BOWEN UNIVERSITY, IWO

MASS COMMUNICATION PROGRAMME

COURSE CODE: MAS 207

COURSE TITLE: NEWS WRITING AND REPORTING

ACADEMIC SESSION: 2019/2020

SEMESTER: FIRST

COURSE DESCRIPTION: The course will introduce the students to the activities
and attributes of reporters. Attention will be given to structural elements of news
room, definition of news, determinants of news, types and characteristics of news
story and principles and techniques of news gathering and dissemination in both
the print and electronic media as well as principles backing issuance of press
release, theories of the press, regulation of mass media, universal press laws,
contempt of court and parliament, ethical issues and press terminologies.
Status: Core
Description: Duration: 2 hours per week.
Lecture Periods:
1. Day: Thursday
2. Time: 2-4
3. Venue:

LECTURERS DETAILS
Name: Dr. Ayo ELEBUTE
Mobile / WhatsApp Number: 08080441781
E-mail: [email protected]&[email protected]
Room/Office Number:
Office Contact Hours:

COURSE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this course, students will be able to:
 Understand the rudiments and basics of mass communication as a subset of human
communication.
 Relate with the contents and characteristics of various types of media of mass
communication as well as its adjunct.
 Identify the various forms, models, elements and nature of communication and
then mass communication.

During the course, the facilitator’s role is to:

 Use literature to stimulate students work

 Assist students in their learning process
 Provide students with a conducive atmosphere where they can share their progress with
one another
During the course, the student’s role is to:

 Learn from his practice and from others

 Work individually and with small groups
 Participate actively during class sessions
 Share feedback, suggestion and challenges with other students
GROUND RULES (in collaboration with the students - some are non-negotiable)
(1) The students are expected to always attend all classes and be punctual.
(2) Students are expected to attend at least 80% lectures to qualify to write examinations.
(3) No student will be allowed into the lecture room 15 minutes after the commencement of
the lecture.
(4) Only an official written document stating reasons for being absent from any class or test
will be admitted as evidence in lieu of absence. Note that the notice of such absences
should be submitted in advance.
(5) In the case of medical reasons, there should be sufficient evidence to show that the
student was ill and unable to attend classes or test
(6) Students should submit assignments on or before the deadlines set for submission.
(7) Any act of insubordination attracts punishment at the discretion of the Facilitator.
(8) All assignments are to be typed out before submission.
(9) Poor grammar will be highly penalized especially in assessments.
ASSESSMENTS
Grading will be based on class work and participation, quizzes, class/group presentations special
assignments/projects and the final assessment according to the following distribution:
Continuous Assessment 30%
Examinations 70%
Total 100%

CONTENT PAGE
Module 1 News and Views, Structure of Media Organization, Gathering the News, Writing Story
for Print Media
Unit 1 News and Views
Unit 2 Structure of Media Organization
Unit 3 Gathering the News
Unit 4 Writing News for Print and Social Media (fake news writing)

Module 2
Unit 1 Writing News for Broadcast Media
Unit 2 Samples of Broadcast Copy
Unit 3 Press Release and other Journalistic Writings

Module 3
Unit 1 News Editing
Unit 2 Interview Techniques, Agency News Reporting and Foreign Correspondence
Unit 3 Normative Theories of the Press/ Inoculation Theory of Fake News

Module 4
Unit 1 Regulation of Mass Media
Unit 2Universal Press Laws for Reporters
Unit 3 Ethical Problems and Ethical Mechanisms for Reporters

Module 1 News and Views, Structure of Media Organization, Gathering the News, Writing Story
for Print Media

Unit 1 NEWS AND VIEWS

CONTENT
1.0 Main Content
1.0 Conclusion
2.0 Summary
3.0 Questions for the Week
4.0 Further Readings
1.0 MAIN CONTENT
1.1 Conceptualizing the terms: News and Views

News and views are materials disseminated to a large, heterogeneous and anonymous audience
simultaneously through the usage of mass media: print and electronic by the professional
journalists.

The news and views are passed to the audience through mass media organizations that have these
myriads of professionals with functionally interrelated roles. The mass media organizations have
a complex structure in which the reporter performs significant function of gathering the news.

Reporter’s function as the gatherer and disseminator of news and views has put him/her in the
sacred position of social watchdog and this role has assumed an ethical dimension, and to some
extent, the reporter requires freedom, legal accountability and social responsibility to perform
his/her duty effectively.

1.2 Functions of Mass Media Organization

The Mass Media perform four-fold functions:

(1) To inform: a function that refers to the collection and distribution of information concerning
events in the milieu both outside and inside a particular society. This is the news function.
(2) To educate: a function that deals with instructing the society on how to uphold their values
systems and traditional beliefs.
(3) To entertain: a function designed to amuse and make readers to relax and
(4) To merchandise: this is the selling function in which messages are designed to persuade the
target group to buy certain products.

1.3 Who is a Reporter?

The reporter is a man or woman who chronicles and reports events as they happen through mass
media.
As a result of the reporter’s role in news gathering business he/she has been tagged as the
unknown historian.
The reporter goes out to get stories for the news and the stories behind the news.
He/she attends press meetings, conferences, scenes of disasters or accidents, demonstrations and
other social developments that either make or explain the news.
Reportage has various areas of specialization.
This is why reporters are assigned beats to report crimes, sport, judiciary, labour, entertainment,
business, politics etc.

1.4 Attributes of a Reporter

• A good reporter must have some qualities that will make him/her occupy important
position in news reportage. The following are some of the qualities
• (1) Nose for news: to have instinct for news and able to identify a
newsworthy event. He/she must have the ability to generate news from anyone no
matter how significant or insignificant the person is.
 • (2) Good command of written and spoken language: to have proficiency in
the use of language of the news. They must learn and master the language of subject
they are assigned to such as politics, science, labour, economics etc.
• (3) Speed and accuracy: a reporter must work very hard to always meet the
deadline. He/she needs to race against time in gathering and presenting news.
• (4) Objectivity: He/she must be impartial, impersonal and dispassionate.
He/she must not shift the emphasis, twist angle of a story, opinionate factual news
or colour the story.
• (5) Perseverance: A good reporter must go extra mile while pursuing a
story. He/she must not be in undue haste as some people may have news to offer,
but may not be willing to divulge it so the reporter needs to persuade the source in
order not to miss the vital part of the news.
• (6) Ability to establish contacts: a good reporter must be able to create new
contact and maintain/sustain them. Be friendly with all categories of workers-high
and low-and maintain the friendship.
• (7) Trustworthiness: A good reporter must respect the confidence reposed in
him/her by his/her source. He/she must not on any account divulge the source of
information. Some Nigerian journalists such as NdukaIrabor and Tunde Thompson
had opted to go to prison rather than reveal the source of their information.
• (8) Knowledge of working tools: A good reporter must possess necessary
tools and he/she must learn how to use them effectively. Such tools include camera
and computer, and the internet to search information. Knowledge of shorthand will
be an added advantage.
• (9) Ethics of the profession: He/she must be abreast of the ethics of the
profession and obey them. A good reporter must be able to adopt self-regulatory
mechanism in all his conducts.
• (10) Versatility: A good reporter must be a universal person who can make
contributions to myriads of issues arising from his/her milieu.

2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Questions for the Week
Discuss the sacred position occupied by a reporter in journalism profession
What are the Functions of Mass Media Organization?
List and explain the attributes of a good reporter

5.0 Further Readings

Brooks, B. et al (1988) News Reporting andWriting, NY: St,Martin’s Press
Alao, D. (1992) News Reporting, Lagos: UniquePublications
Ufuophu-Biri, E. (2006) The Art of News Reporting, Ibadan:Ibadan University Press
Harry, G and D. Spark, (2001) PracticalNewspaper Reporting3rd Edition, Oxford:
Focal Press
Unit 2 Structure of Media Organization

CONTENT
1.0 Main Content
2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Questions for the Week
5.0 Further Readings

1.0 MAIN CONTENT

1.1 Structure/Organogram of Media Organization
The typical media organization is structured in the following way: (1) Editorial Department (2)
Administration and Finance Department (3) Engineering and Works Department (4)
Advertising/Commercial Department and (5) Circulation and Transport Department.

In the electronic media there are separate news/current affairs and programmes department.
In the print media organizations the reporter operates from the editorial department (newsroom)
while in the electronic media he/she operates from the news and current affairs unit.

1.2 The Newsroom

The newsroom is situated in the editorial department. The newsroom is mostly empty in the
morning when reporters must have gone out to scout for the day’s news, but it is always a centre
of editorial activities in the afternoon.

This is the time the reporters are busy working on computers while the news editor focuses on
the news stories; editing news reports submitted by the reporters.

Newsroom is also a centre where reporters monitor foreign news from CNN, BBC and VOA, and
receive news agency reports.

The newsroom houses the news editor, the reporters/correspondents and the line editors. There is
also computer section, library section, sub-editing section, photographic section, and proof
readers’ section.

The news editor heads the newsroom and he reports to the editor. The news editor assigns
reporters to different beats for the day and they submit their reports to him for vetting before
passing them to the sub-editing unit.

1.3 Line Editors

The line editors are senior reporters who head specific sections.
They assist the news editor and coordinate the reporters and correspondents in carrying out their
daily beats.

The reporters and correspondents are in constant contact with the news source and they write the
news. The reporters and correspondents basically do the job, but they operate from different
locations.
The reporter operates from the newsroom; he/she goes for assignments from newsroom and
returns to the newsroom after the completion of the day’s work, but the correspondent is
stationed outside the media house and sends his/her reports by correspondence through
telephones, e-mails, or wire system.

1.4 Sub-Editors
The sub-desk is headed by the chief sub-editor who controls other sub-editors. They correct
spellings, poor sentences and grammatical errors, and check the copies against ethical and legal
pitfalls.

They plan the pages element by element and fit the copies in the news holes. They cast the
headlines and write the captions or cut-lines; fine-tuning the stories for final production.

The proof readers read through the typeset copies to ensure that there are no mistakes in the
copies. The pictures are edited by the photo editor/chief photographer. In the print media, the
photo editor is the boss to the photo journalists who go out with reporters on assignments.

In the broadcast media, the cameramen operate the Electronic News Gathering (ENG) machines
and other high definition (HD) cameras.

In many media houses the library is part of the news room.

The reporters carry out their researches in this section that is also referred to as the morgue. The
editorial board is the apex body of print media.

The board has a chairman and the members on this board write and determine the editorial
comment for the day.

The editorial board of electronic media does not editorial comment, but runs the commentary of
news reports from the print media.

1.5 News Judgement

• News can be defined as the published or broadcast account of a current event or

occurrence in the mass media.
• News is information that is put before the readers for the first time.
• News is something new. New information of recent event is news.
• Newness is an essential quality of news.
•
1.6 Determinants of News

• News values/judgment or ability to determine newsworthy events is very essential

to reporters.
• An event may make news because of its value and/or worthiness.
 • There are universally accepted news values namely: (1) Timeliness (2) Proximity
(3) Prominence (4) Consequence (5) Human angle (6) Oddity (7) Conflict and (8)
Magnitude.

Timeliness: Yesterday’s news is old and stale and no one is ready to listen to or read
dead news. The audience wants to be served hot and fresh news. The news is now. News
is recent. The currency or immediacy refers to the newness and timeliness of news item.
The latter statement relates to how timely an event should be.

Proximity: This refers to nearness to the news source. Proximity can be discussed in
terms of geographical closeness or interest. For an example, “ten people killed in Lagos”
is more newsworthy to Nigerians than “twenty-five people killed in Accra”.

