Learning Theories

What is Learning?

1. “a persisting change in human performance or performance potential . . . (brought) about

as a result of the learner’s interaction with the environment” (Driscoll, 1994, pp. 8-9).

2. “the relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience”

(Mayer, 1982, p. 1040).

3. “an enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results
from practice or other forms of experience” (Shuell, 1986, p. 412).

Why is learning important?

Learning is essential to our existence. Just like food nourishes our bodies, information and continued
learning nourishes our minds. Lifelong learning is an indispensable tool for every career and
organization.

Benefits of Learning

1. Remain relevant

Don’t be left behind. Ensure you remain relevant to your industry by keeping up to date with trends and
adapting your skill set. To function effectively amongst this rapidly changing world of technology, you
need to learn new things to remain valuable.

2. Prepare for the unexpected

Lifelong learning will help you adapt to unexpected changes, for example, losing your job and having to
depend on new skills to find work. By continuing to learn, you’ll more easily step out of your comfort
zone and take on new job opportunities.

3. Boost you profile

When you’re always learning, you’ll keep improving and grow in your career and start to receive
recommendations from colleagues and managers. The chances are that you’ll switch jobs multiple times
throughout your life and you need to learn new skills to adapt accordingly.

4. Competence leads to confidence

Learning new things gives us a feeling of accomplishment, which in turn boosts our confidence in our
own capabilities. Also, you’ll feel more ready to take on challenges and explore new business ventures.

5. Sparks new ideas

Acquiring new skills will unveil new opportunities and help you find innovative solutions to problems.
This could earn you more money.
6. Change your perspective

Continuous learning opens your mind and changes your attitude by building on what you already know.
The more you learn, the better you’ll get at seeing more sides of the same situation, helping you
understand more deeply.

7. Pay it forward

Continuous learning isn’t just about you. Lifelong learning helps develop your leadership skills which
then translates into fostering lifelong learning in other individuals, by encouraging them to pursue
further education.

Learning Theory
6 main theories:

Behaviorism

Cognitivism

Social Learning Theory

Social Constructivism

Multiple Intelligences

Brain-Based Learning

Behaviorism Theory
Confined to observable and measurable behavior
 Classical Conditioning – Pavlov
a type of unconscious or automatic learning. This learning process creates a conditioned
response through associations between an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus.
(Wolpe, J. & Plaud, J., 1997

Unconditioned Stimulus

An unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus or trigger that leads to an automatic response. If a cold

breeze makes you shiver, for instance, the cold breeze is an unconditioned stimulus; it produces
an involuntary response (the shivering).

Neutral Stimulus

A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that doesn't initially trigger a response on its own. If you hear
the sound of a fan but don't feel the breeze, for example, it wouldn't necessarily trigger a
response. That would make it a neutral stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus
 A conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that was once neutral (didn't trigger a response) but now
leads to a response. If you previously didn't pay attention to dogs, but then got bit by one, and
now you feel fear every time you see a dog, the dog has become a conditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Response

An unconditioned response is an automatic response or a response that occurs without thought

when an unconditioned stimulus is present. If you smell your favorite food and your mouth
starts watering, the watering is an unconditioned response.

Conditioned Response

A conditioned response is a learned response or a response that is created where no response

existed before. Going back to the example of being bit by a dog, the fear you experience after
the bite is a conditioned response.

 Operant Conditioning – Skinner

referred to his philosophy as "radical behaviorism." He suggested that the concept of free will
was simply an illusion and, instead, believed that all human action was the direct result of
conditioning.

The response is made first, then reinforcement follows.

