Chapter 4

Organization and Regulation of

Body Systems
Points to Ponder

• What is a tissue? Organ? Organ system?

• What are the 4 main types of tissue?
• What do these tissues look like, how do they function and where
are they found?
• What is the integumentary system?
• How can you prevent skin cancer?
• What is homeostasis and how is it maintained?
4.1 Types of tissues

What is a tissue?

• A collection of cells of the same type that perform a common

function
• There are 4 major tissue types in the body:
1. Connective
2. Muscular
3. Nervous
4. Epithelial
 The four tissues of the Body
• Epithelial Tissue: “covering”
• Covers exposed surfaces
• Lines internal passageways
• Forms glands
• Connective Tissue: “support”
• Fills internal spaces
• Provides structure and strength to support other tissues
• Transports materials
• Stores energy
 The four tissues of the Body

• Muscle Tissue: “movement”

• Specialized for contraction
• Skeletal muscle, heart muscle, and walls of hollow organs
• Neural Tissue: “control”
• Carries electrical signals from 1 part of the body to another
4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports

1. Connective tissue
• Binds and supports parts of the body
• All have specialized cells, ground substance and protein fibers
• Ground substance is noncellular and ranges from solid to fluid
• prevents microbe penetration
• The ground substance and proteins fibers together make up the matrix of the
tissue
• There are three main types of connective tissue:
A. fibrous
B. supportive
C. fluid
 1. Connective Tissue

Protein Fiber types:

1. Collagen fibers: collagen protein
-resists force

2. Reticular fibers: collagen protein

-branchy, forms framework
-framework of an organ

3. Elastic fibers: elastin protein

-wavy, flexible
- Designed to stretch

Figure 4–8
4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports

3 main types of connective tissue

A. Fibrous
B. Supportive
C. Fluid
Categories of
Connective Tissue Proper

• Loose connective tissue:

• more ground substance, less fibers
• e.g., fat (adipose tissue)
• Dense connective tissue:
• more fibers, less ground substance
• e.g., tendons
Loose Connective Tissue

• Highly vascularized
• Functions:
• Fill space
• Cushion & support tissues
• Store fat
• Feed epithelial layers
• Three types:
1. Areolar CT
2. Adipose Tissue
3. Reticular Tissue
Loose fibrous connective tissue
Loose Connective Tissue:

Areolar CT
Dense Connective Tissue

• Poorly vascularized
• Mostly fibers, little ground substance
• Only fibroblasts
• Location:
• tendons (muscle to bone)
• ligaments (bone to bone)
• muscle coverings
• Function:
- high strength attachment
- stabilize positions
Dense Connective Tissue
Dense Regular CT
 B. Supportive Connective Tissues

• Strong framework and few cells

• Function: support and shape
• Mature cells in lacunae
• Two types:
1. Cartilage:
• gel-type ground substance
• for shock absorption and protection
2. Bone:
• calcified (made rigid by calcium salts, minerals)
• for weight support
4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports

B. Supportive connective tissue:

Cartilage
• Cells are in chambers called lacunae
• Matrix is solid but flexible
• 3 types are distinguished by types of fibers
1. Hyaline cartilage – fine collagen fibers
Location: Nose, ends of long bones and fetal skeleton
2. Elastic cartilage – more elastic fibers than cartilage fibers
Location: Outer ear
3. Fibrocartilage – strong collagen fibers
Location: Disks between vertebrae
Hyaline
Cartilage →

Elastic
Cartilage

Fibro
Cartilage →
 B. Supportive connective tissue: Bone

• Highly vascularized
• Little ground substance
• Matrix
• solid and rigid that is made of collagen and calcium salts
• Cells: Osteocytes
• Located in chambers called lacunae arranged around
central canals within matrix
• Connected by cytoplasmic extensions that extend through
canaliculi
• Canaliculi: excess blood supply
• Canaliculi necessary for nutrient and waste exchange, no
diffusion through calcium
 B. Structures of Bone

Canaliculi
Osteocytes PERIOSTEUM
in lacunae Fibrous
layer
Blood
Cellular
vessels layer
Central canal

Matrix

LM X 362

• Osteocytes
• Connected by cytoplasmic extensions that extend through
canaliculi (small channels through matrix)
• Canaliculi necessary for nutrient and waste exchange

Figure 4–15
4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports

B. Supportive connective tissue:

Bone
• Function:
• Support & Protection
• Levers for movement
• Storage of minerals
1. Compact – made of repeating circular units called osteons which contain
the hard matrix and living cells and blood vessels
Location: Shafts of long bone
2. Spongy – an open, latticework with irregular spaces
Location: Ends of long bones
4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports

What do bone and cartilage look like?