Prominence: refers to the degree of importance of the personality involved in the news.
Man’s achievements, contributions, or the position he occupies in the society can earn
him prominence in a news story. An unusual event involving a man on the street can
make him prominent. A good example is the case of Clifford Orji who was killing human
beings for ritual and cannibalism in Lagos.

Consequence: this refers to impact that an event has on people. For example, the hike in
fuel price was negative and disturbing to Nigerians because it was bound to cause serious
inflation and hardship. The rise and fall in the prices of stocks will have impact on
stockbrokers, investors and stakeholders in the capital market. Increase in school fees will
have impact on students and their parents. These aforementioned events or occurrences
have great impact for the people concerned to make news.

Human angle: Events that touch the heart of the people are sources of good news. The
degree of human interest involved in the events determines the value of the news. Such
news must have psychological and emotional appeal that induces anger, pity, hope or
disappointment. For an example, a policeman who killed husband and wife over ten naira
bribe will definitely attract the anger of human beings.

Oddity: Odd events can make news. A woman that gives birth to a pig will definitely
make news.

Conflict: Disasters such as wars, coups d’état, earthquakes, floods and religious riots can
make interesting news. News of a fight in the National Assembly will also make the
headline in the tabloids or broadsheets.

Magnitude: This is a scale of an occurrence. For an example, a multiple accident

involving six vehicles and claiming 50 lives would make more news than another
involving two vehicles in which no life is lost.
1.7 Rules Guiding News Stories

• The news story must adhere to a set of rules/guidelines.

• These are also known as rudiments of the news story.
• They include the following:

(1) accuracy (2) attribution (3) balance and fairness (4) brevity (5) clarity (6) human interest (7)
identification (8) news point (9) objectivity (10) verification.

Accuracy: this is when the reporter gives painstaking attention to every detail when
gathering facts and figures. When spellings of names, correct use of language, exact
quotes and precise number are checked and double checked with the source or reference
when there is doubt.

Attribution: this means crediting the story to a source. All information and statements
except the most obvious must be attributed to the source of the materials. For an example,
the statement: “Police reported that two people may be killed” needs verification because
it is not obvious that the two people were killed. While the statements: “December 25
falls on a Christmas” and “Rain fell yesterday” are obvious and they do not need
verification.

Balance and Fairness: both sides of in a controversy must be given fair hearing. During
political campaigns, all candidates must be given enough space and time to present their
points. All parties involved in the news must be treated without favoritism. Use words
with honesty of purpose. Use words like admit, refuse and complain with caution.

Brevity: Leave out clichés and condense words. Use action verbs and avoid adverbs and
adjectives. Cut sentences to the bone-edit unwanted words and avoid redundancy.

Clarity: write clear and interesting stories. Understand an event before writing on it. Do
not expose your ignorance, be sure what is said and put it down in clear language.

Human Interest: The human angle to a story mostly caches the readers’ attention and
interest. The human angle can be given prominence in a story by reporting people, their
reactions, their expectations, and their concerns/feelings.

Identification: identify people you are writing about for readers/listeners to visualize,
locate and identify them. You can identify people with demographic elements such as
Name, Age, Address, Occupation, Title, and Background to give credibility to your story.

News point: this is the main theme of the story that provides the spine of the story. Do
not write without knowing what the theme is. Decide your theme at the scene of the event
being covered or while the interviewee is being interviewed.
 Objectivity: do not colour a story with your opinion or the requirements of the existing
government. Objectivity represents the broader claim of journalism as an important third
party that speaks for the general interest of the common man.

Verification: check your information against objective source. This is the recognition of
the need for truth; to assure the reader/listener of the veracity of your story. The fact
without verified truth is false.

1.0 Conclusion
2.0 Summary
3.0 Questions for the Week
Draw the Organogram of a newsroom
How do you determine a newsworthy event?
What are the Rudiments of news story?

4.0 Further Readings

Brooks, B. et al (1988) News Reporting and Writing, NY: St,
Martin’s Press
Alao, D. (1992) News Reporting, Lagos: Unique Publications

Unit 3 Gathering the News

CONTENT
1.0 Main Content
2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Questions for the Week
5.0 Further Readings

1.0 MAIN CONTENT

1.1 News Gathering Process

• News gathering is the process of collecting raw materials for reporting (copies).
This is an important aspect of journalism profession.

Sources of News
• There are two sources for gathering news stories:

• Primary-external source: field research-beat and

• Secondary-internal source: desk research-morgue.

• News room is the heart of news gathering. The news editor or chief reporter
presides over the news desk, compiling the diary of jobs, briefing reporters,
monitoring the day’s headlines stories in electronic media, checking the finished
stories, liaising with photographers, answering calls, and briefing sub-editors on the
progress of the operation.
1.2 Gathering News inside Newsroom

• Diary of jobs: this include reports entered in advance in the news room such as
courts, councils, committees, tribunals, political speeches, weddings, meetings, arts,
sports, and opening ceremonies. Though, the form of these events is known in
advance, what actually happened, said or done on the day makes the news.

• Unexpected Events: these are emergency occurrences that are brought to the news
room by outsiders for coverage or monitored via electronic media such as deaths,
accidents, fires, robberies, strikes, weather stories, crashes, sinking, odd fights and
elopement.

• Tip Off: this is information reaching news room that could elicit potential news
from contact. The tip off often provides newspapers with more spectacular and
exclusive stories. Never shun the person who approaches you, even if you are busy,
get a message that somebody is at the reception wanting to see you.

• Official Library: checking the news room library where cuttings of stories are filed
and where reference books are kept.
• Calls and Contacts: this is done through telephone; making network of calls as
wide as time permits. Beyond routine calls, you also need personal contacts by
making a list of names, addresses, and telephone numbers of your regular contacts.

• Other Mass Media: news programmes of radio and television. Read newspapers
from other media houses to know what topics are of current interest and to find
ideas for more news. Glance through advert page for it can be a source of news, but
check to ensure that the advert has not been reported already. Look for letters to the
editor, columns, show business items, news in brief, sporting briefs, job
advertisements, obituaries, academic matters, church activities, appointments and
technological developments. More importantly, every pamphlet and piece of paper
that comes into the news room is worthy of a glance for news story.

Gathering News outside the Newsroom

• This is the field where news is happening; for most reporters work means being out
of the news room. So they must adopt the appropriate techniques in gathering their
news stories. The techniques include:
• 1 Chasing the Facts: Your success as a reporter will hinge on your
perseverance in getting the facts. If you are unsure of the briefing handed down to
you ask questions before leaving. Check reference books. Check the library for any
filed cuttings that relate to your assignment. Check press clippings for back-
grounding your story
• 2 Taking Notes: When you attend a function: meeting, court hearing,
dinner, seminar, conference etc, your main task is to watch, listen and take the notes
of what is going on in a jotter. If there is anything you do not understand after the
 briefing check and cross check with an official of the occasion afterwards. Ask for
the names of speakers you do not know. Ensure you spell their names correctly
because people feel bad when their names are wrongly spelt. Get a verbatim report
of every important statement you intend to quote. Keep your notes manageable by
ignoring preliminaries, the platitudes, and funny stories. Edit long winding
explanations. Stay through at events to the end and capture all happenings in order
not to give your rival media organizations an upper hand. Check the references of
the published body of facts referred to by the speaker after the meetings. Quote all
speakers correctly. If a speaker attacks the personality of somebody that is not
present at the meeting, the onus is on you to give the latter the opportunity to reply
in order to avoid grievances against your media house. Do not miss the high point
of a story, persevere and also be patient. Do not leave the scene of an event in a
hurry.
• 3 Making Inquiries: (Interrogate people) If your job is to make inquiries
rather than attend a function, your first point of call should be the library. Make
cuttings of events from your newspaper and match them against those of other
media for accuracy. Examine carefully the information you have and if necessary
talk personally to the person involved in the issue being discussed. Ask questions:
5Ws and H. If you are to gather information about, for an example, a council who
has just built a group of houses of an unusual nature, you may ask WHY the council
decided to build such a structure, WHOdesigned them, WHY the idea of unusual
building etc.
• 4 Dealing with People: Persuade the people you are interviewing to let
you use their names and addresses because anonymous quotes from ‘a passer’s by’
carry little conviction. Do nothing that can cause pain or that can humiliate innocent
or otherwise distressed persons. Be courteous; do not ask questions in an aggressive
manner. If you are not welcomed in an occasion leave the scene. Be patient and
sympathetic with people. Get at the truth. Make proper appointment for an
interview. Do not embarrass the public in your reports. Do not make empty
promises tell the people the real situation of an event. Be fair in controversial issues
get facts from both sides of the argument. Avoid one sided story. Be thorough. Get
facts that can add life and reality to a story. Be punctual at events and do not leave
in a hurry.

Who to Ask
• Accidents: FRSC, The Police, Hospitals, Doctors, Eyewitness, Vehicle Drivers etc.
• Airport: Aviation ministry, Travelling agency, Civil Society, Airport Authority, Local
Architects, Leasing firms etc.
• Army: Ministry of Defense, Defense Headquarters, Army Depot, Army PRO etc.
• Arts: Art Gallery, Museum, Curator, Art society, Art Dept. Theatre Managers, Drama
troupes
• Betting and Gaming: Club managers, Local council,
• Parliament: Act of Parliament Reference library etc.
• Buses: Licensing Office, Traffic commissioner, NURTW etc.
• Cars: Dealers, Police, Auto Association, Mechanic Village etc.
• Children Welfare: Social welfare, Parents, Teachers etc.
 • Churches: Clergies, Ministers, Bishops, Chaplains etc.
• Elections: Party agents, Regional agents, INEC office, Party local secretariat, Press
office etc.
• Electricity: Power stations, Consumers’ body, PHCN etc.
• Education: Ministry of Education, Parastatal, Tertiary, Secondary and Primary
Institutions etc.
• Exports: Trade and Industry, Export Company, Manufacturing Association etc.
• Farming: Farmers’ Association, Ministry of Agriculture etc.
• Health: Ministry of Health, NAFDAC, Hospitals, Doctors, Nurses, Health workers etc.
• Hospitals: Health Board, Health Authority, Community Health Council etc.
• Trade Unions: NLC, Trade Council etc.
• Youth Organizations: NYSC, Boys’ Scout, Boys’ Brigade etc.
• Legal Issues: Courts, Bar Associations, Legal Practitioners etc.

1.3 Tools for Gathering News

1 Notebook: mark the dates and references on the notebook in order to refer to it months after to
check if someone queried your report.
2 Knowledge of Shorthand: use self-invented type, not the laborious Pitman shorthand type
3 Corporate Dressing: jeans, leather jackets, and roll up sweaters are not adequate for news
engagements. People will have more confidence in you and your media if you are smart and
appropriately dressed.
4 Laptop: to download the raw materials: the hard copy for easy editing.

2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Questions for the Week
Discuss the two basic sources of news gathering
List and descant on myriads of contacts for news stories
Enumerate and describe different materials that can be used to gather news for print media

5.0 Further Readings

Brooks, B. et al (1988) News Reporting and Writing, NY: St, Martin’s Press
Alao, D. (1992) News Reporting, Lagos: Unique Publications
Ufuophu-Biri, E. (2006) The Art of News Reporting, Ibadan: Ibadan University Press
Harry, G and D. Spark, (2001) Practical Newspaper Reporting 3rd Edition, Oxford: Focal Press
Unit 4 Writing News for Print Media

CONTENT
1.0 Main Content
1.0 Conclusion
2.0 Summary
3.0 Questions for the Week
4.0 Further Readings

1.0 MAIN CONTENT

1.1 News Story in Print Media

The News-story in print media can be divided into two main parts:
– the LEAD
and
– the BODY.

