Safety and Waste Institute of

Management Engineering (IOE)

What is waste?

• “Waste” means any substance or object which the holder discards or intends or
is required to discard (European Commission)
Waste Framework Directive
European Commission (2008)
Aim of the directive

• Established a legal framework for treating waste in EU.

• Designed to protect the environment and human health by emphasising the
importance of proper waste management, recovery and recycling techniques to
reduce pressure on resources and improve their use.
Key Points
Waste heirarchy (EU Commission)
Alternative I Waste heirarchy (Gharfalkar et. al.)
Alternative II Waste heirarchy (Gharfalkar et. al.)
Five Rs’ of resource effectiveness
Key points (Contd…)

• Confirms the “polluter-pays principle”.

• Introduces the concept of “extended producer responsibility” *
• Makes distinction between waste and by-products.
• Waste management must be carried out:
• Without endangering human health and harming the environment
• Without risk to water, air, soil, plants or animals
• Without causing a nuisance through noise or odours
• And without adversely affecting the countryside or places of special interest
Key points (Contd…)

• Producers and holdlers of waste must treat it themselves or have it handled by

an officially recognized operator.
• Competent national authorities must establish waste-management plan and
waste-prevention programmes.
• Special conditons apply to:
• Hazardous waste
• Waste oils and
• Bio-waste
Key points (Contd…)

• Introduces recycling and recovery targets to be achieved by 2020:

• Household waste (50%)
• Construction and demolition waste (70%)
• The legislation does not cover certain types of waste such as:
• Radioactive elements
• Decommissioned explosives
• Faecal matter
• Waste waters and
• Animal carcasses
 Amending Directive (2018)

• A package of measures on the circular economy

• Sets minimum operating requirements for extended producer-responsibility schemes*
• Strengthens rules on waste prevention:
• Support sustainable production and consumption models
• encourage the design, manufacturing and use of products that are resource efficient, durable,
reparable, reusable and capable of being upgraded
• Target products containing critical raw materials to prevent those materials becoming waste
• encourage the availability of spare parts, instruction manuals, technical information, or other
means enabling the repair and re-use of products without compromising their quality and safety;

*aset of measures taken by EU countries to ensure that producers of products bear financial responsibility or financial and
organisational responsibility for the management of the waste stage of a product’s life cycle.
Amending Directive (2018) (Contd…)

• Reduce food-waste generation as a contribution to the UN SDG to reduce hy 50% the per capita global food waste at the retail and
consumer levels and to reduce food losses along production and supply chains by 2030.
• promote the reduction of the content of hazardous substances in materials and products;
• stop the generation of marine litter.
• Sets new municipal-waste-recycling targets:
• By 2025, at least 55% of municipal waste by weight will have to be recycled
• This target will rise to 60% by 2030 and 65% by 2035
• EU countries must:
• establish, by 1 January 2025, separate collection of textiles and hazardous waste generated by households;
• ensure that, by 31 December 2023, biowaste is collected separately or recycled at source (for example, by composting).
• Highlights examples of incentives to apply the waste hierarchy, such as landfill and incineration charges and
pay-as-you throw schemes
Specific policies

• Batteries and accumulators • Restriction of Hazardous Substances in

Electrical and Electronic Equipment (RoHS)
• Biodegradable waste
• Sewage sludge
• Construction and demolition waste
• End-of-life vehicles • Ships

• Landfill waste • Waste containg POPs

• Mining waste • Waste oil

• Packaging waste • Waste shipments

• Polychlorinated biphenyls and polychlorinated • Waste from Electrical and Electronic

terphenyls (PCBs/PCTs) Equipment (WEEE)
EU waste legislation and objectives

• Preventing and reducing the adverse impacts of the generation and management
of waste First and most important objective

• Resource conservation
Developing “Recycling society”
• Resource efficiency

• Improve waste management

• Stimulate innovation in recycling
• Limit landfilling
Hazardous waste

• Pose greater risk to the environemnt and human health than non-hazardous
waste and therefore require a stricter control regime
• WFD provides additional labelling, record keeping, monitoring and control
obligations from the "cradle to the grave", in other words from the waste
production to the final disposal or recovery.
• WFD bans the mixing of hazardous waste with other categories of hazardous
waste, and with non-hazardous waste.
By-products