 4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports

C. Fluid connective tissue: Blood

• Made of a fluid matrix
called plasma and cellular
components
that are called formed
elements
Function:
- transport nutrients,
wastes and defense cells
throughout the body
• 3 formed elements:
1. Red blood cells – cells
that carry oxygen
2. White blood cells – cells that
fight infection
3. Platelets – pieces of
cells that clot blood
Formed Elements of Blood

• Erythrocytes (RBCs): carry oxygen

• Leukocytes (WBCs): defense
• Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils, Lymphocytes (B and
T cells), Monocytes (Macrophages)
• Platelets: carry clotting factors

Figure 4–12
4.2 Connective tissue connects and supports

C. Fluid connective tissue: Lymph

• Matrix is a fluid called lymph

• White blood cells congregate in this tissue

• Location:
• contained in lymphatic vessels

• Function:
• purify and return fluid to blood
4.3 Muscle tissue moves the body

2. Muscle tissue
• Allows for movement in the body

• Made of muscle fibers/cells and protein fibers called

actin and myosin

• There are 3 types of muscle tissue in humans:

A. Skeletal
B. Smooth
C. Cardiac
4.3 Muscle tissue moves the body

A. Muscle tissue - Skeletal

• Appearance:
• long, cylindrical cells, multiple nuclei,
striated fibers

• Location:
• attached to bone for movement

• Nature:
• voluntary movement
4.3 Muscle tissue moves the body

B. Muscle tissue – Cardiac

• Appearance:
• branched cells with a single
nucleus, striations with darker
striations called intercalated
disks between cells
• Location: heart
• Nature:
• involuntary movement
4.3 Muscle tissue moves the body

C. Muscle tissue - Smooth

• Appearance:
• spindle-shaped cell with one
nucleus, lack striations
• Location:
• walls of hollow organs and
vessels
• Nature:
• involuntary movement
4.4 Nervous tissue communicates

3. Nervous tissue

• Function
• Allows for communication between cells through sensory
input, integration of data and motor output
• Location:
• Most in brain and spinal cord: Central Nervous System
• 2% in Peripheral Nervous System
• Made of 2 major cell types:
A. Neurons
B. Neuroglia
4.4 Nervous tissue communicates

A. Nervous tissue - neurons

• Made of dendrites, a cell
body and an axon

• Dendrites carry
information toward the
cell body

• Axons carry information

towards a cell body
Cell Parts of a Neuron

• Cell body:
• contains the nucleus and nucleolus
• Dendrites:
• short branches extending from the cell body
• receive incoming signals
• Axon (nerve fiber):
• long, thin extension of the cell body
• carries outgoing electrical signals to their destination
4.4 Nervous tissue communicates

A. Nervous tissue - neuroglia

• A collection of cells that
support and nourish
neurons

• Outnumber neurons 9:1

• Examples are
oligodendrocytes,
astrocytes and microglia
4.5 Epithelial tissue protects

4. Epithelial tissue

• A groups of cells that form a tight, continuous

network
• Lines body cavities, covers body surfaces and
found in glands
• Cells are anchored by a basement membrane
on one side and free on the other side
• Named after the appearance of cell layers and
the shape of the cells
• There is transitional epithelium that changes
in appearance in response to tension
 Free Surface and Attached Surface

1. Apical Surface: exposed to environment, may

have:
• Microvilli: absorption or secretion
• Cilla: fluid movement

2. Basolateral Surface: attachment to neighboring

cells via intercellular connections

Figure 4–1
Classes of Epithelia
• Based on shape and layers
• Shape: (all are hexagonal from the top)
1. Squamous: flat, disc shaped nucleus
2. Cuboidal: cube or square, center round nucleus
3. Columnar: tall, basal oval nucleus

Table 4–1
Layers
• Simple epithelium:
• single layer of cells
• Function:
• absorption, secretion, filtration
• Stratified epithelium:
• 2 or more layers of cells
• Function:
• Protection
**In stratified, name for apical cell shape**
4.5 Epithelial tissue protects

How do we name epithelial tissue?

• Number of cell layers:
• Simple: one layer of cells
• Stratified: more than one layer of cells
• Pseudostratified: appears to have layers but only has one layer

• Shape of cell:
• Cuboidal: cube-shaped
• Columnar: column-shaped
• Squamous: flattened
Epithelial tissue
4.5 Epithelial tissue protects

Epithelial tissue
4.6 Cell junction types

How are cells connected within a

tissue?
• Tight junctions – proteins join and form an
impermeable barrier between plasma membranes in
a zipper-like fashion
• Prevents passage of water and solutes
• Adhesion junctions – cytoskeletal fibers join between
cells and have flexibility
• Gap junctions – a fusion of adjacent plasma
membranes with small channels between them that
allow small molecules to diffuse
• Allow ions to pass
• Coordinated contractions in heart muscle
4.6 Cell junction types