The lead orintrois the beginning of the news story. It is the opening, the single paragraph.

The body is the rest of the story, no conclusion.

The Lead
The Lead presents the highlights of a story while the body reinforces the highlights with
additional information, facts and details. The news stories are written in the Inverted Pyramid
style/structure. They begin with the most important facts in the story and followed by
additional facts that are arranged in descending order of importance.

This arrangement contrasts with the normal style for narratives such as

Features story, which is divided into three main parts: Intro, Body and Conclusion, and the

Editorial, which is divided into four main parts: Title, Intro, Body and Conclusion.

These story patterns begin with introductory materials and build up to climax, but the news story
starts with the climax.
 PYRAMID STRUCTURE
___________________
LEAD
_____________
BODY
__
1.2 What is a Lead?
• LEAD
• This is the introductory paragraph of a news story that serves as the summary of a
hard news story.

• What are the Functions of a Lead?

• 1 to summarize the story
• 2 to provide answers to the questions (the Lead elements) Who, What, When,
Where, Why and How.
• 3 to provide quick identification of persons and events in a News story for the
readers
• 4 to emphasize the most important element in the news-story by placing that
element in the first paragraph of the story.

Technique for Writing a Lead

When writing the Lead the reporter must discover the most important element of the story and
decide on what LEAD ELEMENT to emphasize among the 5Ws and H. The reporter must use a
single element if he/she finds out that one element stands out uniquely in the story.

1.3 Lead Elements

As a reporter you are mandated to use the structure of the subject-verb predicate construction e.g.
word that expresses an action such as an event happens or a state exists. Go straight to the point
and with this you can start your Lead with any of the elements of a Lead: Who, What, Where,
When, Why and How.

2 WHAT: 1 the bombing of a Church in Ibi Village has triggered off violent destruction of
properties among members of the community.

3 2A mixture of relief and anger was the feeling expressed by Nigerians at the suspension of
strike action called by NLC to protest hike in fuel pump.

4 WHO: 1 President Muhamadu Buhari has declared looting of the state treasury by politicians
unconstitutional

5 Professor AkanjiNasiru reiterated his call for total quality control to determine the corporate
existence of members on the staff of Bowen University, Iwo in Osun state.

6 When a person is not well known, a Who Lead can also be used. In such instance, the
person’s occupation, sex, age and other demographic elements can be used e.g.

7 3A 20 year old man who ran into the side of a moving car is responding to treatment at
Bowen University Clinic in Iwo.

8 WHERE: 1Bowen University Chapel is the venue for next year Matriculation Ceremony

Ichondu Centre along Old Bantangi road Wukari will host the next Youth Development
programme.

9 WHEN: 1By next month all stakeholders in Bowen University, Iwo will smile as the NUC
would have accredited all the academic programmes in the institution.

Next week is the deadline for private car owners in Osogbo to obtain their test certificate, the
local council authority reminded car owners yesterday.

10 WHY: 1the shortage of midwives has forced the General Hospital in Ibadan to close its
maternity ward.

11 HOW: 1Trapped by the seat belt of his car, a young soldier was burnt to ashes on a highway
in Lagos last week.

A backward pass by Austin Eguavon earned the Italian team its only goal in the world cup
encounter in the United States.

12 Deciding on the 5Ws and H that is best suitable for a story Lead is an exercise that comes
easier only with TIME and EXPERIENCE. A budding reporter, therefore, is advised to use
the WHO or the WHAT angle and check for his/her fact for any other angle that may be
interesting or unusual to display the WHO or the WHAT.
Types of Lead

In addition to emphasizing one or the other of the 5Ws and H in a story Lead reporters use
several styles in structuring their Leads by using: Direct Lead, Delayed Lead, Summary Lead,
Effects Lead, Question Lead, Quote Lead, Cartridge Lead, Multiple Element Lead,
Narrative Lead, Contrast Lead, and Staccato Lead.

As a beginner you may not need to worry with writing in any of these styles as that would come
with experience. Therefore, the most important thing is how to write a good lead starting with
any of the 5Ws and H.

4.3 Body
The body of a news story is that part that adds more information to the news story. It is the
portion of a news story that follows the Lead. It presents facts in descending order of importance.

It amplifies the story by providing additional information such as names, descriptions,

quotations, conflicting viewpoints, explanations, background data etc.

News stories end with the LEAST IMPORTANT DETAILS, never with any type of conclusion.

4.4 Example of Story Structure

A graphical example of a news story in inverted pyramid structure could go like this: Two cars
collided and injured several people. Inverted pyramid story about the accident might contain the
following sequence paragraphs:

LEAD
• 1st Paragraph -Summarizes the Story (5Ws and H)

BODY
• - 2nd Paragraph- Identifies the injuries
• - 3rd Paragraph-Explains how the accident occurred
• - 4th paragraph-Reports driver’s speeding action
• - 5th Paragraph-Quotes one driver, a Police or eyewitness
• - 6thParagraph-Describes damage to the car
• - 7th Paragraph-Describes traffic problems caused by the
• accident
• -8thParagraph-Reveals that several other accidents had
• occurred at the same location.
4.5 Using Transitional Phrases for Smooth Flow of News stories
News stories mostly run into myriads of paragraphs and the best means of achieving smooth
flow through different ideas and theme is to use the apropos transitional devices. This helps
news stories to transit in a smooth, logical order from one line to the next.

The transitional devices or linkage words are used for emphasis, to highlight and to suggest.
They can be used to emphasize Time element in different aspect of an event: earlier, later, next
week, at the same time, meanwhile, soon after etc. They can also be used to emphasize contrasts:
however, conversely, but, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, on the other hand etc.

The linkage words can be used to highlight the location angle: in the state capital, at their home,
on main street, at another point nearby etc. Some suggest the picture of an action: turning to,
suddenly, grabbing his hand etc. Others include therefore, likewise, in addition to, namely,
whereas, as a result of etc.

4.6 Importance of Quotations as News writing Style

The reporters receive information from other people by listening to them and these messages are
passed to readers in the form of quotations using: Indirect, Partial or Direct Quotations.

The reporters use indirect quotations when sources have failed to state their idea effectively.
Therefore, the sources’ words are not used and they are not placed inside quotation marks instead
the reporters use their own words to summarize the sources’ remarks/words. In doing this they
can emphasize the source most important words and rephrase or eliminate words that are unclear,
irrelevant, wordy, libelous or unprintable.

An example of indirect quotation is: Dr. Elebute said mass communication students should deal
with facts, not with personal opinion while writing hard news.

The reporters use partial and direct quotations for statement that are important and interesting
and that require no rewording.

Partial quotations use key words from a source statement and quote them directly.

Direct quotations present and place the source’s exact words entirely in quotation marks.

An example of partial quotation: Dr. Elebute criticized the “dull school atmosphere” in Bowen
University and said mass communication students should write on ideas relating to this situation,
not platitude.

An example of direct quotation: Dr. Elebute said: “Mass communication students should be
dealing with issues of social, economic and political nature. There is too much of a dull school
atmosphere in Bowen University nowadays. The students spend too much time on minor
technical matters, like learning how to write headlines”.

4.7 Example of Hard News

Published in Nigerian Tribune of Friday 6 July, 2018
Killings: CAN declares 3-day fasting
By
COLLINS NNABUIFE
LEAD/INTRO
(Summary/Use Lead Elements)-Most Important
The leadership of the Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN) (WHO) has declared (WHAT) July
9 to 11 (WHEN) as national days of prayers and fasting against killings (WHAT) in the land
(WHERE).

Two Paragraph BODY with (Additional facts and Reinforcement)-Less important

It, therefore, called on Nigerians, both within and outside the country, to join Christians on July
11 for a peaceful protest against the killings.
In a statement issued by Pastor Adebayo Oladeji, Special Assistant (Media and Communication)
to the CAN President, it noted that “CAN’s decision is hinged on willful and persistent killings
of fellow citizens in general and Christians in particular nationwide and mostly in Plateau and
Benue states, where mass burial has become the norm without any positive response from the
country’s security agencies.”

1.9 Example of Social Media News

Mob Burns VIO Officer to Death

Representative Image: Man on Fire

 LEAD

The Niger State Police Command says a mob of protesters have/has burnt one Ahmed Bello, a
Vehicle Inspector/Inspection Officer in Mariga Local Government Area of the state.

BODY (8 Paragraphs)

AlhajiAdamuUsman, the state Commissioner of Police, made the disclosure in an interview with
NAN in Minna on Friday.

On October 3, at about 13:30 hours three Fulani youths/youth namely malami Mohammed, Juli
Musa and Dawa Ali of Oro village of/in Mariga Local Government area riding on an
unregistered Bajaj motorcycle were stopped by the VIO, but refused to stop.

They were chased by the VIO and they ran into a moving trailer with registration no: FKJ 512
XW that was coming from Tegina-KampaniBobi area. All of them were crushed by the trailer
and died on the spot.

“On realizing what he did, the deceased VIO ran towards KampaniBobi Police outstation for
safety. Unfortunately, he was pursued by irate mob and lynched”, the CP said.

He said that “already reinforcement from Kontagora Division was drafted to the village to restore
normalcy”.

The CP warned members of the public to desist from taking the law into their hands as anybody
found wanting would be arrested and prosecuted.

“We will not tolerate any act capable of bringing confusion to the state as concrete security
measures has/have since being/been put in place to guarantee peaceful co-existence among
residents”, he said.

The bodies of the victims have been moved away by the members of their families as at the time
of this report.

2.0Conclusion
3.0 Summary
5.0 Questions for the Week
Discuss the news story structure for Print Media
Create a Structure for a news story of your choice
Write a three paragraph news story with emphasis on the usage of transitional devices

6.0 Further Readings

Brooks, B. et al (1988) News Reporting and Writing, NY: St, Martin’s Press
Alao, D. (1992) News Reporting, Lagos: Unique Publications
Ufuophu-Biri, E. (2006) The Art of News Reporting, Ibadan: Ibadan University Press
Harry, G and D. Spark, (2001) Practical Newspaper Reporting 3rd Edition, Oxford: Focal Press
Module 2WRITING THE BROADCAST NEWS STORY& PRESS RELEASE

Unit 1Broadcast News

CONTENT
1.0 Main Content
2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Questions for the Week
5.0 Further Readings

1.0 MAIN CONTENT

1.1 Broadcast News Structure

The broadcast news story structure is different from that of print hard news. The broadcast news
format uses “block Format”.
The structure is divided into three parts: the Lead, the body and the conclusion that has the last
paragraph, which contain facts that are of relatively equal significance. After collecting the facts,
the reporter decides on what types of script to use, either voice-over or script-over.

Voice-over
If he/she is using the voice over, he/she writes two scripts with the first segment containing the
introduction, which is meant to be read by the newscaster and the reporter is introduced to
continue with the second segment (the body) of the news while newscaster says: “Our reporter
Juliet Adefila who monitors the event tells more”, or “Juliet Adefila gives more details on the
event” and the reporter signs off by concluding that, for example, “This is Juliet Adefila
reporting for BU Radio”.