• A substance or object, resulting from a production process, the primary aim of

which is not the production of that item, may be regarded as not being waste
but as being a by-product only if the following conditions are met:
• Further use of the substance or object is certain
• The substance or object can be used directly without any further processing other than
normal industrial practice
• The substance or object is produced as an integral part of a production process, and
• Further use is lawful, i.e. the substance or object fulfils all relevant product, environmental
and health protection requirements for the specific use and will not lead to overall adverse
environmental or human health impacts.
End-of-waste criteria (EU Commission)

• the substance or object is commonly used for specific purposes

• there is an existing market or demand for the substance or object
• the use is lawful (substance or object fulfils the technical requirements for the
specific purposes and meets the existing legislation and standards applicable to
products)
• the use will not lead to overall adverse environmental or human health impacts
Waste management in Nepal

• Constitution of Nepal 2015

• Solid waste management act 2011
• Solid waste management rules 2013 (2070)
• Solid waste management national policy 1996 (2053)
• National water supply and sanitation sector policy 2014
• National health care waste management guidelines 2002
• Health care waste management guideline 2014
• Demolition guideline 2015
• National adaptation program of action (NAPA) 2010
• Disaster Waste Management Policy/Strategy Nepal 2019 (Nepal Government, UNEP, Technology for Environment and LEAD)
Solid Waste Management Rules, 2070 (2013)

• Segregation and management of solid waste landfill site

• Discharge of solid waste • Application to be given for license
• Discharge and management of harmful and • The license may be issued
chemical waste
• The license may be revoked
• Discharge and management of health • Provisions on the renewable of license
institution related waste
• Mobilization of non-governmental
• Transportation of solid waste organization in the solid waste management
• Operation of the sanitary landfill site works
• Management after the closure of the sanitary • Compliance with the standard
Solid Waste Management Rules, 2070 (2013)
(Contd…)

• Determination of service charge • Provisions relating to renumeration,

• Service charge may be discounted facility, terms of service of executive
director
• A committee may be formed in the
sanitary landfill site affected area • Internal audit

• The responsibilities, duties and powers of • The direction may be given

the council • Provision relating to monitoring
• Respomsibilities, duties and powers of the • Annexure to be modified or altered
centre • Repeal and savings
• Functions, duty and power of board
Brief review of the existing rules and
regulations impacting SWM Sector
Brief review of the existing rules and
regulations impacting SWM Sector
Brief review of the existing rules and
regulations impacting SWM Sector
Brief review of the existing rules and
regulations impacting SWM Sector
Brief review of the existing rules and
regulations impacting SWM Sector
Brief review of the existing rules and
regulations impacting SWM Sector
Brief review of the existing rules and
regulations impacting SWM Sector
Brief review of the existing rules and
regulations impacting SWM Sector
International treaties and initiatives:
Chemicals and waste

• Basel convention
• Control of trasboundary movements of hazardous wastes and their disposal (1992)
• Obligations:
• Minimise generation of hazardous waste;
• Ensure adequate disposal facilities are available;
• Control and reduce international movements of hazardous waste;
• Ensure environmentally sound management of wastes; and
• Prevent and punish illegal traffic.
International treaties and initiatives:
Chemicals and waste (Contd…)

• Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making

and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (2001)
• Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic
(OSPAR Convention) (1992)
• Convention on the Ban on the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary
Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa (Bamako Convention)
(1991)
• Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP Convention) (1983)
• Convention on the Prevention of Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London
Convention) (2006)
International treaties and initiatives:
Chemicals and waste (Contd…)

• Convention to Ban the Importation into Forum Countries of Hazardous Waste and to
Control the Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within
the Pacific Region (Waigani Convention) (1995)
• International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-Operation
(OPRC Convention) (1995)
• Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1989)
• Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain
Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (2004)
• Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (2004)
What is solid waste?