A cornerstone of behaviorism, is a learning process where behaviors are shaped and

strengthened by their consequences.
Operant Conditioning: Learning Through Consequences
B.F. Skinner, a prominent psychologist, developed the concept of operant conditioning. It's
essentially a learning process where our actions are shaped by their consequences. Think of it
this way: if you do something and it leads to something good, you're more likely to do it again.
On the flip side, if your actions have negative outcomes, you're less likely to repeat them.
Here's the breakdown:
 Reinforcement: This is the key. It's about increasing the likelihood of a behavior.
o Positive Reinforcement: Imagine a child cleaning their room. If you give them a
piece of candy afterward, that candy is a positive reinforcer. It increases the
chance of them cleaning their room again in the future.
o Negative Reinforcement: Let's say a child hates doing chores. If they get good
grades, you take away some of their chores. This removal of something
unpleasant (chores) increases the likelihood of them getting good grades again.
 Punishment: This aims to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.
o Positive Punishment: Giving a child extra chores for misbehaving is an example.
You're adding something unpleasant to discourage the misbehavior.
o Negative Punishment: Taking away a child's phone for breaking the rules is
another. You're removing something pleasant to discourage the behavior.
Skinner's Experiments:
Skinner conducted famous experiments with animals, often using "Skinner boxes." These were
special enclosures where animals could learn to perform certain actions to receive rewards, like
food. For example, a rat might learn to press a lever to get a food pellet. This demonstrated
how behavior can be shaped by the consequences that follow it.
Everyday Applications:
Operant conditioning isn't just for lab rats. We see it everywhere:
 Parenting: Parents use rewards (like praise or special treats) and punishments (like
time-outs) to guide their children's behavior.
 Education: Teachers use positive reinforcement like praise and encouragement to
motivate students.
 Training: Trainers use rewards to shape the behavior of animals, from dogs to dolphins.
Important Note:
While operant conditioning provides valuable insights into how we learn, it's important to
remember that human behavior is complex. It's influenced by many factors beyond just
rewards and punishments, such as emotions, motivations, and social interactions.
Behaviorism
• Learning is defined by the outward expression of new behaviors
• Focuses solely on observable behaviors
• A biological basis for learning
• Learning is context-independent
• Classical & Operant Conditioning
– Reflexes (Pavlov’s Dogs)
– Feedback/Reinforcement (Skinner’s Pigeon Box)

Several critiques of behaviorism in the context of education:

1. Does not account for processes taking place in the mind that cannot be observed:
 Explanation: Behaviorism, as a school of thought, focuses on observable behaviors and
downplays the importance of internal mental processes like thoughts, feelings, and emotions.
Critics argue that this neglect of internal mental states limits our understanding of learning.
2. Advocates for passive student learning in a teacher-centric environment:
 Explanation: Traditional behaviorist approaches in education often emphasize teacher-directed
instruction and passive student learning. Students are seen as recipients of information rather
than active participants in the learning process. This can lead to a teacher-centered environment
where students are primarily expected to listen and absorb information.
3. One size fits all:
 Explanation: Behaviorist approaches may sometimes overlook individual differences among
learners. They may assume that a particular teaching method or reinforcement strategy will
work equally well for all students. Critics argue that this "one-size-fits-all" approach can be
ineffective and may not cater to the diverse needs and learning styles of students.
4. Knowledge itself is given and absolute:
 Explanation: Behaviorist perspectives sometimes imply that knowledge is fixed and absolute.
This can limit students' critical thinking skills and creativity. A more constructivist approach to
education emphasizes that knowledge is not fixed but is constantly evolving and can be
constructed through active engagement with the learning process.
5. Programmed instruction & teacher-proofing:
  Explanation: Behaviorism has been associated with the development of programmed
instruction, a method of self-instruction where students progress through a series of steps at
their own pace. While this approach can be beneficial in certain contexts, critics argue that it can
lead to a dehumanizing and mechanistic view of education, where the focus is on efficiency and
control rather than on fostering meaningful learning experiences.
Cognitivism Theory
• Grew in response to Behaviorism
• Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols
• Learning is the process of connecting symbols in a meaningful &
memorable way
• Studies focused on the mental processes that facilitate symbol connection
Cognitive Learning Theory
Discovery Learning:
1. "Bruner said anybody can learn anything at any age, provided it is stated in terms they
can understand."
This highlights the importance of clear and accessible communication in the learning process.
 Accessibility: Information should be presented in a way that is easy for learners to grasp,
regardless of their age or background.
 Clarity: The language and concepts used should be understandable and relevant to the learner's
level of knowledge.
 Individualized Learning: Recognizing that different learners have different learning styles and
paces.
"2. Powerful Concepts (not isolated facts)"
a. Transfer to many different situations
 Meaning: When learning happens through focusing on powerful concepts rather than
isolated facts, the knowledge and skills acquired are not just memorized facts. Instead,
they are deeply understood and can be applied flexibly to new and different situations.
This means the learning is not limited to the specific context in which it occurred.
b. Only possible through Discovery Learning
 Meaning: This statement suggests that true and meaningful understanding of powerful
concepts can only happen when learners are actively involved in the process of
constructing their own knowledge. It implies that traditional methods of rote
memorization and passive listening are not sufficient for grasping the depth and
interconnectedness of these concepts.
c. Confront the learner with problems and help them find solutions. Do not present
sequenced materials.
 Meaning: Learning about powerful concepts is best achieved when learners are
presented with challenges and encouraged to explore, experiment, and find their own
 solutions. This approach encourages critical thinking, creativity, and a deeper
understanding of the concepts. Instead of simply presenting information in a linear, pre-
determined order (sequenced materials), learners are encouraged to grapple with
problems and construct their own understanding.
In essence:
 Focusing on powerful concepts, rather than isolated facts, leads to deeper learning that is
more transferable and applicable to real-world situations.
 Discovery Learning is crucial for developing a deep understanding of these concepts.
 Engaging learners in problem-solving and encouraging them to construct their own
knowledge is key to fostering meaningful learning.