Script-over
Only one script is written in the script-over and it is meant for the newscaster. While reading
through a script-over, there is no signing off, but the reporter is merely introduced in this
manner: “Our reporter Juliet Adefila, who was there, reports...”

The News Pattern

Avoid a story exceeding 120 seconds. The best way to calculate this is to write three words per
line because three words make a second. The right hand side of the script should contain the
audio while the left hand side should contain the visual instructions that indicate when the tape
should be rolled and other necessary instructions. Do not write on both sides.

1.2 News Production

After writing the news, the next stage is the production of voice-over and/or script-over scripts.
The production is slightly different.
The Voice-Over: After writing the two scripts and getting them edited by the news editor or
producer, the reporter takes the second script (the Body) to the studio for voice-over or audio
recording. He/she records the audio, observing all the principles of broadcast news reporting:
clear, friendly microphone voice, conversational mood, good pronunciations, intonations etc.
After he/she takes the tape to the editing suite for editing and with the aid of editing
machine/operator-editor, the reporter selects the matching visuals to compliment the audio. The
edited tapes are taken to the VTR for play back. In the case of digital editing both voicing and
editing are done right on the computer.

The Script-Over: This does not require the reporter doing voicing, but he/she works with the
editor to select and match the visuals with the audio. This type of production is a little difficult
because the visuals are edited without the audio, which left for the newscaster. Therefore, much
calculation is required for the audio/visual coalition. This is where the theory of using three
words per second becomes very important. The two styles discussed are also used for radio, only
that radio does not carry visuals. Track-ups are referred to in radio news as up-sounds.

1.3 News Gathering Techniques

Traditional News Gathering (TNG),

Electronic News Gathering (ENG) and
Satellite News Gathering (SNG)

Traditional method of gathering news

For Television: (1) U-Matric Camera (2) Video Home System (3) Digital Video Camera (4)
Super VHS SNG Camera and (5) GSM handsets fitted with sophisticated video equipment.
For Radio: (1) real-to-real machine midgets and (2) GSM handsets fitted with facilities for
recording.
Disadvantages of Traditional Method
1 Clumsiness, heaviness and need of a lot of light
2 The equipment were studio-bound
3 News covered in the field must be done in film
4 The Film had to be developed before shown
5 It can take hours to get picture of an event that
occurred thousands of miles away
6 Film had to be shot, sent by airplane, developed,
edited and broadcast

Electronic News Gathering method of the mid-1970s in which small light weight cameras and
videotape recorders make pictures of news events get on the air much quicker. Video tape is
ready to edit after it is shot. ENG makes it possible to broadcast live from the scenes of major
stories. News could be shown as it is happening. The Events can be covered in real time or very
close to it.

Satellite News Gathering method uses the vehicle or a sizable Outside Broadcasting Van (OB
Van)that is fitted with equipment which enables the signals to uplink to a communication satellite
that in turns sends it to local station.

1.4 Preparing Broadcast Copy

Broadcast news copy must be clean, readable and typed and reasonable typing speed and skills
must be demonstrated by the reporter. Typed characters are displayed in three basic sizes for the
newscaster to see the words clearly and for copy editing. Single-spacing is too confining.
Therefore, the copy should be written with the appropriate character and double spacing.
Television copy is written on the right half of the page in a 40-character line. Each line will
average about six words, and the newscaster will average 25 lines per minute. The left side of the
copy is used for audio or video information. This information that is not to be read by the
newscaster is usually typed in all caps. The copy that is read is generally upper and lower cases.
If a story is more than one page, write “MORE” in parentheses at the bottom of the page.

2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Questions for the Week
Discuss the structure of Broadcast news story

What are the Peculiarities of Broadcast News Production?

List and discuss different methods of news gathering in Broadcast media

5.0 Further Readings

Brooks, B. et al (1988) News Reporting and Writing, NY: St, Martin’s Press
Alao, D. (1992) News Reporting, Lagos: Unique Publications
Ufuophu-Biri, E. (2006) The Art of News Reporting, Ibadan: Ibadan University Press
rd
Harry, G and D. Spark, (2001) Practical Newspaper Reporting 3 Edition, Oxford: Focal Press

Unit 2Samples of Broadcast Copy

CONTENT
1.0 Main Content
2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Questions for the Week
5.0 Further Readings

1.0 MAIN CONTENT

1.1 Voice-Over Script (Announcer’s Script)BU-TV
SLUG
TITLE: PROFESSOR MATTEWS OJO WARNSAGAINST CULTISM
PLACE: BOWEN UNIVERSITY, IWO, OSUN STATE
EVENT: COMMISSIONING OF UNIVERSITY MEDIACENTRE
DATE: 29th August, 2018

FIRST SCRIPT

ANNOUNCER ON CAMERA PROFESSOR MATTEWS

AKINTUNDE OJO HAS WARNED
ALL STUDENTS OF TERTIARY
INSTITUTIONS IN OSUN STATE
TO SHUN CULT ACTIVITIES. HE
GAVE THE WARNING TODAY AT
THE BOWEN UNIVERSITY, IWO.

CUE IN OUR CORRESPONDENCE, JULIET

TAPE_____________________

ROLL ADEFILA, WHO___(WITNESSED)

TAPE______________________ THE CEREMONY,_____(REPORTS)
 REPORTER’S SCRIPT/ SECOND SCRIPT

PROFESSOR OJO STATED THAT CULTISM

IS AN EVIL ACT AGAINST HUMANITY. HE
EXPLAINED THAT IT DOES NOT ONLY
DESTROY THE PERSON INVOLVED, BUT
ALSO THE ENTIRE COMMUNITY. HE
CONDEMNED THE SITUATION IN WHICH
STUDENTS OF HIGHER INSTITUTIONS
RESORT TO CRIMINAL ACTIVITIES SUCH
AS EXAMINATION MALPRACTICE,
TRUANCY, THUGGERY AND OTHER
NEGATIVE ACTS. HE WARNED STUDENTS
AND OTHER PERSONS OUTSIDE THE
FOUR WALLS OF THE UNIVERSITY
INVOLVED IN SUCH VICES TO STOP OR
FACE THE WRATH OF GOD AND OF THE
LAW OF THE LAND.

(TRACK UP PROFESSOR OJO)

THE PRO-CHANCELLOR OF THE

UNIVERSITY, REV. (DR) AYOKUNLE SAID
THE INSTITUTION IS COMMITTED TO THE
TRAINING OF QUALITY GRADUATES. TO
REALISE THIS AIM, THE UNIVERSITY
INSISTED ON THE EMPLOYMENT OF
QUALIFIED LECTURERS. THE PRO-
CHANCELLOR EXPLAINED THAT THE
LECTURERS ARE EXPOSED TO
CONTEMPORARY REALTIES IN THEIR
AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION THROUGH
LOCAL AND INTERNATIONAL
CONFERENCES.

(TRACK UP PRO-CHANCELLOR)

TO ADD SOME COLOUR TO THE

CEREMONY, MEMBERS OF THE
UNIVERSITY DRAMA TROUPE
ENTERTAINED THE AUDIENCE.

Cue Out----------------------------- (TRACK UP PERFORMANCE)

JULIET ADEFILA REPORTING FOR BU-

TELEVISION
B SCRIPT-OVER (One Script only)

BU-TV

TITLE: PROFESSOR OJO WARNS AGAIST CULTISM

PLACE: BOWEN UNIVERSITY, IWO, OSUN STATE

EVENT: COMMISSIONING OF UNIVERSITY MEDIA CENTRE

DATE: 29TH NOVEMBER, 2012-11-29

ANNOUNCER ON CAMERA PROFESSOR MATTEWS AKINTUNDE OJO HAS

WARNED ALL STUDENTS OF TERTIARY
INSTITUTIONS IN OSUN STATE TO SHUN CULT
CUE IN TAPE_____________________ ACTIVITIES. HE GAVE THE WARNING TODAY
ROLL TAPE______________________ AT THE BOWEN UNIVERSITY, IWO.

CUE IN_______________________ ANNOUNCER REPORTS

ANNOUNCER PROFESSOR OJO STATED THAT CULTISM IS
AN EVIL ACT AGAINST HUMANITY. HE
EXPLAINED THAT IT DOES NOT ONLY
DESTROY THE PERSON INVOLVED, BUT ALSO
THE ENTIRE COMMUNITY. HE CONDEMNED
THE SITUATION IN WHICH STUDENTS OF
HIGHER INSTITUTIONS RESORT TO CRIMINAL
ACTIVITIES SUCH AS EXAMINATION
MALPRACTICE, TRUANCY, THUGGERY AND
OTHER NEGATIVE ACTS.
(TRACK UP PROFESSOR OJO)

CUE IN_________________________ (THE) PRO-CHANCELLOR OF THE

ANNOUNCER _____ UNIVERSITY, REV. (DR) AYOKUNLE SAID THE
INSTITUTION IS COMMITTED TO THE
TRAINING OF QUALITY GRADUATES. TO
REALISE THIS AIM, THE UNIVERSITY
INSISTED ON THE EMPLOYMENT OF
QUALIFIED LECTURERS. THE PRO-
CHANCELLOR EXPLAINED THAT THE
LECTURERS ARE EXPOSED TO
CONTEMPORARY REALTIES IN THEIR AREAS
OF SPECIALIZATION THROUGH LOCAL AND
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCES.
(TRACK UP PRO-CHANCELLOR)

(TO) ADD SOME COLOUR TO THE CEREMONY,

MEMBERS OF THE UNIVERSITY DRAMA
TROUPE ENTERTAINED THE (AUDIENCE).
C. Radio Copy for BU-Radio

Cultism
12-30
1-11-12
Osawe

Members of Students’ club for the Abrogation of Cultism in tertiary institutions plan to gear
up petitions drive again this weekend. The group began circulating leaflets last weekend.

The leaflets request the University council to uphold all previous ordinances and resolutions
on the abrogation of cultism. Many students of Bowen University complain that cultism will
damage their peaceful existence.

Petition-drive coordinator Vera Williams says the group is pleased with the show of support
from the University Management...But it wouldn’t know exactly how many signatures it has
until next week

. Key for the latter copy

“Cultism” is the Slug for the story
“12-30” is the time of the newscast
“1-11-12 is the date of the broadcast
“Osawe” is the name of the reporter
If a story is more than one page, write ‘MORE’ in parentheses at the bottom of the page.
D. Television Copy for KU-Vision

Six 6-17 art Akor

MOC AKOR

SOF:27 A lesson in art and architecture paid off for

NAT SND some students of Federal University, Wukari
UNDER VOICE today. Handsets were the prizes for entries
OVER in a sketch exhibit of scenery and buildings
in the Wukari city area.

KEY: STUDENTS The AKU art club sponsored the show and
OF FEDRAL called in an art Professor Bill Gate to judge
UNIVERSITY the artworks
WUKARI
:00-05 Gates says he was impressed by the
Students’ skills, especially those who tried
Their hands at the different media for the
First time

Key for the copy

“six” is the time of the newscast

“6-17” is the day of the broadcast

“art” is the slug for the story

“akor” is the name of the reporter

“MOC” means the person is live on camera with audio from

this microphone

“SOF:27” means there is sound on the film lasting 27 seconds

“NAT SND UNDER” means the film sound should be kept at a

low level

“VOICEOVER” means the voice is from the anchor person in

the studio speaking over the film that is being

shown

“FEDERAL UNIVERSITY WUKARI” indicates the title that

should be shown over the

film.