• “Solid wastes” are the wastes arising from human activities that are normally solid and
that are discarded as useless or unwanted.
• The United States Congress defined solid waste as “...any garbage, refuse, sludge
from a wastewater treatment plant, water supply treatment plant, or air pollution
control facility, and other discarded material, including solid, liquid, semisolid, or
contained gaseous material resulting from industrial, commercial, mining,
agricultural operations, and community activities...”
• Should be turned into resource
• Molasses, bagasse etc. as an example
Municipal Solid Waste

• MSW is usually a blend of food waste, paper, cardboard, plastics, textile, leather, yard waste,
wood, glass, tin cans, aluminium, other metals, ashes, special waste (including bulky items such
as consumer electronics, white goods, batteries, oil, and tires), and household hazardous waste
• Can be divided into the following five categories:
• Recyclable material such as metal, paper, and plastic packaging, which directly go to the recycling industry
after sorting
• Organic waste such as food waste
• Bulky waste such as white goods, furniture, and tires that should be collected separately and transferred to
appropriate industries for treatment
• Hazardous waste such as batteries, electronics, and chemicals that should be collected separately for
appropriate treatment
• Residual waste such as tissues and nappies that can be treated in a combustion plant.
Eurostat/OECD definition of municipal waste

• Municipal waste includes household waste and similar waste.

• It also includes:
• bulky waste (e.g. white goods, old furniture, mattresses), and
• yard waste, leaves, grass clippings, street sweepings, the content of litter containers, and market
cleansing waste, if managed as waste.
• It includes waste originating from:
• households,
• commerce and trade, small businesses, office buildings and institutions (schools, hospitals,
government buildings).
• It also includes:
• waste from selected municipal services i.e. waste from park and garden maintenance, waste from
street cleaning services (street sweepings, the content of litter containers, market cleansing waste), if
managed as waste.
Eurostat/OECD definition of municipal waste
(Contd…)

• It includes waste from these sources collected:

• door-to-door trough traditional collection (mixed household waste), and
• fractions collected separately for recovery operations (through door-to-door collection and/or
through voluntary deposits).
• The definition also includes waste from the same sources and similar in nature and composition which:
• are collected directly by the private sector (business or private non-profit institutions) not on behalf
of municipalities (mainly separate collection for recovery purposes),
• originate from rural areas not served by a regular waste service, even if they are disposed by the
generator.
• The definition excludes:
• waste from municipal sewage network and treatment,
• municipal construction and demolition waste.
Why solid waste management important?

• Environmental protection: Efficient solid waste management lessens the effects of pollution, contamination, and
other negative factors on the environment. The ecosystem and human health may be negatively impacted by
improper garbage disposal, which can also result in soil, water, and air pollution.
• Public health: If improperly managed, solid waste can be a serious health risk. Trash can draw pests, like rats
and insects, which can bring diseases to people. Public health can also be harmed by improper disposal of
hazardous waste, including chemicals and medical waste.
• Resource Conservation: Solid waste management can aid in resource conservation by lowering the volume of
garbage delivered to landfills and incinerators. Many waste products can be recycled, composted, or utilized
again, lowering the demand for new raw materials and lowering the volume of waste sent to landfills.
• Economic benefits: By producing income from the sale of recyclables, creating jobs, and lowering disposal
costs, proper solid waste management can have a positive impact on the economy.
Oil Refinery vs Waste Refinery
Separate different materials from the MSW

• The best solution is waste separation at source, which is the most effective and least
costly system
• More separation means more recycling, reusing, and energy recovery and less
landfilling, which are the aims of the waste management hierarchy
• If not sorted at source, the material recovery facilities are usually established in the
landfill site
• The amount and quality of material that are picked from landfill are low
• Successful separation process in Sweden is sorting PET bottles and aluminium cans
with the help of deposit incentives (88% returned).
Waste Segregation in Norway
Success of Swedish Government in handling
MSW

• Producer responsibility,
• municipal waste treatment plan,
• local investment program,
• the landfill tax,
• ban on landfill disposal of combustible and organic waste,
• waste separation at source, and
• treatment of hazardous wastes
• setting the goals in environmental policy for a sustainable Sweden
Role of municipalities

• responsible for establishing their own waste management plan in order to achieve the national goals in the
environmental objectives
• by establishing their own company or through joint collaboration with other actors in this field or even with
other municipalities
• The citizens are obliged to follow the waste management system that is provided by the municipality, and pay
the fee defined by the waste tariff
• The municipalities are responsible mostly for the household wastes, but collecting and treating the packaging
material is the responsibility of the producers
• Food waste and residual waste are collected directly by the municipality from the households
• Packaging materials and newspapers are collected by a “property-close col- lection” system or recycling stations
• The bulky waste and hazardous waste are usually transferred to the recycling centres by citizens
Waste treatment in 1975 and 2012 in Sweden
 The collection system of households’ waste
in Sweden

