Introduction:

Coagulation is a water treatment process that involves the addition of coagulants to destabilize
suspended particles, organic matter, and microorganisms. This destabilization causes the
particles to agglomerate into larger aggregates, called flocs, which can then be removed from
water through sedimentation or filtration.

Apparatus and Materials:

 Apparatus:

 Beakers (250 mL) – For preparing different coagulant doses.

 Stirring rod or Magnetic stirrer – To mix the coagulant with water.
 Measuring cylinders – To accurately measure the coagulant solution.
 Turbidity meter – To measure the turbidity of the water sample.
 Pipettes – For adding precise quantities of coagulant.
 Glass rod or stir bar – For agitation of the sample.
 Conical flasks (500 mL) – For sedimentation and floc formation.
 pH meter – To check and adjust pH if necessary.
 Funnels and filter paper – For filtering the supernatant after coagulation.

 Materials:

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 Coagulant (e.g., Alum or Ferric Chloride)

 Distilled or tap water
 Standard turbidity standards (e.g., Formazin turbidity standard)
 pH adjusting chemicals (like NaOH or HCl, if needed)

Procedure:

1. Preparation of Coagulant Solution:

o Prepare a stock solution of coagulant (e.g., alum or ferric chloride) by dissolving a
known quantity in distilled water. For example, dissolve 1g of alum in 1L of
water to make a 1g/L solution.
o Prepare a series of coagulant doses at different concentrations, such as 5, 10, 20,
30, 40, and 50 mg/L by dilution of the stock solution.
2. Sample Preparation:
o Take a known volume of water (say 250 mL) into each beaker. This will be your
raw water sample.
o Measure and record the initial turbidity of the raw water using the turbidity meter.
This will serve as the baseline for the experiment.
3. Addition of Coagulant:
o Add the calculated dose of coagulant solution to each beaker. Mix the coagulant
thoroughly with the water by stirring for a few minutes.
o After mixing, let the beakers stand undisturbed for a fixed time (typically 30
minutes to 1 hour) to allow flocs to form and settle.
4. Turbidity Measurement:
o After the settling period, carefully pour off the supernatant (clear water) into a
clean container without disturbing the settled flocs.
o Measure and record the turbidity of the supernatant using the turbidity meter for
each dose.
o Repeat the turbidity measurement for all the doses of coagulant applied.
5. Observation and Calculation:
o Record the turbidity values for each coagulant dose.
o Plot a graph of turbidity versus coagulant dose. The optimum dose is typically the
dose where the turbidity is the lowest, indicating maximum removal of suspended
particles.

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Calculations:

1. Turbidity Calculation: Turbidity is measured in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU).

The formula for calculating turbidity is:

Turbidity (NTU)=Intensity of light scattered by the sample/Intensity of light scattered by

the standard

2. Optimum Coagulant Dose:

o The optimum dose is identified where the turbidity is at its lowest value. This
indicates the most effective coagulation and flocculation occurred at this dose.

Observations:

 Turbidity of raw water before coagulation: _________ NTU

 Turbidity values after coagulation at different doses:

Coagulant Dose (mg/L) Turbidity (NTU)

5 _______ NTU

10 _______ NTU

20 _______ NTU

30 _______ NTU

40 _______ NTU

50 _______ NTU

Results:-

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Experiment 05

Objective

To determine the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of a sample, which reflects the amount of
oxygen consumed by organic matter in the sample during chemical oxidation.

Introduction

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is an important parameter used to measure the pollution load
of water, typically used to assess the quality of water or wastewater. COD quantifies the amount
of oxygen required to oxidize organic matter and is a crucial indicator of water quality.

In this experiment, a water sample is treated with a strong oxidizing agent (potassium
dichromate, K₂Cr₂O₇) under acidic conditions. The excess dichromate is then titrated with a
standard solution of ferrous ammonium sulfate (FAS). The COD value is determined based on
the amount of dichromate consumed by the organic material in the sample.

Principle

The COD of the sample is determined by its reaction with a known excess of potassium
dichromate (K₂Cr₂O₇) in an acidic medium. The dichromate oxidizes the organic matter in the
sample. The remaining excess dichromate is then determined by titration with a standard ferrous
ammonium sulfate solution.

