Gas Chromatograph (GC)

Definition

 Gas Chromatograph (GC): An instrument for separating and analyzing compounds that
can be vaporized without decomposition.

Principle

 Separation based on the distribution of compounds between a stationary liquid phase and
a mobile gas phase.

Components

1. Injector: Introduces the sample into the system.

2. Carrier Gas: Mobile phase (often helium or nitrogen).
3. Column: Contains the stationary phase, where separation occurs.
4. Oven: Maintains the column at a controlled temperature.
5. Detector: Identifies and quantifies compounds as they elute from the column.
6. Data System: Records and processes the detector's output.

Working

1. The sample is vaporized and injected into the carrier gas stream.
2. The carrier gas transports the sample through the column.
3. Different compounds travel at different speeds, leading to separation.
 4. The detector measures the separated compounds as they exit the column.
5. The data system generates a chromatogram for analysis.

Applications

 Environmental analysis (e.g., air quality monitoring).

 Forensic science (e.g., drug testing, arson investigation).
 Food and beverage analysis (e.g., flavor compounds, contaminants).
 Pharmaceutical analysis (e.g., purity testing).

High-Performance Liquid Chromatograph (HPLC)

Definition

 High-Performance Liquid Chromatograph (HPLC): An instrument for separating,

identifying, and quantifying components in a liquid sample.

Principle

 Separation based on the distribution of compounds between a stationary phase and a

mobile liquid phase.

Components

1. Solvent Reservoir: Contains the mobile phase (liquid solvent).

2. Pump: Delivers the mobile phase at high pressure.
3. Injector: Introduces the sample into the mobile phase stream.
4. Column: Contains the stationary phase, where separation occurs.
5. Detector: Identifies and quantifies compounds as they elute from the column.
6. Data System: Records and processes the detector's output.

Working
 1. The sample is injected into the mobile phase.
2. The pump pushes the mobile phase and sample through the column.
3. Different compounds interact differently with the stationary phase, leading to separation.
4. The detector measures the separated compounds as they exit the column.
5. The data system generates a chromatogram for analysis.

Applications

 Pharmaceutical industry (e.g., drug development, quality control).

 Biotechnology (e.g., protein and peptide analysis).
 Environmental testing (e.g., water quality analysis).
 Food and beverage industry (e.g., nutrient and contaminant analysis).

Digital Balance

Definition

 Digital Balance: An electronic instrument used to measure the mass of substances with
high precision.

Principle

 Measures the force exerted by the object due to gravity and converts it into an electronic
signal.

Components

1. Weighing Pan: Surface where the object is placed.

2. Load Cell: Converts the weight into an electrical signal.
3. Display: Shows the weight reading.
4. Calibration Controls: Adjusts the balance for accurate measurement.

Working

1. Place the object on the weighing pan.

2. The load cell detects the force due to gravity.
3. The balance converts this force into an electrical signal.
4. The signal is processed and displayed as the object's mass.

Applications

 Laboratory measurements (e.g., chemical analysis).

 Pharmaceutical industry (e.g., formulation).
 Food industry (e.g., ingredient measurements).
 Quality control in manufacturing.
UV-Visible Spectrophotometer

Definition

 UV-Visible Spectrophotometer: An instrument that measures the absorbance of UV and

visible light by a sample.

Principle

 Based on the absorption of light at specific wavelengths by the sample, which is related
to the concentration of the absorbing species.

Components

1. Light Source: Provides UV and visible light.

2. Monochromator: Selects specific wavelengths of light.
3. Sample Holder: Holds the sample cuvette.
4. Detector: Measures the intensity of transmitted light.
5. Display/Data System: Shows absorbance or transmittance.

Working

1. Light passes through the monochromator, selecting a specific wavelength.

2. The light passes through the sample in the cuvette.
3. The detector measures the transmitted light intensity.
4. The absorbance is calculated and displayed.

Applications

 Quantitative analysis of substances (e.g., concentration determination).

 Studying reaction kinetics.
 Quality control in pharmaceuticals and food industries.
 Environmental analysis (e.g., water quality testing).

ICP-OES (Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy)

Definition

 ICP-OES: An analytical technique used to detect and quantify trace elements in a

sample.