“00-05” indicates that the title should be shown five seconds

after the report of the news items begins

2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Questions for the Week

Design a Voice over Script for any Television Station of your Choice

Design a Script over Script for any Television of your choice

Design a script for any Radio station of your choice

5.0 Further Readings

Ufuophu-Biri, E. (2006) The Art of News Reporting, Ibadan: Ibadan University Press

Harry, G and D. Spark, (2001) Practical Newspaper Reporting 3rd Edition, Oxford: Focal Press

Unit 3PRESS RELEASE AND OTHER JOURNALISTIC WRITINGS

CONTENT
1.0 Main Content
2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Questions for the Week
5.0 Further Readings

1.0 MAIN CONTENT

1.1 Press Release
Press release is a means through which information meant for the public gets into the media of
mass communication: radio, television, newspaper or magazine. It is a medium of
communication through which information meant for public consumption is published. Press
release or press statement is issued by organizations, companies, group of people, associations,
or important personalities to convey information intended for public consumption through mass
media.
Anyone can issue a press release through mass media, but such a press release must conform to
the journalistic writing style using the inverted pyramid format in which the most important
element is written in the first paragraph known as Lead. Other details follow in descending order
of importance.

Bowen University Iwo, Osun State

PR DEPARTMENT
08080441781
The Public Relation Department
Bowen University, Iwo
Osun State
Press Release
Bowen University, Iwo,(who) Osun State (where) is celebrating its 10th anniversary (what) this
year (when).
Parts of the programmes marking the occasion include lectures, exhibitions, and musical
concerts, symposium and calisthenics display.
The University’s new media centre will also be commissioned. Bowen University was
established in 2005. The University has produced close to 10,000 graduates.

PRO

1.2 Structure

Press Release (Inverted Pyramid Structure)

---------------------------(LEAD) Bowen University is 10 this year
------------------------(BODY) Parts of the programmes
--------------------------------marking the occasion include
---------------------------lectures, symposium etc.
-----------------------media centre will be launched
-------------------BU was established in 2005
---------------It has produced 10,000 graduates
Analysis
When you consider this example, you will notice that the most important element in the release
is that Bowen University is celebrating its 10 thanniversary. The writer of the release wants the
public to know some of the activities that have been lined up to mark the occasion.
The release was written in a descending order of importance such that if the last two paragraphs
are edited by the news editor, the release would have achieved its purpose.
The inclusion of background information: established in 2005 and has produced close to 10,000
graduates does not affect the story. This is one of the advantages of an inverted pyramid style.
The editor is free to cut or slash down the length of the story at any point, yet the story will still
be told meaningfully.

1.3 Features of Press Release

A good press release should not be more than a page or one page and half.
This issue of length depends on the matter involved.
Notwithstanding, it should be brief, concise and straight to the point without unnecessary
information.
Space and air time for press release are money.
A good press release is printed on a letter head that contains the address and functional phone
number of the company or organization or society issuing it.
A good press release is signed by an identifiable, relevant and authoritative person such as
chairman, secretary, public relations officer or a combination of all.
A good press release is written in elegant English devoid of spelling errors, grammatical errors
and it must be well proof read before it is circulated.

1.4 Other Journalistic Writings

Editorial writing is research based so also is the features writing. A feature is a creative
journalistic writing that informs, explains, analyzes, interprets and exposes issues. Feature is a
colourful story about people, event, place and life. It is written in an interesting and creative
manner with information drawn from people involved, eye-witnesses, and experts on the subject
and those affected by the subjects. Both features and editorials involve deeper and logical
analyses of issues. The differences between them are: (1) Features carry by-line, but editorials do
not carry any by-line (2) Features can be accompanied by illustrations, but editorials are not
illustrated (3) Features are the results of individual efforts, but editorials are the result of group
effort of the editorial board.

2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary

4.0 Questions for the Week

Design a Press Release for an Event to take place in Mass Communication Department Bowen University
Iwo

Discuss the structure of an Editorial

Explicate the Structure of a Feature Story

5.0 Further Readings

Brooks, B. et al (1988) News Reporting and Writing, NY: St, Martin’s Press

Alao, D. (1992) News Reporting, Lagos: Unique Publications

Ufuophu-Biri, E. (2006) The Art of News Reporting, Ibadan: Ibadan University Press

Harry, G and D. Spark, (2001) Practical Newspaper Reporting 3rd Edition, Oxford: Focal Press

Module 3 News Editing

Unit 1 EDITING THE NEWS

CONTENT
1.0 Main Content
2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Questions for the Week
5.0 Further Readings

1.0 MAIN CONTENT

1.1 Editing news story

A rim editor edits the story carefully cutting it to fit a special length for the page layout. The
copy editors should read each story at least three times.
First Reading: The copy editor analyzes the thoroughness of the content and appropriateness
and effectiveness of the lead and organization of the story. He makes few changes during this
first reading.
Second Reading: The copy editor re-reads the story to make changes where necessary. For
instant, an uninteresting lead may be rewritten; the overall organization of the story may be
rearranged; facts are verified; and styles, grammar, punctuations and spelling errors are
corrected. In addition, the copy editor addresses questions of ethics, taste and sensitivity, as well
as legal problems with the story.
Third Reading: The copy editor reads the story a third time to be sure all errors have been
corrected and everything possible has been done to produce a clear, concise, and accurate and
well organized story.
During the copy editing process the editor may need to talk to the reporter about unclear
passages or to ask for details. Often the copy editor uses standard reference book or telephone
sources to verify information or fill in the gap in the story.

1.2 Editing Headline

When the copy editor is satisfied, he writes the headline according to specifications assigned by
the editor. The copy editor later sends the story to the chief copy editor for approval.
If the copy chief finds fault with the editing of the headline the story may be bounced back to the
copy editor to make more changes. If the copy and the headline meet the copy chief’s approval
the computer command is given to send story to the composing room.

1.3 Editing News Content

When editing a story copy editors must take a two track approach: the language and the content.
Editing for content requires the following questions: Is the story balanced, accurate and fair? Are
there any legal or ethical implications? Is the lead appropriate and not buried in the story? Does
the story contain the essence of the event or issue? Does the story leave information gaps? Does
the story contain irrelevant information or redundancies? Does the story provide appropriate
context, and is its relevance to the audience made apparent? Has the writer developed the story
structure properly; Does the reporter understand numbers or statistics, attribute information and
use direct quotations correctly?

1.4 Editing the LEAD

The news judgment comes directly into play when making the decision to write the leads. The
copy editor thinks of which of the six lead elements are the most important and which should be
included in the lead? The copy editor’s task is to satisfy the readers’ need for clear and concise
information with the reporter’s right to write the story in a distinct personal style. Direct leads
that make the observing reporter part of a story are to be avoided because they force irrelevant
information upon the readers. Copy editors must learn how to balance hard-news and features
leads through daily interaction with the reporting staff and with the news.

Checking Facts
Journalists must exercise good judgment before relying on any information source, whether it
comes from a personal interview or a printed or electronic document. This caution applies
particularly to materials posted on World Wide Web. Whereas subject-matter specialists edit and
review standard print reference works and their on-line counterparts, other documents floating
around cyberspace are the electronic equivalent of over-the-transom manuscripts that may or
may not be accurate. Editors must decide what is reliable and what is junk. Publishers of
standard reference works have established reputations for accuracy and can be trusted to
maintain similar rigour in their online publications and electronic database.

1.5 Editing Story Structure

The most often used news story structure remains the inverted pyramid, which asks the reporters
to assemble the factual information for the story in descending order of importance. The news
story begins with the climax or the most important fact, and then compiles the rest of the
information in a way that would allow the story to be trimmed from the bottom. In addition, an
inverted pyramid story might include within the first three or four paragraphs a direct quotation
from one source in the story. This three-paragraph story is a classic example of the inverted
pyramid structure:

EXAMPLE

Judge releases a Plastic Surgeon

By
DEOLU ALAGBE
LEAD
LAGOS-A plastic surgeon who had been jailed for more than two years for refusing to let her
daughter visit the girl’s father was released yesterday on a judge’s order.
BODY
Dr. FolashadeFayose came out of jail wearing a prison shirt and carrying two bags containing her
clothes.
“I feel very happy and very grateful to everyone who has helped me”, she said. “I will probably
cry when I say this, but I want to thank God for every person on mother earth”.

LEAD
LAGOS-A plastic surgeon who had been jailed for more than two years for refusing to let her
daughter visit the girl’s father was released yesterday on a judge’s order.

ANALYSIS
This lead answers the WHO, WHAT and WHEN questions, often considered the most significant
in a hard-news story and is 29 words long

BODY
SECOND AND THIRD PARAGRAPHS (BODY)
Dr. FolashadeFayose came out of jail wearing a prison shirt and carrying two bags containing her
clothes.
“I feel very happy and very grateful to everyone who has helped me”, she said. “I will probably
cry when I say this, but I want to thank God for every person on mother earth”.

ANALYSIS
The second paragraph reinforces the lead by identifying the surgeon, explaining, reporting and
describing her action while the third paragraph of the story includes the first direct quotation.
In a news story like this verbs are expressed in the past tense. Editors may leave the present-tense
verbs in the feature story, but double-check to confirm the writer did not switch back and forth
between tenses. The rules of good grammar, punctuation and spelling always should be a key
consideration for the editor.

1.6 Editing the Grammar

One of the major aims of editing news story is to make it look brighter, neater and smarter by
tightening all loose ends and blocking all loopholes. When a reporter turns in a story, the sub-
editor or news editor goes through it with a view to spotting the soft or weak areas. The editor
asks the question. Does the story answer all the 5Ws and H? With this he/she reads through the
story and underlines the weak points. One of the problems he/she watches for is grammatical
error. Such errors range from the wrong use of tenses to misuse of punctuation marks.

1.7 Editing Redundant Words

Another error worthy of note is redundancy e.g. using different words to state the facts twice. An
example is: The ceremony starts 10am in the morning. What is the meaning of “am” and what
does “in the morning” mean? Some reporters who are not well educated in the use of English
language are wont to write like this:

(1) Please, return my book back

(2) Reverse the car back.

The two sentences are classical examples of redundancy or cliché. The inclusion of “back” is
unnecessary. Applying the word economy is one way of improving a story.
Every word must be checked to be sure that it contributes to the message and is understood by
the readers. Words that do not add meaning should be removed

EXAMPLE
“First of all, let’s start to examine the total
number of delegates sent from each
different University. In fact, Ibadan sent five
delegates, Bowen sent four delegates and
Ife sent none at all”

ANALYSIS

The above passage carries redundant words and must be edited. Let us therefore assess the value
of the words and phrases in BOLD letters:

REMOVE WORDS AND PHRASES IN BOLD

FIRST OF ALL, let’s START TO examine the TOTAL number of delegates SENT from each
DIFFERENT University. IN FACT, Ibadan sent five DELEGATES; Bowen SENT four
DELEGATES and Ife SENT none AT ALL.

1 First of all, is a cliché, a mindless phrase that adds

nothing to the story. It is more effective to simply use-FIRST.
2 Start To is another example of wasted word
3 Total is redundant in this instance, it does not earn an
honourable place in the story.
4 Delete Sent if they are delegates someone sent them
5 Different is not necessary
6 In fact does nothing for the story
7 Repetitions of the word Delegates is not based on facts
8 Sent and Delegates are not helpful
9 9 Sent and At all are not necessary, they do not give the paragraph any
meaning.
It is better to have the story in this format:
“First, let’s examine the number of delegates from each University. Ibadan sent five Bowen four
and Ife none”.