The reaction can be summarized as:

Oxidation reaction: Organic matter+K2Cr2O7+H2SO4→Products

Titration reaction: Cr2O72−+Fe2+→Fe3++Cr3+

Materials Required

 Reagents:
o Potassium dichromate (K₂Cr₂O₇) (0.25N)
o Standard ferrous ammonium sulfate (FAS) solution (0.1N)

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Concentrated sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄)

o
o Silver sulfate (Ag₂SO₄)
o Phosphoric acid (H₃PO₄)
o Potassium chloride (KCl)
o Sodium thiosulfate solution (0.1N) (for back titration)
o Starch solution (for end point detection)
o Distilled water
 Apparatus:
o Conical flasks (250 ml)
o Burettes (50 ml)
o Pipettes (10 ml, 50 ml)
o Reflux apparatus
o Heating mantle or water bath
o Analytical balance
o Glassware (beakers, measuring cylinders, etc.)

Procedure

Step 1: Preparation of the Sample

1. Collect the Sample: Take a representative sample of the water to be analyzed. The
volume of the sample will depend on the expected COD range, typically around 50-100
mL.
2. Filter the Sample (if necessary): If the sample contains suspended solids, filter it
through a fine filter paper.

Step 2: Oxidation of Organic Matter

1. Weighing the Reagents: In a 250 ml conical flask, add 10 ml of the water sample to be
analyzed.
2. Adding Reagents:
o Add 10 ml of concentrated sulfuric acid to the flask.
o Add 5-10 drops of silver sulfate (Ag₂SO₄) as a catalyst to promote oxidation.
o Add 25 ml of potassium dichromate (K₂Cr₂O₇) solution (0.25N).

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3. Refluxing: Place the flask in a water bath or heating mantle and allow the contents to
reflux for 2 hours at 150°C. Ensure that the flask is properly secured and the reaction
mixture does not spill.

Step 3: Titration to Determine Excess Potassium Dichromate

1. Cooling: After refluxing, allow the flask to cool to room temperature.

2. Addition of Titrant: Transfer the contents of the flask into a 250 ml conical flask. Then,
titrate the remaining excess potassium dichromate with the standard ferrous ammonium
sulfate solution.
o Add 10 ml of phosphoric acid (H₃PO₄) to the mixture.
o Titrate the excess dichromate with the ferrous ammonium sulfate solution (0.1N).
o Use a few drops of starch solution as an indicator. The end point is indicated by a
blue-to-colorless change.

Step 4: Blank Determination

1. Blank Test: Repeat the same procedure without the water sample, using distilled water
instead. This will help account for any background COD present in the reagents.

Step 5: Calculation of COD

1. COD Calculation: The COD value is calculated using the following formula:

COD (mg/L)= (VFAS−VFAS, blank)×NFAS×8000/Vsample

Where:

o VFAS = volume of ferrous ammonium sulfate (FAS) used for the sample titration
(in mL)

o VFAS, blank = volume of FAS used for the blank titration (in mL)
o NFAS = normality of the ferrous ammonium sulfate solution
o 8000 = constant to convert the titration volume to COD in mg/L
o Vsample = volume of the sample used (in mL)

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Observations and Calculations

1. Record the volume of FAS used for titration.

2. Subtract the volume of FAS used for the blank from the volume used for the sample.
3. Use the formula to calculate the COD of the sample.

Precautions

 Handle concentrated sulfuric acid carefully. Always add acid to water, not the reverse.
 The refluxing temperature should not exceed 150°C to prevent splattering.
 Ensure that the glassware is clean and free of contaminants to avoid erroneous results.
 The titration should be performed immediately after the reflux process to prevent changes
in the sample.
 Use the starch solution carefully and only at the end point to avoid interference with the
titration.

1.2 Results

COD of the Sample (mg/L): _______________________

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Experiment 06

Dissolved Oxygen (D.O) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Objective

1. Dissolved Oxygen (D.O): To determine the amount of dissolved oxygen present in a

water sample.
2. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): To determine the amount of oxygen consumed
by microorganisms during the biochemical degradation of organic matter in a water
sample over a specified period.

Introduction

Dissolved Oxygen (D.O.)

Dissolved Oxygen (D.O) is the amount of oxygen present in water that is available for the
respiration of aquatic organisms and microorganisms. D.O is a key indicator of water quality
because it reflects the health of aquatic ecosystems. The concentration of dissolved oxygen
varies based on water temperature, salinity, and the presence of organic matter and pollutants.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a measure of the oxygen required by microorganisms to

decompose the organic matter in a water sample over a given period (typically 5 days at 20°C).
A high BOD indicates a high level of organic pollution, as microorganisms will consume more
oxygen to break down the organic matter.

Both D.O and BOD are important indicators used to assess the pollution level and quality of
natural waters, wastewater, and effluents.