Cell junctions
 Glandular Epithelia
For secretion, makes up glands

1. Endocrine glands: “internally secreting”

-secrete into interstital fluid → blood
-secretions = hormones
-regulate and coordinate activities
e.g. pancreas andthyroid

2. Exocrine glands: “externally secreting”

-secrete into duct → epithelial surface
e.g. digestive enzymes, perspiration, tears,
milk, and mucus
Exocrine: Types of Secretion

1. Serous Glands: water + enzymes

- e.g. parotid salivary gland
2. Mucus Glands: mucin
(+water = mucus)
- e.g. goblet cell
3. Mixed exocrine glands:
(serous + mucus secretion)
-e.g. submandibular salivary gland
Structure of Multicellular Exocrine Glands

• Structural classes of exocrine glands

Simple Glands = undivided

tube shape blind pockets chamberlike

Figure 4–7 (1 of 2)
Structure of Multicellular Exocrine Glands

Compound Glands = Divided

tube shaped blind pockets chamberlike

Figure 4–7 (2 of 2)
4.7 Integumentary system

Moving from tissue to organs and organ

systems
• An organ is 2 or more tissue types working towards a particular function

• An organ system is a combination of organs that work together to carry

out a particular function
 4.8 Organ systems

ties
 Body Cavities
• Function:
• protect organs
• permit changes in size and shape of internal organs
• Two Cavities:
1. Dorsal body cavity:
• Cranial and Spinal Cavity
2. Ventral body cavity:
• Thoracic Cavity (heart and lungs)
• Abdominopelvic Cavity (“guts”- viscera)
• Organs enclosed in a cavity are called viscera
The Ventral Body Cavity

• Includes organs of the

• Respiratory,
cardiovascular, digestive,
urinary, and reproductive
system
• Divided by the
diaphragm into the
thoracic cavity and the
abdominopelvic cavity

Figure 1–10a
Ventral Body Cavity:
Abdominal Cavity
• Also the peritoneal cavity
1. Abdominal Cavity
- liver, stomach, spleen, small intestine, and large
intestine
- Kidneys and pancreas
2. Pelvic Cavity
- Inferior large intestine, inferior urinary bladder, and
some reproductive organs
- Superior urinary bladder, ovaries, and uterus
4.8 Organ systems

The Body Membranes lining Cavities

• Mucous membranes
• lining of the digestive, respiratory, urinary and
reproductive systems
• Serous membranes
• line lungs, heart, abdominal cavity and covers the
internal organs; named after their location
• Pleura: lungs
• Peritoneum: abdominal cavity and organs
• Pericardium: heart
• Synovial membranes
• lines the cavities of freely movable joints
• Meninges – cover the brain and spinal cord
 Organ Systems

• The body is divided into 11 organ systems

• All organ systems work together
• Many organs work in more than 1 organ system
4.8 Organ systems

What are the organ systems of the

human body?
4.8 Organ systems

What are the organ systems of the

human body?
4.9 Homeostasis
Homeostasis
• The ability to maintain a relatively constant internal
environment in the body

• The nervous and endocrine systems are key in

maintaining homeostasis

• Changes from the normal tolerance limits results in

illness or even death

• All systems important in maintaining homeostasis

4.9 Homeostasis
4.9 Homeostasis

What are the mechanisms for

maintaining homeostasis?
• Negative feedback
• Positive feedback
4.9 Homeostasis

Negative feedback
• The primary mechanism for
maintaining homeostasis
• Has two components:
• sensor
• control center
• The output of the system dampens
the original stimulus
Example of negative
feedback:
Body Temperature
4.9 Homeostasis

Positive feedback
• A mechanism for increasing the change of the
internal environment in one direction

• An example is the secretion of oxytocin during

birth to continually increase uterine
contractions

• Can be harmful such as when a fever is too high

and continues to rise
Homeostasis

• Requires coordinated efforts of multiple organ systems. Any

adjustment made by one physiological system has direct and
indirect effects on a variety of other systems. Therefore, the use
of homeostasis integrates the human body to allow for the
support of life.
 Structure of the Integument
• 16% of body mass
• Composed of:
1. Cutaneous Membrane:
1. Epidermis– Superficial epithelium
2. Dermis – underlying CT with blood supply
2. Accessory Structures: originate in dermis
1. Hair
2. Nails
3. Exocrine Glands
• Subcutaneous layer
• under the skin between the dermis and internal structures where fat is stored
Parts of the
Integumentary System

Figure 5–1
 Functions of the Integument
• Protects underlying tissues from infection, exposure
and dehydration
• Excretes salts, water, and organic waste
• Maintains normal body temp:
• conserve and radiate heat
• Synthesizes Vitamin D3 for calcium metabolism
• Stores Nutrients and Fat
• Sensory detection:
• Allowing awareness of surroundings
• touch, pressure, pain, and temp.
Is important for maintaining homeostasis
Connections

