buildings

Editorial
Lighting in Buildings
Dorukalp Durmus 1, * , Wenye Hu 2 and Lambros T. Doulos 3, *

1 Department of Architectural Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
2 School of Architecture, Design and Planning, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia;
[email protected]
3 School of Applied Arts and Sustainable Design, Hellenic Open University, 26335 Patras, Greece
* Correspondence: [email protected] (D.D.); [email protected] (L.T.D.)

1. Introduction to This Special Issue

Lighting in the built environment has evolved since the rapid uptake of solid-state
lighting (SSL) devices. In the last few decades, energy efficiency has played an important
role in lighting research, application, and standardization. However, the improvements in
the efficiency of individual luminaries are reaching a plateau. The growing understand-
ing of human visual and non-image forming (NIF) effects of light necessitates balancing
occupants’ needs with energy efficiency goals [1]. Sensors and advanced controls now
enable intelligent building lighting systems to meet these often-competing goals through
technological development [2–4]. Despite the advent of LEDs, energy savings can be in-
creased further through the intelligent use of lighting controls [5–10]. New parameters
are considered during the design process, such as user and equipment needs [11–13], use
of daylight [14–16], biophilic design [17,18], and providing adequate lighting when and
where needed [19–21] to increase wellbeing and productivity for occupants. In light of
the recent progress, this Special Issue aims to provide insights into the research on new
approaches for building lighting systems and their implications for occupants.
In this “Lighting in Buildings” Special Issue, eight research papers [22–29] were pub-
lished with 31 contributing authors from four countries (Australia, China, New Zealand,
and the USA). Research topics included integrative (sometimes colloquially termed human-
centric) lighting [22], visual perception and lighting [23], nocturnal lighting [24], spatial
luminance distribution [25], luminance imaging [26], pupillary light reflex and NIF ef-
fects [27], field study of interior lighting [28], and façade design for daylighting [29]. All
of these topics can be classified into three categories: integrative lighting, indoor lighting,
Citation: Durmus, D.; Hu, W.; Doulos, and daylighting.
L.T. Lighting in Buildings. Buildings
2024, 14, 2590. https://doi.org/ 2. Integrative Lighting
10.3390/buildings14082590 The study of integrative lighting systems is primarily concerned with occupant well-
Received: 11 July 2024 being, performance, and comfort. In this Special Issue, several studies contributed to this
Accepted: 16 August 2024 domain. For example, the framework developed by Jalali et al. [22] leverages current knowl-
Published: 22 August 2024 edge to offer a structured method for incorporating circadian lighting design throughout
various project phases through close collaboration among team members. By defining
project objectives and performing site analyses, architects can pinpoint both opportunities
and limitations related to lighting and natural daylight. This study also highlights the im-
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. portance of incorporating circadian entrainment considerations into the architectural design
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. process early on to allow architects to devise solutions that prioritize occupant health.
This article is an open access article Other studies were more experimental in nature. In Wang et al.’s study [24], five
distributed under the terms and hours of continuous lighting interventions were administered at night to investigate the
conditions of the Creative Commons
effects of lighting on melatonin levels, sleepiness, sleep quality, and performance during
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
nighttime work in a confined space. The findings indicated that exposure to bright light
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
significantly suppressed melatonin, resulting in the lowest levels of subjective sleepiness
4.0/).

Buildings 2024, 14, 2590. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082590 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2024, 14, 2590 2 of 5