Word Alternative
Accommodate hold/take
Adjacent near
Approximately about etc.
Redundancies
Absolutely necessary
Advance planning
Assemble together
Cancelled out
Close proximity
Co-operate together etc.

2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Questions for the Week

Discuss the editing processes in news reporting

Get a newspaper, cut out a news story from it and do a critical analysis of the story

Write down at least ten words that are stating the same fact twice

5.0 Further Readings

Brooks, B. et al (1988) News Reporting and Writing, NY: St, Martin’s Press
Alao, D. (1992) News Reporting, Lagos: Unique Publications
Ufuophu-Biri, E. (2006) The Art of News Reporting, Ibadan: Ibadan University Press
rd
Harry, G and D. Spark, (2001) Practical Newspaper Reporting 3 Edition, Oxford: Focal Press
Unit 2Interview Techniques, Agency News Reporting and Foreign Correspondence

CONTENT
1.0 Main Content
2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Questions for the Week
5.0 Further Readings

1.0 MAIN CONTENT

1.1 Interviews

What is Interview?
Interview is an act of sourcing for facts other than ones presented by a source or gathered from
the scene of an event or incident. It involves probing a source for more facts. It is a meeting at
which a reporter asks relevant questions in order to elicit responses from the interviewee. It is an
act of meeting people face-to-face or using telephone to find out, write and report an issue. The
interview provides an opportunity for the reporter to play a role of a link between the public and
the individual. Through the reporter the individual speaks to the public in a familiar,
conversational manner. He/she then report the clips of the interview based on questions and
answers. The information that is generated from the interview is entirely the reporter’s and a
scoop may come out of the interview. An interview gives a reporter the advantage of getting
deeper down the hidden reason behind the surface event.

TYPES OF INTERVIEWS
There are four basic types. These are (1) Spot news interview (2) Specialized interview (3) Forum
interview and (4) Panel interview. Two additional types are (1) Vox Pop and (2) Personality
interview.
Spot news interview: This is a news interview that is conducted at the place an event is taking
place. It is conducted on the spot, where the event is taking place, to provide further information
to what is already available.
Specialized interview: This is an interview that is conducted with experts or professionals in a
field of human endeavour in order to get their views on burning issues or current affairs. In this
type of interview experts on a particular field such as economy, politics, energy, law, education,
crime and business, among others, are quizzed and information gathered can make good news
that will throw more light on an issue. For example, a reporter may interview a professor of
medicine on the likely health effect of the HIV/AIDS scourge on the existence of human race
Forum interview:This is an interview mostly held at press conferences/briefings where there are
myriads of reporters than the respondents. There are several reporters who ask questions and the
interviewee responds. Such interview may be conducted after the press conference/briefing or
arranged as a session with the president at regular intervals and based on a particular subject or a
wide range of issues.
Panel interview: This is a type of interview in which the interviewer may be one and the
interviewee may be one or more. It is usually based on topical issues that are relevant to the
public; the interviewer asks questions that the interviewee responds to. This type of interview
session is common to the broadcast media. An example is Tuesday Live anchored by Frank Olize
on NTA.
VOX POP: This is an interview conducted in public places to get the opinion of the generality
of people on an issue or to determine the direction of their attitude on the issue. The opinions
gathered from different people can form the news to be reported by the reporter.
PERSONALITY INTERVIEW: This is an interview method in which personality is interviewed
to talk about self, character, principles, philosophy, ideology and achievements.

STEPS
There are three steps. They are: (1) Pre-interview (2) Interview (3) Post-interview.

Pre-interview: The following elements must be taken into consideration before the interview is
conducted: (a) Research: get sufficient and relevant data about the person to interview. Read
through books, journals, newspapers, magazines and the Internet. The interviewee will be happy
to speak to a reporter who knows much about him/her. This will facilitate a smooth flow of the
interview. If the interviewee realizes the ignorance of the reporter on the subject of discussion
he/she may be unwilling to give sufficient information (b) Arrange for the Interview: This is
done by booking an appointment, identify yourself before the interview and the purpose of the
interview, think of the convenience of the interviewee, he/she may be busy and do not force the
interview time let him/her decide on convenient time of the interview, dress properly to create
positive impression on the interviewee and be punctual; do not keep the interviewee waiting.
Lateness always implies lack of seriousness. Punctuality enables a reporter to settle down and get
mentally composed before the interview starts.

Interview: Start the interview in a relax mood and begin from the most important point if the
time for the interview is short. Try to pilot the interview along a proposed interview angle and
steer the interviewee along this direction if he/she tries to deviate. Use open-ended questions that
will make the interviewee talk at length. Follow a set of prepared questions and be careful in
making wrong allusion as well as note figures, names, amount of money, special data to discuss.
Seek clarification from the interviewee where there are mix-ups. Be flexible and friendly and if
the interviewee flares up as a result of provocative question remain calm. Listen attentively and
take notes and also use mini tape recorder that can serve as evidence or reference point in case of
any legal action. Close-ended questions can be asked when the respondent is relaxed and be
careful to ask personal questions that can upset the respondent weigh personal questions before
asking; you can preface the question as: “Sir, I am sorry to ask about...” Try to coax the
respondent to talk because some public officers like to state: “No comment” to sensitive
questions try and make him/her talk. Take note of non-verbal cues such as behavioural attitude of
respondent during the interview. Write very fast and ask for repeat if you miss a point. Ask for
spellings of names and places if in doubt. Adopt a system of using symbols to identify some
specific points. Telephone: You can use telephone as a medium of interview in case of breaking
news and when the interviewee is far away and the deadline is close by.
Post-interview: Before living the interview venue thank the interviewee for granting the
interview. Apologize to him/her for taking his/her time. Drop your telephone number because
he/she may wish to call to supply more data. Do not heed to a request to see the report before
publication; it is unethical in journalistic profession to yield to this kind of demand. Synthesize
the interview and interpret it into features story by using the block format or pyramid structure in
case of hard news. After writing the report do not wipe the tape or destroy the note because you
can make reference to them in future if the respondent refute some aspects of the report.

1.2 AGENCY NEWS REPORTING

The news agency is also called wireless service. The Agencies are News Merchants/marketers.
Its emergence in the reportage of news has been that of playing a complementary role for mass
media organizations. News Agencies came into limelight in order to serve as a fountain of
information, knowledge and enlightenment from which the media could drain their contents
partly or wholly.

The important international wire services are (1) Reuters-British agency (2) AFP –Agency
France Presse-French (3) TASS-Russian agency (4) AP-Associated Press-America and (5) UPI-
United Press International-America. There are also continental wire services and the one that is
connected to African continent is PANA-Pan-African News Agency-Africa. The national news
agency in Nigeria is NAN-News Agency of Nigeria-Nigeria.

The Americans have two leading press services the AP and UPI. Six New York newspapers
started the Associated Press in 1848. The joint-establishment was done in order to make it
possible for them to share the cost of gathering news outside the city of New York. Presently the
AP serves over 10,000 media houses comprising newspapers, radio and television stations
throughout the world. Almost five million words are rushed through by radio and tele-printers 24
hours a day. This is complemented with the pictures of news events.

United Press International, the other large American news service also has its head office in New
York. It is on record that both wire services spend more than 60 million dollars a year covering
the news throughout the world. The news coming from AP and UPI are often sent to newspapers
through tele-printer machine for a number of hours each day. Newspapers pay subscription for
the news materials collected from these wire services. The amount they pay will depend on the
news each newspaper purchases and this in turn depends on the size of the newspaper and
readership.

1.3 FOREIGN NEWS REPORTING

Growing Global Interdependence
It is a factor changing the nature of foreign reporting. The old-fashioned view is that foreign
news is foreign and local news is local, and people want more of the latter and less of the former.
In a world of porous borders, however, the lines between foreign and domestic blur for news just
as they blur for commerce, health, culture and the environment. Local farmers and agricultural
extension agents pay close attention to the ups and downs of foreign markets for crops; local
entrepreneurs identify opportunities abroad; communities declare themselves nuclear free zones,
and state development authorities send delegations to monitor and lobby international trade
negotiators. While local media have a long way to go before adequately mining such stories,
reporting of them is on the rise. About 86% of editors in a 2002 study conducted by the Pew
International Journalism Program said that companies in their community had overseas
investments. Of those who noted these foreign connections, 50% regularly or fairly regularly
covered these stories. Similar responses were given for stories about immigrants, university
connections abroad, and foreign business and investment in the community.

Parachute Journalism
We are in a new era now in which the ambiguity in what is international and what is not
international is very great. If the news is not coming from overseas then it is not international, we
are misleading ourselves. Meanwhile, as international travel has become cheaper and more
convenient, local television and newspaper organizations are sending reporters abroad on short-
term assignments. Local foreign correspondence challenges assumptions about the much-
maligned concept of parachute journalism. Critics object that parachute journalism is simply a
way to avoid the costs of posting correspondents abroad permanently. Whatever the merits of
that argument for networks and major newspapers, it does not hold for local news operations,
which never had permanent foreign correspondents in the first place. Local parachute journalists
add to foreign coverage, rather than detract from it.

New Media Technology

Another factor altering the landscape of foreign reporting is new media technologies, which have
lowered the economic barriers of entry to publishing and broadcasting. The Internet has made it
possible for media companies to create special “wires” they can retail at a premium. An example
is Bloomberg. Its news service has about 255 print and 100 radio and television journalists inside
the United States and far more 1,000 print and 200 broadcast outside. Given the quality of its
financial reporting, its audience pays a premium to receive high-quality, specialized news in real
time over their Bloomberg terminals: $1,650 for a single terminal per month or $1,285 a month
per terminal if the client has more than one.

In-house News Gathering

Another kind of foreign correspondence is in-house news and information gathering. Virtually
every global corporation these days has a computer-linked network in which “staff reporters”
provide original information as well as news summaries to employees around the world. Federal
Express has what it calls FedEx TV, which delivers video on demand to employees. “This is
what you would have read if you had time to read the paper when you came in the morning.
Some journalistic purists might want to dismiss such entities as unrelated to news. But
corporations place a premium on exactly what journalists value—accurate and timely
information. This is why corporations often hire journalists to do the work. “It’s all about ‘I’ve
got news.’” Purists also should keep in mind that Reuters started out as services for embassies,
government agencies, banks and other businesses.
Do it yourself reporting/ Online Journalism/Citizen Journalism
Technology-driven foreign correspondence is do-it-yourself reporting. With groups and
individuals able to post information on Web sites, anybody can be a publisher or, for that matter,
a reporter. Today anyone sending information from one country to another is a de facto foreign
correspondent. The number of correspondents accredited or not, will rapidly increase. Equipped
with camcorders and computers, they will send out and receive more foreign dispatches.”
Internet users in many countries can easily gather news right at home simply by surfing the Web.
In so doing they create another new kind of foreign correspondent, the foreign local
correspondent

2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Questions for the Week
Conceptualize the word: Interview and discuss its different types.