• Circulatory system:
• blood vessels in the dermis
• Nervous system:
• sensory receptors for pain, touch, and temperature
4.7 Integumentary system

There are two regions of the skin

• Epidermis
• Dermis
4.7 Integumentary system

The epidermis:
• The thin, outermost layer of the skin
• Made of epithelial tissue
• Cells in the uppermost cells are dead and become
filled with keratin thus acting as a waterproof barrier
• Langerhans cells
• a type of white blood cell that help fight pathogens
• Melanocytes
• produce melanin that lend to skin color and protection for
UV light
• Some cells convert cholesterol to vitamin D
Skin Color

• Pigment based: epidermal pigments and blood pigments

contribute to the color

1. Epidermal Pigmentation
2. Dermal Circulation
 Skin Color
1. Epidermal Pigmentation
A. Carotene: yellow-orange, from diet
- converted into Vitamin A
- localized to epithelium
- functions in normal maintenance
of epithelia and photoreceptors
- excess accumulates
B. Melanin: Brown, from melanocytes
- for UV protection
 1. Epidermal Pigmentation
• Melanocytes: in stratum basale
• Packaged in melanosomes
• Transferred to cytoplasm of
keratinocytes
• Cluster around top side of nucleus
• Eventually digested by lysosomes
• Everyone has ~1000
melanocytes/mm2
• Pale People: small melansomes
• Dark People: larger, greater number
of melansomes
 1. Epidermal Pigmentation
• Freckles:
• Overproduction of melanin form single melanocytes
• UV exposure:
• Some needed for Vitamin D3 production
• Excess = damage (DNA mutation)
• Fibroblasts → altered CT structures
• Wrinkles
• Epidermal cells, melanocytes → cancer
• Squamous cell carcinoma
• Melanoma
4.7 Integumentary system

What you need to know about skin

cancer?
• 2 of the 3 types that arise in the epidermis:
• Basal cell carcinoma is the most common yet least
deadly form of skin cancer
• Melanoma is the most deadly form of skin cancer but is
the least common

• What can you do to help prevent this?

• Stay out of the sun between 10am-3pm
• Wear protective clothing (tight weave, treated
sunglasses, wide-brimmed hat)
• Use sunscreen with an SPF of at least 15 and protects
from UV-A and UV-B rays
• Don’t use tanning beds
4.7 Integumentary system

What might skin cancer look like?

 Skin

2. Dermal Circulation: hemoglobin

pigment
- Oxygenated blood:
- red color, hemoglobin in RBCs,
through skin looks pink
A) Vasodilation → skin looks more red
B) Vasoconstriction → skin looks more pale
The Dermis

• Is located between epidermis and subcutaneous

layer
• Anchors epidermal accessory structures
• hair follicles, sweat glands
• Contains:
• All cells of CT proper, accessory organs of integument,
blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerves, and sensory
receptors
• Has 2 components:
• outer papillary layer
• deep reticular layer
 Dermis
• Papillary layer:
• Thin (20%)
• Consists:
• Areolar CT
• Comprise dermal papillae
• Capillaries, lymphatics, and
sensory neurons
• Function: feed epidermis
• Reticular Layer:
• Thick (80%)
• Consists:
• Dense irregular CT
• Elastic and Collagen fibers
• Function: provide strength and flexibility
The Hypodermis

• The subcutaneous layer or hypodermis:

• lies below the integument
• Not part of cutaneous membrane
• Stabilizes position of skin while permitting independent movement of
skin and muscles
Integumentary
Accessory Structures

1. Hair and hair follicles

2. Sebaceous glands
3. Sweat glands
4. Nails:
• Accessory Structures:
• are derived from embryonic epidermis
• are located in dermis
• project through the skin surface
 Functions of Hair
• Function:
• Protects and insulates
• Guards openings against particles and insects
• Is sensitive to very light touch
Hair Color

• red: iron added

• Range yellow to black due to melanin from melanocytes in hair
matrix
• Melanin stored in cortex and medulla

With age, melanin declines, air pockets in medulla increase = gray

or white hair
• Function:
• protect tips from mechanical stress, assist in
gripping
• Consists of dead cells containing hard
keratin
• New nail formed at nail root
4.7 Integumentary system

What are the accessory organs of the skin

and why are they important?
• Includes nails, hair and glands

• Nails are derived from the epidermis that offer a

protective covering

• Hair follicles are derived from the dermis but hair grows
from epidermal cells

• Oil glands are associated with hair and produce sebum

that lubricates hair and skin as well as retards bacterial
growth

• Sweat glands are derived from the dermis and helps to

regulate body temperature