and increased morning sleepiness. Rapid increases in subjective sleepiness were observed
under dim lighting conditions, which also provided the best sleep quality and melatonin
suppression, given that the light exposure was sufficiently prolonged. For shift work, low-
stimulation lighting that is suitable for visual tasks was preferred to minimize disruptions
to sleep rhythms. For tasks requiring higher levels of illumination, moderate light enhanced
performance while avoiding severe sleep disturbances. Although high illuminance reduced
subjective fatigue, it did not significantly improve cognitive task performance and severely
disrupts circadian rhythms and sleep, making it neither economical nor energy efficient.
In another controlled study, Wang et al. [27] examined the action spectra of pupillary
light reflex, an essential marker of autonomic nervous system function, and a noninvasive
tool in neuroscience research, physiological, and psychological clinical diagnosis. Past
studies in humans [30–32] have reached partial agreement on the sources of signals that
mediate the initial pupil constriction and the post-illumination pupil response. However,
the exact mechanism by which the intrinsic and extrinsic signals of intrinsically photosen-
sitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) regulate steady-state pupil size under continuous
lighting is still unclear. Wang et al. [27] presented two experiments that reached three key
findings. Firstly, both intrinsic and extrinsic signals contributed to regulating pupil size
under continuous lighting conditions, challenging previous reports that underestimated
the role of extrinsic signals [33–35]. Secondly, the influences of these signals may vary
with melanopic radiance. At higher values of melanopic radiance, the intrinsic signal
alone determined pupil size under sustained light exposure, which aligns with data from a
previous study [36]. Finally, the experiments proposed and verified a hypothesis regarding
melanopsin’s potential role in regulating cone sensitivity.
Advancements in data collection technologies enhance the ability to gather substantial
response and stimulus data in realistic settings. However, the complexity of hypothesis
testing in real-world environments remains a significant challenge, as stated by Collier
et al. [28]. Previous office studies suggest that architectural lighting can significantly
impact some occupant responses, such as daytime sleepiness and sleep quality, although
it does not seem to significantly affect mood and stress. Collier et al. [28] also examined
the experimental protocols utilized in studies on the circadian impact of office lighting,
and they investigated occupant responses through a field study. In this study, 23 office
occupants spent 12 weeks under both static and dynamic lighting conditions, evaluating
their alertness, mood, lighting and environmental satisfaction, and sleep quality. The results
indicate that while occupants were generally satisfied with the lighting and environmental
conditions, dynamic lighting did not significantly affect their alertness, mood, lighting
satisfaction, or sleep quality.

3. Indoor Lighting
Improving the environmental quality of public and private indoor spaces plays a
significant role in shaping occupants’ experiences and emotions. The impact of lighting
conditions on human emotions is multidimensional, as supported by research published in
this Special Issue. For example, Wei et al. [23] found that exposure to different colors of
light influences customer emotions and satisfaction with the environment. Their results
suggest that perceived service quality can be managed through the color of light, all other
things being equal.
In other research, Wu et al. [25] demonstrated the effectiveness of improving spatial
luminance distribution across various dimensions, such as luminance distribution, object
lightness, visual appeal and load, and light-shadow. By optimizing the visual appeal and
visual load of spatial luminance distribution, this study proposed a restorative spatial
luminance distribution (SLD) pattern suitable for various restorative reserve levels in the
environment. Experimentally, the research showed the potential of lighting luminance
distribution to enhance the restorativeness of hotel rooms. There were several key findings.
Firstly, SLD of lighting significantly improved environmental restorativeness by 30.9%, de-
spite an equal reduction ratio. Secondly, SLD enhanced the restorative perception potential,
Buildings 2024, 14, 2590 3 of 5

negatively correlated with the restorative reserve level of the environment. Furthermore,
eye-movement data highlighted the role of visual perception in improving environmental
restorativeness through spatial luminance distribution, showing an opposing yet coexisting
relationship between visual appeal and visual load. Lastly, common characteristics of
restorative spatial luminance distribution include a single highlight with uniform light and
no stray light transition, a consistent highlight shape within groups, an ordered highlight
sequence between groups, and an appropriate illumination effect of a single bright object.
Finally, Bishop and Chase [26] developed a luminance imaging device using a low-
cost device and sensor, along with minimal calibration equipment. The developed device
shows accuracy comparable to other custom devices that use higher-cost technologies and
more extensive calibration equipment, proving effective for indoor lighting measurements.
However, there are opportunities for improvement, with several suggestions to enhance
device accuracy and measurement range. This study shows that accurate luminance
imaging can be achieved at a very low cost. A no-equipment calibration procedure was
also presented, effectively linearizing highly non-linear sensors. This enables the use of
affordable sensors with a highly non-linear response for luminance imaging, instead of
expensive alternatives with a linear response. The procedures outlined eliminate the need
for expensive calibration equipment, reducing both device and calibration costs.