Descant on the significance of News Agency to Mass Media

Explicate Myriads of Factors that are changing the nature of Foreign Reporting

5.0 Further Readings

Brooks, B. et al (1988) News Reporting and Writing, NY: St, Martin’s Press

Merrill, J.C. (1982) “Ethics and Journalism” in Ethics and the Press: Readings in MassMedia
Morality New York: Hastings House Publishers

Ogunwale, T. (2008) Advanced Editorial Writing and Specialized ReportingLagos: Penman’s

Press Services Agency

Okesipe, K. and Okolo, M.S.C. (2013) Essentials of Communication in English for Nigerian
UniversitiesIbadan: Rebuttal Books

Unit 3 NORMATIVE THEORIES OF THE PRESS/INOCULATION THEORY OF

FAKE NEWS

CONTENT
1.0 Main Content
2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Questions for the Week
5.0 Further Readings
1.0 MAIN CONTENT
1.1The Four and Two Emergent Normative theories

The well-known four theories of the press are called the normative theories. They are so called
because
they seek to locate media structure and performance within the environment in which they
operate.
The theories are
(1) authoritarian, Soviet-communist, Libertarian or Free Press, and Social responsibility
theories.
The two other emergent normative theories propounded by McQuail (2000) are:
(1) Democratic-participant media theory and Development media theory.
AUTHORITARIAN
The theory is dated back to the 16 thcentury when it arose from the English state philosophy of
absolutism, in which recognition of the truth was entrusted to only a small clique who exercised
leadership power in hierarchical or top-down approach.
The authoritarian media operated to service the government in power and they were forbidden to
criticize the government and its functionaries.
The instruments of authoritarian control are Heavy Taxation, Repressive laws, Control of Media
Staffing, Ban on Printing Materials, Closure of erring media houses andIncarcerationof
Journalists.
th
The authoritarian theory rightly described the true situation of the 19 century England.
Its traces still exist in countries where the press is being controlled by repressive government.
A good example is the repressive military system under General SanniAbacha in Nigeria.

SOVIET COMMUNIST
The Soviet-Communist media theory is closely related to the authoritarian media theory.
The soviet-communist media theory was prevalent in the old Soviet Union. In this theory, the
press is mandated to
(1) Promote the Socialist System and (2) Maintain the Sovereignty of the Working Class
through the communist party.
The Media were under direct state control and they were treated as an arm of government.
Outside the government only orthodox and loyal members of socialist party can use the media.
The only difference between this theory and the authoritarian is that it seeks to use the media to
support development and change towards the attainment of the goals of the communist part.
The authoritarian theory seeks to use media to maintain status quo. Both media subject media to
direct state control.

LIBERTARIAN/FREE PRESS
The Libertarian or Free Press theory believes that an individual should be free to publish what
he/she likes and to hold and express opinions freely. This theory flourished in the second half of
the 19thcentury, during which reference to the press as “The Fourth Estate of the Realm” became
common.
The proponents of the theory believed in the philosophy of rationalism and natural rights.
The theory exists to check the excesses of government and it operates under the philosophy that
the press is free from government control.
The theory does not cancel the laws of defamation, obscenity and invasion of privacy.
It believes that human beings are rational and are able to distinguish between right and wrong.
Therefore, self- censorship is not a requirement.
A good example of libertarian media theory is the “First Amendment of the American
Constitution” that forbids the congress from making laws that infringe on freedom of speech or
of the press.

SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
The theory placed emphasis on moral and social responsibilities of persons who and
institutions which operate the mass media.
The responsibilities include obligation to provide the public with information and discussions on
important social issues and the avoidance of activities that are harmful to the public well-being
and security of the state.
It admits no censorship, but depends solely on the maturity of publishers, editors and reporters.
It operates under the philosophy of “Free and Responsible Press”.

DEMOCRATIC PARTICIPANT
The theory advocates for the breakdown of existing bureaucratic, commercial and professional
hegemony in media systems in order to guarantee easier access to all potential users and
consumers.
The theory believes that other theories have failed to deliver expected result and therefore seeks
grassroots participation in the control of the media.

DEVELOPMENT
The theory seeks to explain normative behaviour of the press in countries that are classified as
third world or developing countries.
The major tenets of the theory include
(1) Media should accept and carry out positive development tasks in line with natural established
policy (2) Freedom of the media should be opened to economic priorities and development needs
of the society
(3) Media should focus in their editorial contents to national culture and language
(4) Responsibility and freedom in gathering and dissemination of information
(5) The state has the right to intervene in or restrict media operation in the interest of
development.

1.2 Inoculation Theory

The theory was proposed by William McGuire in 1960s. It states that to prevent persuasion it is
necessary to strengthen pre-existing attitudes, beliefs, or opinion. The idea is that when a weak
argument is presented in the inoculation message, processes of refutation or other means of
protection will prepare for stronger arguments later.
The theory offers mechanisms by which communication is used to help people defend their
belief. The theory offers a way in which resistance to persuasion can be achieved. Inoculation is
giving a person a weakened form of a disease in order to prevent infection by the disease.
Vaccination is to give a person a substance that is usually injected into the body for protection
against a particular disease or for preventing infection by a disease.
The inoculation theory draws comparison with this concept of vaccination. In a normal
vaccination, a weakened form of the virus is injected into an individual in order to build
resistance to a disease. A similar procedure is used to inoculate a reporter from attacks on his
belief or from engaging in spreading false information.
All news reporters must be inoculated against fake news. They must be given a message
vaccination against fake news. According to the theory, a weakened or smaller dose of a contrary
argument called the inoculation message is given to the people. These people who have been
exposed to the weaker argument develop a defense system that helps them to retain their beliefs
and not change their attitudes when they are confronted with a stronger form of the argument.

2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Questions for the Week
Explain the four normative theories within the context of relationship that exists between Nigerian
Government and the Press

Discuss the difference between Authoritarian media and Soviet-Communist Media

Explain the importance of the two emergent normative to the current socio-political situation in Nigeria

5.0 Further Readings

Folarin, B. (2006) Theories of Mass Communication: An Introductory Text Ibadan:Bakinfol
Publication

McQuail, D (1983) Mass Communication Theory: An Introduction London: SAGE

Siebert, P and Schramm, F (1960) Four Theories of the Press Urbana III: University of Illinois
Press

Module 4 Regulation of Mass Media, Universal Press Laws and Ethical Issues

Unit 1 Regulation of Mass Media

CONTENT
1.0 Main Content
2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Questions for the Week
5.0 Further Readings

1.0 MAIN CONTENT

1.1 History of Media Laws since 1903

The history of media laws in Nigeria dates back to the colonial era. The first law to regulate the
activities of the newspaper was promulgated in 1903 as a result of constant oppositions of the
nationalists to British colonial government.
This law that made provisions for the regulation of active newspaper houses in southern Nigeria
was called Newspaper Ordinance of 1903.
The law provided that the newspaper owners were required to deposit (1) a sworn affidavit with
the registrar of the Supreme Court (2)give details of the correct title or name of the newspaper
(3) the address of the place of production and (4) name and address of the printer, publisher or
owner.
In 1909 and 1916the sedition offences ordinance and the criminal code were introduced
respectively.
In 1917 and 1933the Amended Newspaper Ordinance and the press regulation Ordinance (Press
Regulation Act) were respectively introduced as the colonial office was not satisfied with the
level of media control in Nigeria. It was observed that no substantial addition was made other
than certain technical changes in terminologies and names as the newspaper ordinance of 1917
still retained major provisions of the ordinance of 1903.
Another amendment to the newspaper ordinance was introduced in 1948 and the main inclusion
was the payment of an equivalent sum in cash to government as a deposit by the publisher to free
him from the necessity of providing a bond before publishing.
There was the most controversial media law passed in the year 1964 immediately after Nigerian
independence in 1960. It was called Newspapers Amendment Act of 1964. Section 4(1) of the act
generated controversy as it stated that:
Any person who authorizes for publication,
publishes, reproduces or circulates for sale
in a newspaper any statement, rumour or
report knowing or having reason to believe
that such statement, rumour or report is
false shall be guilty of an offence and liable
 on conviction to a fine of two hundred pounds
or to imprisonment for a term of one year.

1.2 Laws and Decrees

Many laws and decrees inhibiting the freedom of expression and of the press in Nigeria from
1960 to date can be categorized as follows:

1960-1966
1 Children and Young persons (Harmful Publication) Act
1961
2 Defamation Act 1961
3 Emergency Power Act 1961
4 Seditious Meetings Act 1961
5 Obscene Publications Act 1961
6 Official Secret Act 1962
7 Newspaper amendment Act 1966

1966-1979
Circulation of Newspaper Decree No.2 1966
The Defamatory and Offensive Publication Decree
No.44 1966
Newspaper Prohibition of Circulation Decree No.17
1967
Public Officers’ Protection against false Accusation
Decree No. 11 1976
Newspaper Prohibition of Circulation Validation
Decree No. 12 1978
Nigerian Press Council Decree 31 1978
Daily Times of Nigeria Transfer of certain Shares
Decree No. 101 1979.

1.3 Constitutions
1979-1983
The 1979 Constitution in addition to the Criminal Code and Penal Code were in operation

1983-till date
1 Constitution (Suspension and Modification) Decree
No. 1 1984
2 State Security (Detention of Persons) Decree 2 1984
3 Public Officers (Protection against False Accusation)
Decree No. 4 1984
5 The Federal Military Government (Supremacy and Enforcement of Power) Decree No.
13 1984
5 Constitution (Suspension and Modification) Decree107 1993; this decree reverted Nigeria
to the operation of the 1979 constitution. It suspendedparts of the constitution that asserted its
supremacy
6 State security (Detention of Persons) AmendmentNo.2 Decree No. 14 1994 and
NewspaperRegistration Decree No. 43 of 1993 and the Newspaper prohibition and prevention
from circulation Decree No. 48 of 1993.

Constitutional Provisions on the obligation of Nigerian Mass Media

The section 22 of Chapter 2 of the 1999 constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria assigns
duties to mass media that is newspapers, magazines, radio, television etc. to monitor government
and make government accountable to the Nigerian people and uphold the objectives of the state.
By this constitutional provision the press is not given the power to try public officers on the
pages of the newspapers and magazines, but rather to monitor and make the public officers
accountable to the people.

Constitutional Provision in Respect of Ownership of Mass Media in Nigeria

While section 39 (1) of Nigerian 1999 constitution provides for freedom of expression,
subsection (2) grants the freedom to own, establish and operate any mass media. The same
subsection (2) states that ownership of the electronic media: radio and television shall be by
special license from the president.
Broadcast stations required special license to own and operate because the spectrum belongs to
all Nigerians and one requires to be allocated frequencies, and government controls and allocates
frequencies on behalf of all Nigerians.
If frequencies are not controlled and allocated by central authority there will be confusion in the
atmosphere. Governments in the world over earn revenues from the allocation of broadcast
frequencies and the frequencies used by wireless technologies such as GSM. Governments used
these revenues for the provision of social services.
Government regulates broadcast media to ensure that it is used responsibly in the interest of the
people. In the absence of regulation some hoodlums can misuse the media and endanger the
public good. Government regulates electronic media to ensure that the media conform to the
fundamental objectives of the state.

2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Questions for the Week
Trace the History of Media Law in Nigeria
Discuss the constitutional duties of Nigerian Media

Give various Reasons why government is regulating the broadcast media

5.0 Further Readings

Akinnola, R. ed (1998) Nigerian Media and Legal Constraints: Analyses of Press Legislations
inNigeria Lagos: Centre for Free Speech
Duyile, D (1987) The Makers of Nigerian Press Lagos:Gong Communications (Nig) Ltd.

Unit 2 THE UNIVERSAL PRESS LAWSFOR REPORTERS

CONTENT
1.0 Main Content
2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Questions for the Week
5.0 Further Readings

1.0 MAIN CONTENT

1.1 Laws that ensure orderliness in the society

All news reporters from mass media operate within the laws that ensure orderliness in the
society. Such laws are called universal press laws that include defamation and sedition.
Other laws provided to regulate media operations include: copyright, plagiarism, contempt of
court and parliament and others.