Principle

 Uses a plasma to excite atoms in the sample, causing them to emit light at characteristic
wavelengths.

Components

1. Nebulizer: Converts liquid sample into an aerosol.

2. Torch: Generates the plasma.
3. RF Generator: Provides the energy for the plasma.
4. Optical System: Separates emitted light into different wavelengths.
5. Detector: Measures the intensity of emitted light.
6. Data System: Analyzes and displays the results.

Working

1. The sample is nebulized into an aerosol.

2. The aerosol is introduced into the plasma torch.
3. The plasma excites the atoms, causing them to emit light.
4. The optical system separates the light into different wavelengths.
5. The detector measures the intensity of light at specific wavelengths.
6. The data system calculates the concentration of elements in the sample.

Applications

 Environmental analysis (e.g., water and soil testing).

 Geological analysis (e.g., mineral content).
 Food and beverage testing (e.g., trace metals).
 Pharmaceutical industry (e.g., elemental impurities).

Potentiostat

Definition

 Potentiostat: An electronic device used to control the voltage difference between a

working electrode and a reference electrode in electrochemical experiments.

Principle

 Maintains a constant voltage and measures the resulting current to study electrochemical
properties.
Components

1. Working Electrode: Where the reaction of interest occurs.

2. Reference Electrode: Provides a stable reference potential.
3. Counter Electrode: Completes the circuit in the electrochemical cell.
4. Control Circuit: Maintains the desired voltage.
5. Data System: Records and analyzes current and voltage data.

Working

1. Set the desired voltage between the working and reference electrodes.
2. The control circuit adjusts the voltage to maintain the set potential.
3. Measure the resulting current flow through the working electrode.
4. Analyze the current-voltage relationship to study the electrochemical properties.

Applications

 Electrochemical research (e.g., reaction mechanisms).

 Battery testing and development.
 Corrosion studies.
 Sensor development (e.g., glucose sensors).
 Environmental monitoring (e.g., detection of pollutants).

These points provide a clear and concise overview of the instruments, their principles,
components, working mechanisms, and applications.

i want you to think like a professor whose making my exam, the syllabus and total marks for the exam
are as follows; For theory Exam: GC, HPLC, PCR + All the presentations which include Electron
Microscopy, XRD, MS, Atomic absorption spectrometer, FTIR, Multimeter (EC/pH), IRGA, COD/BOD.
Marks: 24 which questions are more likely to come in exam

Gas Chromatography (GC)

1. Explain the principle of Gas Chromatography (GC). How is it different from Liquid
Chromatography?
o Gas Chromatography (GC) separates compounds based on their volatility and
interaction with the stationary phase. A sample is vaporized and carried by an
inert gas (mobile phase) through a column containing a liquid or solid stationary
phase. Compounds are separated based on their differing retention times.
o The main difference between GC and Liquid Chromatography (LC) is the mobile
phase: GC uses a gas, while LC uses a liquid. Additionally, GC is typically used
for volatile compounds, whereas LC is used for non-volatile or thermally unstable
compounds.
 2. Describe the role of the stationary and mobile phases in GC. How do they influence
the separation process?
o The stationary phase in GC is a liquid or solid adsorbent material inside the
column. The mobile phase is an inert gas (e.g., helium or nitrogen) that carries the
sample through the column. The separation process is influenced by the
interaction of the compounds with the stationary phase; compounds that interact
more strongly with the stationary phase take longer to travel through the column,
resulting in separation based on their retention times.

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

3. What are the key components of an HPLC system? Briefly explain the function of
each component.
o The key components of an HPLC system are:
 Pump: Delivers the mobile phase and sample through the column at a
high pressure.
 Injector: Introduces the sample into the mobile phase.
 Column: Contains the stationary phase where separation occurs.
 Detector: Identifies and quantifies the separated components.
 Data system: Records and analyzes the detector's signal to produce
chromatograms.
4. Discuss the advantages of using HPLC over traditional liquid chromatography
techniques.
o HPLC offers higher resolution and faster analysis times compared to traditional
liquid chromatography. It allows for better control over experimental conditions,
resulting in more reproducible results. HPLC can handle complex mixtures and
provide quantitative as well as qualitative analysis.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