Example:
Instead of memorizing the formula for calculating the area of a circle (an isolated fact), a learner
could explore the concept of area through hands-on activities like measuring the area of different
circular objects, discovering the relationship between radius and area, and ultimately deriving the
formula themselves. This approach would lead to a deeper understanding of the concept of area
and its applications.
 Why it transfers: If you truly grasp the concept of a capital city and how it functions, you
can apply that knowledge to understanding other capitals and how they relate to their respective
countries.
 Why Discovery Learning is key: You won't learn this by simply being told 'Paris is the
capital of France.' You need to explore, ask questions, maybe even research the history of French
government.
 Why sequenced materials might hinder: If you're just given a list of capitals to memorize,
you might miss the bigger picture. You need to be challenged to think critically and make
connections to truly understand the concept."
Meaningful Verbal Learning:
Advance Organizers:
- New material is presented in a systematic way, and is connected to existing
cognitive structures in a meaningful way.
- When learners have difficulty with new material, go back to the concrete
anchors (Advance Organizers). Provide a Discovery approach, and they’ll learn.
Cognitivism in the Classroom
• Inquiry-oriented projects
• Opportunities for the testing of hypotheses
• Curiosity encouraged
• Staged scaffolding
Critiques of Cognitivism
Like behaviorism, knowledge is given and absolute.

The Input-Process-Output model is mechanical and deterministic.

Does not account sufficiently for individuality.

Little emphasis on emotive traits.

Social Learning Theory (SLT)

• Grew out of Cognitivism

• A. Bandura (1973)
• Learning takes place through observation and sensorial experiences
• Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery
• SLT is the basis of the movement against violence in media & video games
Learning From Models -
• Albert Bandura
• 1. Attend to pertinent clues
• 2. Code for memory (store a visual image)
• 3. Retain in memory
• 4. Accurately reproduce the observed activity
• 5. Possess sufficient motivation to apply new learning
Research indicates that the following factors influence the strength of learning
from models:
1. How much power the model seems to have
2. How capable the model seems to be
3. How nurturing (caring) the model seems to be
4. How similar the learner perceives self and model
5. How many models the learner observes
Four interrelated processes establish and strengthen identification with the
model:
1. Children want to be like the model
2. Children believe they are like the model
3. Children experience emotions like those the model is feeling.
4. Children act like the model.
Through identification, children come to believe they have the same
characteristics as the model:
- When they identify with a nurturant and competent model, children feel pleased
and proud.
- When they identify with an inadequate model, children feel unhappy and
insecure.
SLT in the Classroom:
 Learning together and in groups
 Modeling the responses and expectations
 Opportunities to witness professionals in action.

Critiques of Social Learning Theory

• Does not consider individuality, context, and experience as mediating elements.
• Suggests that passive learning is more effective than active learning.
• Emotions and motivation are not considered relevant or related to learning.