Materials Required

For Dissolved Oxygen (D.O) Measurement:

 Reagents:

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o Winkler’s reagent (Manganese sulfate, Potassium iodide, Sodium hydroxide, and

Sulfuric acid)
o Sodium thiosulfate (0.025N)
o Starch solution (indicator)
o Potassium iodide (KI)
o Dilute sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄)
o Distilled water
 Apparatus:
o BOD bottles (300 ml capacity)
o Pipettes (10 ml, 50 ml)
o Burette (50 ml)
o Conical flasks (250 ml)
o Stirring rods
o Water bath (maintained at 20°C)
o Analytical balance
o Thermometer

For Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Measurement:

 Reagents:
o Dissolved Oxygen (D.O) measurement reagents (as above)
o BOD incubator (maintained at 20°C)
o Distilled water
o Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) solution (to maintain buffer capacity)
o Phosphate buffer solution (if necessary)
 Apparatus:
o BOD bottles (300 ml)
o Burettes
o Pipettes
o Stirring rods
o BOD incubator
o Thermometer
o Analytical balance

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Procedure

Part 1: Dissolved Oxygen (D.O) Measurement

1. Sample Collection:
o Collect a representative sample of water in a clean glass container. Do not let the
sample come into contact with air to avoid losing dissolved oxygen.
o The sample should be analyzed as soon as possible after collection.
2. Initial D.O Measurement (Winkler Method):
o Fill a BOD bottle completely with the water sample, ensuring no air bubbles are
trapped inside.
o Add 1 ml of manganese sulfate (MnSO₄) solution to the sample.
o Add 1 ml of alkaline potassium iodide (KI) solution to the sample.
o Mix the sample by gently inverting the BOD bottle several times to ensure proper
reagent mixing. A brownish precipitate (MnO₂) will form.
o Add 1 ml of concentrated sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) to dissolve the precipitate. This
will release iodine.
o Allow the sample to stand for a few minutes to ensure complete dissolution.
3. Titration:
o After the reaction, the iodine released is titrated with sodium thiosulfate solution
(0.025N).
o Add starch solution to the sample as an indicator. The sample will turn blue due to
the presence of iodine.
o Titrate the sample with sodium thiosulfate until the blue color disappears, which
indicates the end point.
4. Calculation of D.O: The D.O in the sample is calculated using the following formula:

D.O(mg/L)=(VNa2S2O3×NNa2S2O3×8000) /Vsample

Where:

o VNa2S2O3 = volume of sodium thiosulfate solution used for titration (in mL)
o NNa2S2O3 = normality of sodium thiosulfate solution
o 8000 = constant used to convert volume to mg/L
o Vsample = volume of sample (in mL)

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Part 2: Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Measurement

1. Sample Preparation:
o Prepare two BOD bottles: one for the sample (BOD test bottle) and one for the
D.O determination (Blank).
o Fill the sample BOD bottle with the water sample, ensuring there are no air
bubbles trapped. Record the initial D.O of the sample using the Winkler method
as described above.
o Add a small amount of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) to the sample to ensure
sufficient buffering capacity if the sample has a low alkalinity.
o The second BOD bottle (Blank) should be filled with distilled water, and the D.O
should also be determined in the same way.
2. Incubation:
o Seal both bottles tightly and place them in the BOD incubator maintained at 20°C
for 5 days.
o During the incubation period, microorganisms in the sample will consume oxygen
as they degrade the organic matter.
3. Final D.O Measurement:
o After 5 days, remove the BOD test bottle and measure the final D.O using the
Winkler method.
o Record the final D.O of the sample and blank.
4. Calculation of BOD: The BOD is calculated by the following formula:

BOD5(mg/L)=(D.Oinitial−D.Ofinal)sample−(D.Oinitial−D.Ofinal)blank

Where:

o D.Oinitial = initial dissolved oxygen (mg/L)

o D.Ofinal = final dissolved oxygen after 5 days (mg/L)

Precautions

 Always handle reagents with care, especially concentrated sulfuric acid.

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 Ensure that the BOD bottles are completely filled to avoid trapping air, which can alter
the results.
 The sample should be tested as soon as possible after collection to prevent changes in
D.O due to biological activity.
 Ensure the BOD incubator is maintained at 20°C. Temperature variations can affect the
oxygen demand.
 Use high-quality distilled water for the blank sample to avoid contamination.

Observations and Results

Dissolved Oxygen (D.O) Measurement:

 Initial D.O (mg/L): __________________

 Final D.O (after titration) (mg/L): __________________

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Measurement:

 Initial D.O of the sample (mg/L): __________________

 Final D.O of the sample (mg/L): __________________
 Initial D.O of the blank (mg/L): __________________
 Final D.O of the blank (mg/L): __________________
 BOD_5 (mg/L): __________________

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Experiment-07

Objective:

To determine the break point of chlorination and evaluate the chlorine demand in water
treatment.