5. Outline the steps of a typical PCR cycle and explain the purpose of each step.
o The typical PCR cycle includes:
 Denaturation (94-98°C): Separates the double-stranded DNA into single
strands.
 Annealing (50-65°C): Allows primers to bind to their complementary
sequences on the DNA strands.
 Extension (72°C): DNA polymerase synthesizes new DNA strands by
adding nucleotides to the primers.
6. What are the applications of PCR in molecular biology and medicine? Provide at
least two examples.
o PCR is used for:
 Disease Diagnosis: Detecting pathogens in clinical samples.
 Genetic Research: Amplifying specific DNA sequences for cloning,
sequencing, and gene expression studies.

Electron Microscopy
 7. Compare and contrast Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM).
o TEM provides high-resolution images by transmitting electrons through a thin
specimen, revealing internal structures. SEM produces detailed surface images by
scanning the specimen with a focused electron beam, providing three-dimensional
views of the surface morphology.
8. Explain the preparation of samples for electron microscopy and the importance of
sample preparation.
o Sample preparation for electron microscopy involves:
 Fixation: Preserves the specimen's structure.
 Dehydration: Removes water from the sample.
 Embedding: Supports the specimen in a resin.
 Sectioning (TEM): Thin slices are cut for TEM.
 Coating (SEM): The sample is coated with a conductive material for
SEM.
o Proper sample preparation is crucial to maintain the specimen's integrity and
obtain clear, accurate images.
Scanning Electron Microscope Transmission Electron Microscope
9. Feature
(SEM) (TEM)
Forms images by scanning the Forms images by transmitting
Image
specimen surface with a focused electrons through an ultra-thin
Formation
electron beam. specimen.
Resolution Lower resolution (typically 1-10 nm). Higher resolution (up to 0.1 nm).
Sample Requires less extensive preparation, Requires more extensive preparation,
Preparation suitable for bulk samples. suitable for ultra-thin sections.
Ideal for 3D surface imaging in Ideal for detailed internal structure
Application
materials science, biology, imaging in cell biology, virology,
Areas
semiconductors, forensics. nanotechnology.
High depth of field, providing detailed Low depth of field, providing detailed
Depth of Field
3D surface images. internal structural images.

X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)

9. Describe the basic principle of X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and its applications in
material science.
o XRD is based on the diffraction of X-rays by the atomic planes in a crystal lattice.
The pattern of diffracted X-rays provides information about the crystal structure,
lattice parameters, and atomic arrangement. Applications include phase
identification, crystallinity assessment, and determination of crystal structures.
10. How can XRD be used to determine the crystal structure of a material?
o XRD can determine the crystal structure by analyzing the diffraction pattern
produced when X-rays interact with the crystal lattice. By applying Bragg's law
and indexing the diffraction peaks, the lattice parameters and atomic positions can
be determined.
Mass Spectrometry (MS)

11. Explain the principle of Mass Spectrometry (MS) and its application in identifying
compounds.
o MS identifies compounds based on their mass-to-charge ratio (m/z). Ionized
molecules are accelerated in an electric field and separated according to their m/z
in a mass analyzer. The resulting spectrum provides information on the molecular
weight and structure of the compound.
12. Discuss the different types of ionization techniques used in MS.
o Common ionization techniques include:
 Electron Ionization (EI): Uses electron impact to ionize molecules,
producing fragment ions.
 Electrospray Ionization (ESI): Produces ions by applying a high voltage
to a liquid sample, forming charged droplets.
 Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization (MALDI): Uses a laser to
ionize molecules embedded in a matrix, producing singly charged ions.

Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS)

13. What is Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) and how is it used to determine the
concentration of elements in a sample?
o AAS measures the absorption of light by free atoms in the gas phase. A sample is
atomized, and the absorbance of light at specific wavelengths is measured. The
absorbance is proportional to the concentration of the element in the sample.
14. Explain the difference between Flame AAS and Graphite Furnace AAS.
o Flame AAS uses a flame to atomize the sample, suitable for higher concentration
samples. Graphite Furnace AAS uses an electrically heated graphite tube for
atomization, providing greater sensitivity and the ability to analyze lower
concentration samples.

Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)

15. Describe the principle of Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and its
applications.
o FTIR measures the absorption of infrared radiation by a sample, producing a
spectrum that represents molecular vibrations and chemical bonds. It is used for
identifying functional groups, characterizing materials, and analyzing chemical
compositions.
16. How does FTIR differ from traditional IR spectroscopy?
o FTIR uses an interferometer to collect all wavelengths simultaneously, providing
faster and more accurate measurements. Traditional IR spectroscopy uses a
monochromator to scan individual wavelengths sequentially.

Multimeter (EC/pH)
 17. What is the role of a multimeter in measuring electrical conductivity (EC) and pH in
a solution?
o A multimeter measures electrical conductivity (EC) by applying a voltage
between two electrodes and measuring the resulting current. For pH measurement,
a pH probe converts the hydrogen ion concentration in the solution to an electrical
signal that the multimeter reads.
18. Explain the importance of calibration in ensuring accurate measurements using a
multimeter.
o Calibration ensures that the multimeter provides accurate readings by comparing
it to known standards and adjusting it accordingly. Regular calibration
compensates for any drift in the instrument's accuracy over time.

Infrared Gas Analyzer (IRGA)

19. Describe the working principle of an Infrared Gas Analyzer (IRGA) and its
applications in environmental science.
o IRGA measures gas concentrations by detecting the absorption of infrared
radiation at specific wavelengths characteristic of the gas. Applications include
monitoring greenhouse gases, air quality, and respiratory gas analysis.
20. How does IRGA help in measuring gas concentrations, and what are its limitations?
o IRGA provides real-time, non-destructive measurements of gas concentrations
with high sensitivity and specificity. Limitations include interference from other
gases with overlapping absorption spectra and the need for regular calibration.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

21. Explain the significance of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD) in water quality assessment.
o COD measures the total amount of oxygen required to oxidize organic and
inorganic matter in water, indicating overall pollution levels. BOD measures the
oxygen consumed by microorganisms to decompose organic matter, reflecting the
biodegradable organic pollution.
22. How are COD and BOD measurements conducted in a laboratory setting?
o COD: A water sample is treated with a strong oxidizing agent (e.g., potassium
dichromate) and heated, and the amount of oxygen consumed is measured.
o BOD: A water sample is incubated at a specific temperature for five days, and the
decrease in dissolved oxygen is measured to determine the amount of oxygen
consumed by microbial activity.

Integration of Topics

23. Discuss how HPLC can be coupled with Mass Spectrometry (MS) for enhanced
analytical capabilities.
o Coupling HPLC with MS combines the separation power of HPLC with the
identification capabilities of MS. HPLC separates complex mixtures, and the
 eluted compounds are directly ionized and analyzed by MS, providing detailed
molecular information and increasing sensitivity and specificity.
24. Explain the importance of sample preparation and accuracy in measurements
across different analytical techniques covered in the syllabus.
o Proper sample preparation ensures that the sample is compatible with the
analytical technique and that the results are accurate and reproducible. Accuracy
in measurements is critical for reliable data interpretation, comparison of results,
and making informed decisions based on the analysis. Each technique may have
specific preparation requirements to minimize contamination, degradation, and
interference, thus maintaining the integrity of the sample and the validity of the
results.

now do the same For practical exam. it contents: Digital

balance, UV-Visible spectrophotometer, ICP-OES, Potentiostat
(10 marks for this written exam)
ChatGPT

Sure, here are some likely questions for a practical exam based on the provided syllabus, along
with their answers.

Digital Balance

1. Explain the principle of operation of a digital balance and its applications in a

laboratory setting.
o A digital balance measures mass using an electromagnetic force restoration
system. The object to be weighed is placed on a pan, causing a displacement. This
displacement is counteracted by an electromagnetic force, and the resulting
current required to balance the force is measured and converted into a digital
readout. Applications include precise measurement of chemicals, reagents, and
other materials in various laboratory experiments.
2. What steps should be taken to ensure accurate measurements using a digital
balance?
o Ensure the balance is on a stable, level surface and calibrated before use.
o Allow the balance to warm up if it has been off for an extended period.
o Use tongs or gloves to handle objects to prevent contamination or heat transfer.
o Zero or tare the balance before weighing.
o Avoid air currents and vibrations during measurements.