4. Daylighting
The desire to incorporate daylight into indoor spaces extends beyond merely helping to
complete specific tasks. It is crucial to evaluate daylight distribution concerning perceived
brightness, sustainable design approaches, visual comfort, and ambiance. In recent years,
new lighting metrics have been developed to define daylight distribution and harvesting,
but no existing metrics are linked to interactions with facade design. Thus, designing
facades that maximize light transmission for both sustainability (energy efficiency) and
human comfort (thermal and visual) remains challenging. To address these challenges,
Sawyer et al. [29] introduced a new approach, facade photometry, for measuring light
penetration through facades. This approach connects the facade’s structure with its impact
on light transmittance, allowing facade photometry to guide facade design and local
adjustments. This linkage helps achieve energy-efficient indoor lighting that satisfies
occupants’ visual and thermal comfort.

5. Conclusions
The studies included in this “Lighting in Buildings” Special Issue cover several topics
relevant to lighting research. The half of the papers are focused on integrative lighting
and factors that affect the occupant well-being, such as pupillary light reflex and other
NIF effects. Today, humans spend more than 90% of their time indoors and in many
cases the workplace is located in a dense urban environment, resulting in the biological
effect of natural light being limited [37]. Thus, the examination of the NIF effects of
indoor lighting is an important contribution of this Special Issue. However, there is
room for improvement. Considering individual differences in response to light, future
research should use larger sample sizes and carefully screen participants’ sleep types. Age
and gender differences should also be taken into account. Since real-world occupational
settings cannot be fully replicated in labs, long-term studies in realistic environments and
post-occupancy evaluations are necessary. In addition, research on the pupillary light
reflex might offer an easy way to assess the impact of different lighting scenarios within
integrative lighting approaches. Developing a standard protocol for pupillometry could
facilitate the direct assessment of ipRGC function in healthy and diseased retinas.
Studies published in this Special Issue also investigated the effect of lighting color
on people’s emotions in indoor spaces. Many studies of spatial luminance distribution
used limited luminance levels in indoor environments; thus, more research with empirical
validation is needed. Today’s smartphones have advanced imaging capabilities, high-
quality sensors, various shutter speeds, and onboard image processing, but their accuracy
Buildings 2024, 14, 2590 4 of 5

should be investigated further. More advanced and calibrated imaging techniques could
enhance accuracy and performance while reducing costs [38–40]. Shading systems with
specular characteristics are important for glare analysis. Future research should investi-
gate façade lighting for specular reflections, which cannot be detected without photon
mapping techniques.
A final note for this editorial is a call for papers for a follow-up Special Issue, “Lighting
in Buildings—2nd Edition” (https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings/special_issues/
850FPNEZ88, accessed on 18 August 2024). As the guest editors, we are inviting researchers
to submit papers focusing on topics including but not limited to the following: adaptive,
intelligent lighting systems; human visual response to lighting; human NIF response
to lighting; modeling and evaluating energy efficiency and lighting application efficacy;
daylight in buildings; lighting and color in virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR)
applications; novel applications of SSL devices in buildings; and policy, building standards,
and recommendations.

Author Contributions: Writing—original draft preparation, L.T.D.; writing—review and editing,

D.D., W.H. and L.T.D.; supervision, D.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: Special thanks are extended to the authors for their contributions, reviewers for
their constructive input and MDPI staff for their support, and to the success of this SI on “Lighting
in Buildings”.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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