Introduction:

Break point chlorination refers to the addition of chlorine to water to achieve the desired
disinfection while overcoming the chlorine demand of the water. When chlorine is added to
water, it reacts with organic and inorganic substances present in the water, such as ammonia. The
point at which all the chlorine demand is satisfied, and free chlorine begins to appear in the
water, is called the break point.

Materials and Equipment:

1. Chlorine solution (NaOCl)

2. Standard water sample (with known ammonia or organic content)
3. Ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) (for ammonia source, if required)
4. Potassium iodide (KI) solution
5. Starch solution
6. Sodium thiosulfate (Na₂S₂O₃) solution (titration agent)
7. Spectrophotometer or DPD (Diethyl-p-phenylenediamine) method kit for chlorine
measurement
8. Burette, pipette, and conical flask
9. pH meter
10. Beakers, glassware, and stirring rods
11. Stopwatch

Procedure:

1. Preparation of Water Sample:

o Prepare a sample of water with ammonia or organic content (using ammonium
chloride if necessary).
o Measure the pH of the water sample, as chlorine demand can vary with pH.

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2. Addition of Chlorine:
o Add chlorine in incremental doses to the sample, starting from a lower
concentration.
o For each dose of chlorine added, stir the sample and allow sufficient time for the
reaction to occur.
3. Titration to Determine Chlorine Residual:
o After each chlorine dose, measure the free chlorine residual using the DPD
method or spectrophotometry.
o Record the chlorine dose and the corresponding chlorine residual.
4. Observation:
o Continue adding chlorine until you observe a sharp increase in free chlorine
residual. This point is the "break point," where all chlorine demand is satisfied,
and excess free chlorine starts to appear.
5. Graphing Results:

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6. Calculate the Chlorine Demand:

o The chlorine demand is the difference between the total chlorine added and the
chlorine residual at the break point.

Precautions:

 Use appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), including gloves and goggles.
 Ensure precise measurements of chlorine and other reagents.
 Handle chlorine with care, as it is a hazardous substance.

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Experiment-08

Objective:

To determine the bacteriological quality of a water sample by using the Most Probable Number
(MPN) method.

Introduction:

The MPN method is a statistical technique used to estimate the number of viable microorganisms
(such as coliforms) in a water sample. It is often used for determining water safety in terms of
fecal contamination. The method involves inoculating several tubes of nutrient broth and
observing for gas formation as an indicator of bacterial activity.

Materials and Equipment:

1. Water sample
2. Lauryl tryptose broth (LTB)
3. Brilliant green lactose bile broth (BGLB)
4. Durham tubes (small inverted test tubes to capture gas)
5. Incubator (at 37°C)
6. Sterile pipettes
7. Test tubes and racks
8. Sterile water (for dilution)
9. Bunsen burner
10. Graduated cylinders
11. Indicator for coliforms (e.g., gas formation, turbidity)
12. MPN Table or MPN Index

Procedure:

1. Sample Preparation and Dilution:

o Take a known volume of the water sample (e.g., 10 mL) and dilute it with sterile
water (e.g., 1:10, 1:100, 1:1000) to prepare serial dilutions.
2. Inoculation:

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o Inoculate a set of test tubes with different concentrations of the sample. For each
dilution:
 Add 10 mL of the diluted sample to one tube of LTB (first set, total of 3
tubes).
 Add 1 mL of the diluted sample to another tube of LTB (second set, total
of 3 tubes).
 Add 0.1 mL of the diluted sample to a third tube of LTB (third set, total of
3 tubes).
o Add Durham tubes in each test tube to trap any gas produced by bacteria.
3. Incubation:
o Incubate all inoculated tubes at 37°C for 48 hours.
4. Observation for Gas Formation:
o After incubation, check each tube for gas formation. Gas formation in the Durham
tube indicates a positive result for coliforms.
o Record whether gas formation occurs in each of the tubes.
5. Subculture in BGLB:
o For any positive result (gas formation in LTB), subculture the sample into BGLB
tubes and incubate at 37°C for 48 hours.
6. Interpretation Using MPN Table:
o After 48 hours, refer to the MPN table to calculate the Most Probable Number
(MPN) of coliforms based on the pattern of positive and negative results in the
series of tubes.
o The MPN value corresponds to the concentration of coliforms in the original
water sample.

Precautions:

 Always use sterile techniques to avoid contamination.

 Handle all cultures with care to prevent the spread of pathogens.
 Ensure proper incubation time and temperature for accurate results.

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