UV-Visible Spectrophotometer

3. Describe the working principle of a UV-Visible spectrophotometer and its use in

quantitative analysis.
o A UV-Visible spectrophotometer measures the absorbance of light in the
ultraviolet and visible regions of the electromagnetic spectrum by a sample. The
sample absorbs specific wavelengths of light, which correlates with the
 concentration of the absorbing species in the sample. Beer's Law (A = εlc) relates
absorbance (A) to concentration (c), path length (l), and molar absorptivity (ε),
enabling quantitative analysis.
4. What are the steps involved in preparing a sample for UV-Visible
spectrophotometry?
o Prepare a blank solution that contains all reagents except the analyte.
o Calibrate the spectrophotometer using the blank.
o Dilute the sample to ensure the absorbance falls within the instrument’s linear
range.
o Transfer the sample to a clean cuvette, avoiding air bubbles.
o Measure the absorbance at the appropriate wavelength and compare it to a
standard curve for quantification.

Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES)

5. Explain the principle of ICP-OES and its application in elemental analysis.

o ICP-OES uses an inductively coupled plasma to ionize the sample. The excited
atoms and ions emit light at characteristic wavelengths as they return to lower
energy states. The emitted light is dispersed by a spectrometer, and the intensity at
specific wavelengths is measured, providing qualitative and quantitative
information about the elemental composition of the sample.
6. What precautions should be taken when preparing samples for ICP-OES analysis?
o Ensure samples are digested or dissolved completely to avoid particulate
interference.
o Use appropriate standards for calibration.
o Avoid contamination by using clean labware and handling samples in a clean
environment.
o Maintain consistent sample matrices to avoid matrix effects.
o Use internal standards to compensate for any variations in the plasma conditions.

Potentiostat

7. Describe the function of a potentiostat and its role in electrochemical measurements.

o A potentiostat controls the voltage between a working electrode and a reference
electrode, and measures the resulting current between the working and counter
electrodes. It is used in techniques like cyclic voltammetry and
chronoamperometry to study electrochemical reactions, determine redox
potentials, and measure the kinetics of electron transfer processes.
8. Outline the procedure for conducting a cyclic voltammetry experiment using a
potentiostat.
o Prepare the electrochemical cell with a working electrode, reference electrode,
and counter electrode.
o Fill the cell with an electrolyte solution containing the analyte.
o Connect the electrodes to the potentiostat.
o Set the potential scan range and scan rate on the potentiostat.
o Start the measurement and record the current-potential curve.
 o Analyze the voltammogram to determine redox potentials and reaction kinetics.

Practical Exam

Digital Balance

 Components:
o Weighing Pan: Where the sample is placed.
o Load Cell: Measures the weight of the sample.
o Display: Shows the measured weight.
o Tare Button: Used to zero the balance before measuring.
o Calibration Weights: For accuracy checks.

 Working Principle:
o The sample is placed on the weighing pan.
o The load cell converts the weight into an electrical signal.
o This signal is processed and displayed as the weight on the digital screen.

UV-Visible Spectrophotometer

 Components:
o Light Source: Emits UV and visible light.
o Monochromator: Selects specific wavelengths of light.
o Sample Holder/Cuvette: Holds the sample.
o Detector: Measures the intensity of transmitted light.
o Display/Computer: Displays the absorbance or transmittance data.

 Working Principle:
o Light from the source passes through the monochromator.
o The selected wavelength of light passes through the sample in the cuvette.
o The detector measures the amount of light transmitted through the sample.
o The absorbance is calculated and displayed, which is related to the concentration of the
analyte.

ICP-OES (Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy)

 Components:
o Nebulizer: Converts liquid sample into an aerosol.
o Plasma Torch: Generates plasma to excite atoms in the sample.
o Spectrometer: Separates emitted light into its component wavelengths.
o Detector: Measures the intensity of the emitted light.
o Computer: Analyzes data and displays the results.

 Working Principle:
o The sample is nebulized and introduced into the plasma torch.
o The high-temperature plasma excites the atoms in the sample.
 o These excited atoms emit light at characteristic wavelengths as they return to lower
energy states.
o The spectrometer separates this light, and the detector measures its intensity to
determine the elemental composition.