1.2 What is Defamation?

The transmission to a third party, either orally or in written form of information that tends to
damage the reputation of another person.

CLASSES OF DEFAMATION
There are two types of defamation: LIBEL and SLANDER. Libel is defamation by means of
writing or by any other permanent form such as video tapes, pictures, artworks etc. Slander is
defamation through spoken word or gesture. It is not actionable in court by mere publication.
Slander can be actionable without proof of special damage if there are: (1) allegation of a
criminal offence punishable with imprisonment such as theft, rape etc. (2) Imputation or
allegation of a contagious disease that may damage the reputation of the person and that may
cause him/her exclusion from other members of society.
Points to give to make defamation case actionable in law court
1 Publication: The offending statement must have been published and this means that the
statement must have been communicated to a third party other than the plaintiff
2Malice: The offending statement must have malicious intent such as evil motive or spite. If
there is prove by the plaintiff to back up his/her action, the defense of fair comment by defendant
will be defeated.
3 Damage: Damage is quantifiable loss as a result of defamation. The plaintiff must prove
actual damage to succeed in his claim where defamatory statement is not actionable per se on
mere publication.
4 Repetition: Every repetition of a defamatory statement in writing, orally or in any other
form amounts to a fresh publication.
There are several defenses to defamation open to journalists, authors, reporters and publishers.
Eight of these defenses shall be considered:
They are: Justification or Truth, Fair Comment, Privilege, Consent to Publication, Death of the
Plaintiff, Res Judicata, Accord and Satisfaction and Innocent Dissemination.

JUSTIFICATION OR TRUTH

If the publication is true, entirely or even substantially, it can form a solid defense to defamation.

PRIVILEDGE
This is a benefit or immunity enjoyed by someone which does not apply to the general public.
The clause in section 22 that assigned monitoring duties to journalists in the 1999 constitution is
a benefit that can be enjoyed by a reporter and it can serve as basis for defense in defamation
case.

FAIR COMMENT

If the defendant can prove that the publication is a fair comment made in the interest of the
public, it must be an expression of opinion and not assertion of fact and there must be evidence
of fairness in the comment.

CONSENT TO PUBLICATION

The reporter can plead consent if a person who willingly invited him to cover a function or who
granted an interview on his own volition turned round to bring an action of defamation.

DEATH OF THE PLAINTIFF

If the person allegedly defamed is dead, it will be difficult to sustain an action by the third party
because only the owner of the defamed reputation has the legal right to sue for it.

RES JUDICATA

A defamation case is no longer actionable in the court of law after the case has been TRIED,
LOST and/or WON. Res Judicata means case has been brought to logical end and had died a
natural death.

ACCORD AND SATISFACTION

Mutual settlement between the two parties to the satisfaction of both is a good defense against a
fresh action in court.

INNOCENT DISSEMINATION

The person circulating the offensive matter (Vendor) can plead that he is ignorant of what he is
disseminating.
1.4 Entitlements of Plaintiff if Case is won
If the case has been established and accepted by the court the plaintiff is entitled to the following
remedies:

1 Damages

2 Injunction that may be interim, or perpetual

3 Publication of Retraction or Correction

4 Publication of Apology or offer of Amends

1.5 Sedition
What is Sedition?

It is any statement or representation that has the intention to stir up treason, defame the person
of the President, Governor or incite one section of the population against another.

Classes of Sedition
Seditious Conspiracy: It is an agreed plan by two or more to overthrow or put down by unlawful
means or destroy by force the government of the country.
Seditious Libel: Any written or permanent document initiated to incite people to change the
government by unlawful means or that advocates the overthrow of the government by force or
which advocates the destruction of the state.
Seditious Speech: A speech which advocates the overthrow of the government or its destruction
by force.
Who can be convicted for Sedition?
Section 51 of the Criminal Code makes the following people liable for sedition:Persons who
does seditious act or take part in the preparation or conspire with others to commit sedition or to
utter seditious words.
Also liable are printers, publishers, distributors, reproducers and importers of seditious
publications.

1.6 WHAT IS COPYRIGHT?

This is the right that the law gives an author or other originator of an intellectual property to
solely and exclusively reproduce and sell copies of his works. This exclusivity is always
expressed in warnings in books and sound recordings.

The copyright act gives the authors the right to claim damages, to seek court Injunction or
refrain from doing it again, account or assessment of gains accrued to the violator and
delivery up of all pirated works.

1.7 WHAT IS PLAGIARISM?

This is the unethical practice of lifting information from existing materials and presenting it as if
it originated from the person copying them. The proper thing to do is to indicate or credit the
source to authenticate the materials used.

1.8 WHAT IS PIRACY?

This is the illegal reprinting or reproducing of another person’s work that is under copyright.
Both Plagiarism and Piracy are subsumed under copyright law, but differ; piracy refers to large
scale reproduction of copyright material while plagiarism refers to lifting another person’s ideas
without attribution.

1.9 What is Contempt of Court?

This is any act that is calculated to embarrass, hinder or obstruct court administration of justice,
or which is calculated to lessen court authority or its dignity.

Types of Contempt

Direct Contempt or infacia curia: This is Contempt that is committed in the face or inside the
court room.

Indirect Contempt or ex facia curia: This is the contempt committed outside the court room.
How can a Reporter commit contempt of Court?
1 Through trial by the media, in which a suspect in a criminal offence is found guilty by the
media before the trial is over ex facia curia. It is a prima facie contemptuous of the court
2 By commenting on a case before the court in a manner that suggests that those involved
will not obtain justice ex facia curia
3 By making noise, taking photographs in the open court in facia curia

What is Contempt of Parliament?

This is any action or word that tends to obstruct members of parliament from performing their
lawful duties.

How Can a Reporter Commit Contempt of Parliament?

1 By misrepresenting of the parliamentary proceedings
2 By having scandalous publications about parliamentarians
3 By refusing to honour the invitation of the parliament.
4 By refusing to correct misrepresentation about the parliament.

The parliament cannot commit a journalist to prison like the court. It can only react in form of
reprimand, objections, warning or caution. It can issue warrant for the arrest of person
summoned but failed or refused to show up. It can withdraw the accreditation of any reporter
who disrespects it.

2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Questions for the Week
Discuss the concept of Defamation

How can a Journalist commit sedition through his/her writing?

What is Contempt of Court?

5.0 Further Readings

Okoye, I. (2008) Media Law and Ethics Lagos: NOUN

Oloyede, B. (1990) Dismantling the Culture of SilenceAbeokuta: Jaroy Investments Ltd
Oloyede, B. (1996) Press Freedom in Nigeria: A CriticalAnalysis of Salient Issues Abeokuta:
KunleAlayande Publishing Company Ltd.
Unit 3 Code of Ethics for a Reporter

CONTENT
1.0 Main Content
2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Questions for the Week
5.0 Further Readings

1.0 MAIN CONTENT

1.1 ETHICAL PROBLEMS

The Nigerian journalists unlike their counterparts in other fields of human endeavours do not
have to pass licensing examination before they start to practice; what keeps them going are the
professional code of ethics and their conscience. Most journalists in their normal human
behaviours still violate the professional code of ethics and the following are some of the glaring
ethical problems in Nigerian press: Brown envelope, Conflict of interest, Freebies,
Misrepresentation, Cartel Journalism, Sycophancy, Afghanistanism, Pressure, Character
assassination, Bribery, Sensationalism, Moonlighting, Self- censorship and advertorial
Brown Envelope: Money is collected by both the reporter and the news sources; the news
sources sometimes receive money from the media house to give exclusives and reporters can also
receive money to favour a particular person while packaging their news story. The money
received will definitely distorts both the news and the news judgment of such reporters and
editors. The reporters who collect money will not maintain objectivity and they will not be fair to
their adversaries.
Conflict of Interest: This appears in various forms. A typical example is that of a reporter in the
pay roll of two media organizations; when the chips are down such a reporter will have his/her
own conflict of interest. Another example is when a newspaper placed its advertisers ahead of the
integrity of its news columns it will be difficult for a reporter to write negative reports about the
advertisers even if such reports are to the detriment of the media house.

Freebies: These are sundry gifts that are offered to influence journalists’ decisions. Journalists
can be influenced by Christmas or Salah gifts from politicians to kill stories or put news pages
for sale.
Misrepresentation: This involves obtaining news under- cover: working or doing something
secretly in order to find out information for the government etc. This is certainly one issue that
requires more discussion in today’s journalism. Many editors think if a story is important to the
public, the reporter can obtain facts undercover.

Cartel Journalism: This is the formation of beat associations for the purpose of protecting
mutual interests. This is unethical because it can lead to the suppression and distortion of
information.
Sycophancy: This is indecent praise singing that abounds in the Nigerian media and it is a spill-
over from the larger society where affluent people are adored regardless of how they made their
money.

Afghanistanism: This is the practice of writing about issues in faraway countries while shying
away from addressing the problems at home.

Character Assassination: This is a situation in which prominent and powerful people are
flattered by reporters while vilifying the opponents of such people.
Pressure: This can be internal or external pressure to influence a reporter to feel compelled to
act in a manner desirable to the source of such influence e.g. publisher pressurizing an editor to
publish a canned editorial written by him/her or his/her surrogate.
Bribery: This is ethical problem of materialism. Acceptance of Bribe might compromise the
integrity of reporter and the media organization. It makes reporter to become incapable of being
objective in reporting events and issues involving people who give the bribe.
Sensationalism: This is a situation in which news reporters present issues/events in a way
designed to arouse an excited response in order to sell their newspapers. Most soft sell magazines
deliberately encourage this practice and thrive on it in Nigeria.
Moonlighting: This is a situation where reporters take two jobs at the same time to make ends
meet. They work for competing employers. This is an act of holding two different jobs at the
same time and being paid for both and it can create room for conflict of interest and divided
loyalty.
Self-Censorship: This is a socially irresponsible and unprofessional act. It is a situation whereby
a reporter believes that publishing certain news will be offensive to the government of the day
and therefore refuses to publish the news without external pressure.

Advertorial: This is a situation whereby a journalist fails to differentiate zand separate

advertisements from editorial matters. This is unethical.

ETHICAL MECHANISMS
Ethics deals with making sound moral decisions in journalism profession, which assures the
presence of societal morality that guides generally acceptable human values and responsibilities.
Journalists are monitored more than any other profession. The monitoring is done by bodies
regulating journalism practice and by outsiders. There are two types of regulatory mechanisms:
Self-regulatory mechanism and Regulation by outsiders.
SELF REGULATORY MECHANISMS
These are regulatory bodies or mechanisms imposed and run by the journalists themselves. They
include:
A Codes of journalistic practice
B Media Council
C Ombudsman
D Peer Group Activities

REGULATIONS BY OUTSIDERS
A The Court-Legal regulations
B Civil Society-media alert, media forum, media watch etc.
C Public Reactions to media performance
D Good Condition of Service for Journalists

2.0 Conclusion
3.0 Summary
4.0 Questions for the Week
Describe different ways in which a Journalist can fall into the ethical pit?

How can a journalist be regulation by the Media?

Discuss myriads of ways in which a journalist can be regulated from the outside

5.0 Further Readings

Akinnola, R. ed (1998) Nigerian Media and Legal Constraints: Analyses of Press Legislations
inNigeria Lagos: Centre for Free Speech

Okoye, I. (2008) Media Law and Ethics Lagos: NOUN