Potentiostat

 Components:
o Working Electrode: Where the electrochemical reaction occurs.
o Reference Electrode: Maintains a constant potential.
o Counter Electrode: Completes the circuit.
o Control Unit: Controls the voltage and measures the current.
o Computer: Records and analyzes the data.

 Working Principle:
o The potentiostat applies a potential between the working and reference electrodes.
o It measures the resulting current that flows through the working electrode.
o This current is related to the electrochemical reactions occurring at the electrode
surface.
o Data is recorded and analyzed to study the electrochemical properties of the sample.

Theory Exam

Gas Chromatography (GC)

 Components:
o Carrier Gas Supply: Inert gas that carries the sample.
o Injector: Introduces the sample into the system.
o Column: Separates the sample components.
o Oven: Controls the temperature of the column.
o Detector: Detects the separated components.

 Working Principle:
o The sample is vaporized and carried by the carrier gas through the column.
o Different components of the sample separate based on their interactions with the
column's stationary phase.
o The detector identifies and quantifies the separated components as they elute from the
column.

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

 Components:
o Solvent Reservoirs: Contain the mobile phase.
o Pump: Moves the mobile phase through the system.
o Injector: Introduces the sample into the mobile phase.
o Column: Separates the sample components.
o Detector: Detects the separated components.
  Working Principle:
o The pump forces the mobile phase and sample through the column.
o Components of the sample separate based on their interactions with the column's
stationary phase.
o The detector identifies and quantifies the separated components as they elute from the
column.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

 Components:
o Thermal Cycler: Controls the temperature cycles.
o DNA Polymerase: Enzyme that synthesizes DNA.
o Primers: Short DNA sequences that initiate DNA synthesis.
o Nucleotides: Building blocks of DNA.
o Template DNA: DNA to be amplified.

 Working Principle:
o The thermal cycler changes temperatures to denature the DNA, anneal primers, and
extend the new DNA strands.
o The DNA polymerase synthesizes new DNA strands by adding nucleotides to the primers.
o This cycle repeats multiple times, exponentially amplifying the target DNA sequence.

Electron Microscopy (SEM and TEM)

 Components (SEM):
o Electron Gun: Emits electrons.
o Electromagnetic Lenses: Focus the electron beam.
o Sample Chamber: Holds the sample.
o Detectors: Detect secondary or backscattered electrons.

 Components (TEM):
o Electron Gun: Emits electrons.
o Electromagnetic Lenses: Focus the electron beam.
o Sample Holder: Holds the thin sample.
o Fluorescent Screen/Detector: Displays the transmitted electrons.

 Working Principle (SEM):

o The electron beam scans the sample surface.
o Secondary or backscattered electrons are emitted from the sample surface.
o Detectors collect these electrons to form an image of the surface.

 Working Principle (TEM):

o The electron beam transmits through the ultra-thin sample.
o Electrons interact with the sample, creating an image based on the transmitted
electrons.
o The image reveals the internal structure of the sample at a high resolution.
X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)

 Components:
o X-Ray Source: Generates X-rays.
o Sample Holder: Holds the crystalline sample.
o Detector: Detects diffracted X-rays.

 Working Principle:
o X-rays are directed at the crystalline sample.
o The crystal lattice causes the X-rays to diffract at specific angles.
o The detector measures the angles and intensities of the diffracted X-rays.
o This data is used to determine the crystal structure of the sample.

Mass Spectrometry (MS)

 Components:
o Ion Source: Ionizes the sample molecules.
o Mass Analyzer: Separates ions based on their mass-to-charge ratio.
o Detector: Detects the separated ions.

 Working Principle:
o The sample is ionized to produce charged molecules or fragments.
o These ions are separated in the mass analyzer based on their mass-to-charge ratio.
o The detector measures the abundance of each ion, producing a mass spectrum.

Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS)

 Components:
o Light Source: Emits light at specific wavelengths.
o Atomizer: Converts the sample into free atoms.
o Monochromator: Selects the specific wavelength of interest.
o Detector: Measures the absorbance of the selected wavelength.

 Working Principle:
o The light source emits light that passes through the atomized sample.
o The sample atoms absorb light at characteristic wavelengths.
o The monochromator isolates the specific wavelength absorbed by the sample.
o The detector measures the absorbance, which is related to the concentration of the
analyte.

Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)

 Components:
o Infrared Source: Emits IR radiation.
o Interferometer: Modulates the IR radiation.
o Sample Holder: Holds the sample.
o Detector: Measures the transmitted or reflected IR radiation.
  Working Principle:
o The IR source emits radiation that passes through the interferometer.
o The modulated IR radiation interacts with the sample.
o The detector measures the IR radiation that is transmitted or reflected by the sample.
o The resulting spectrum is analyzed to identify functional groups and molecular
structures.

Multimeter (EC/pH)

 Components:
o Electrodes: Measure electrical conductivity (EC) and pH.
o Display: Shows the measured values.
o Calibration Solutions: Used to calibrate the electrodes.

 Working Principle:
o The EC electrode measures the conductivity of the solution, which is related to the ion
concentration.
o The pH electrode measures the hydrogen ion concentration, indicating the acidity or
alkalinity of the solution.
o The multimeter displays the measured values for analysis.

Infrared Gas Analyzer (IRGA)

 Components:
o Infrared Source: Emits IR radiation.
o Sample Chamber: Holds the gas sample.
o Detector: Measures the IR radiation that passes through the sample.
o Optical Filters: Select specific IR wavelengths.

 Working Principle:
o The IR source emits radiation through the gas sample in the sample chamber.
o Specific gas molecules absorb IR radiation at characteristic wavelengths.
o The detector measures the intensity of the transmitted IR radiation.
o The absorption is related to the gas concentration, which is displayed or recorded.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)/Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

 Components:
o COD:
 Reactor: Digests the sample with strong oxidizing agents.
 Colorimeter: Measures the change in color, indicating oxygen demand.
o BOD:
 Incubator: Maintains the sample at a constant temperature.
 Dissolved Oxygen Meter: Measures the oxygen concentration before and after
incubation.

 Working Principle:
 o COD: The sample is digested with a strong oxidizing agent. The amount of oxygen
required to oxidize the organic matter is measured using a colorimeter.
o BOD: The sample is incubated to allow microbial degradation of organic matter. The
decrease in dissolved oxygen is measured, indicating the oxygen demand for biological
processes.
 Here's a table summarizing the instruments mentioned and their respective uses:

Instrument Use
Digital Balance Measuring mass with high precision and accuracy.
Measuring the absorbance or transmittance of UV and
UV-Visible Spectrophotometer
visible light by a sample.
Determining the elemental composition of a sample through
ICP-OES
optical emission spectroscopy.
Controlling the voltage of an electrochemical cell to study its
Potentiostat
properties and reactions.
Separating and analyzing compounds that can be vaporized
GC (Gas Chromatography)
without decomposition.
HPLC (High-Performance Separating, identifying, and quantifying components in a
Liquid Chromatography) liquid sample.
PCR (Polymerase Chain Amplifying DNA sequences for analysis in genetic research
Reaction) and diagnostics.
Imaging samples at a much higher resolution than light
Electron Microscopy
microscopy using electron beams.
Determining the crystallographic structure, chemical
XRD (X-ray Diffraction)
composition, and physical properties of materials.
Measuring the mass-to-charge ratio of ions to identify and
MS (Mass Spectrometry)
quantify molecules in a sample.
Analyzing the concentration of elements in a sample by
Atomic Absorption Spectrometer
measuring the absorbed light.
FTIR (Fourier Transform Identifying organic, polymeric, and, in some cases, inorganic
Infrared Spectroscopy) materials by their infrared spectra.
Multimeter (EC/pH) Measuring electrical conductivity (EC) and pH of a solution.
Measuring the concentration of gases (such as CO2) in a
IRGA (Infrared Gas Analyzer)
sample using infrared absorption.
Determining the amount of oxygen required to oxidize
COD/BOD (Chemical Oxygen
organic and inorganic matter in water (COD) and the amount
Demand/Biochemical Oxygen
of oxygen consumed by microorganisms to decompose
Demand)
organic matter in water (BOD).
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