• Waste from electric and

Harzardous waste: electronic equipment
• Lamps (WEEE)
• Batteries • Garden waste
• Sprays • Combustible waste
• Paints and • Hard plastics
• Solvent • Cardboards
• Metals
• Ceramics
Material Recovery/Transfer Facilities

• separate the white and black plastic bags using an optical sorting system
• Biogas production from food waste and biological waste from industries such as
restaurants, food and feed companies, and slaughterhouses
• Intermediate storage for the hazardous wastes and other sorted waste from recycling
centres and recycling stations in order to transfer them to the appropriate company
• Shredding the combustible wastes from white bags as well as from recycling centres
and industrial wastes and preparing the fuel for the combustion plants
• Dumping the untreated waste from treatment activities, asbestos, and some fractions
from construction and demolition waste in a sanitary landfill
Schematic of material flow between
treatment facility and society
Sisdol Landfill site
Sisdol Landfill site
Solid waste management needs urgent
attention

• Pollution of air due to uncontrolled burning of refuse

• Pollution of surface and groundwater by means of percolating leachate
• Pollution of soil due to release and introduction of toxic and hazardous
compounds from waste materials
• Waste is a breeding ground for diseases threatening human health (injuries,
infections, chronic diseases)
• Degradation of human dignity due to scavenging
The key factors for a successful and
sustainable waste management system

• Public awareness
• Capacity building at municipality level
• Availability of technologies
• Enforcement of regulations and legislation
• Entrepreneurship at private level (availability of micro credits, marketing, and
trading activities to ensure profitability of services)
The steps to be taken for efficient
management of the solid waste

• Awareness programs related to the impacts of improper disposal of wastes on the different
environmental components need to be
• organized regularly.
• Proper segregation of the waste at the source is the basic step to reducing landfill sites’
accumulation.
• Unorganized systems and the non-availability of scientific practice of waste management in
industrializing countries are posing problems. Here waste generation rates are increasing and
inadequate waste disposal systems continually create more complications for our environment.
• Lack of innovative techniques for waste collection, segregation, and disposal also hamper the
efficient management of solid waste.
The steps to be taken for efficient
management of the solid waste

• Latest techniques like a global system of mobile, geographical information system

need to be employed to manage our wastes efficiently.
• The existing means of combusting MSW in a chaotic way degrades the quality of our
environment. Such negative practices associated with haphazard disposal and open
dumping must be banned.
• Recycling is also among the finest tools for managing wastes because one can recover
materials, decrease landfill capacities and incinerate needs, trim down pollution rates,
and safeguard the environment.
• Recycling solid waste should be done on a priority basis to conserve the limited
resources on our planet.
The steps to be taken for efficient
management of the solid waste

• Rules and regulations, and policies are there, but their strict implementation is lacking
in most developing countries.
• The provision of a high financial penalty should be adopted against the defaulters.
• Separate financial support to the organizations dealing with the management of solid
waste should be provided in order to accelerate its proper management.
• Health insurance should be provided to the staff actively working on the ground level
so that people can be motivated to work efficiently to minimize the waste disposal to
the landfill sites.
The steps to be taken for efficient
management of the solid waste

• Sanitary landfills should be utilized to dispose of solid waste as the leachates can
percolate and degrade the surrounding aquatic systems.
• Various landfill sites should be used to view the decomposable, non-decomposable and
hazardous wastes of municipal origin.
• The landfill leachates should be collected and treated by employing diverse
microorganisms, a promising approach to improving physio-chemical attributes with
huge potential of removing toxic pollutants from leachates.
• Adopting bioremediation techniques to overcome pollution should be among the
priority areas in each guideline vis-à-vis environmental protection.
The steps to be taken for efficient
management of the solid waste

• The concept of zero waste’ is a proficient channel to resolve the harms associated with solid
waste generation and management.
• Zero waste management is a novel model of waste management which identifies waste as a
resource. Such strategies are applicable to a wide range of sectors and these encourage the
improvement of production and consumption processes so that every constituent can be reused
later.
• Policy at the national level is required, which provides guidance about waste minimization and
sets targets that need to be attained in an already set time frame. Eco-friendly policies are also
required for the restoration of landfill sites.
• Detailed research is required for alternative products which assist in reducing the use of plastic
products.
Methods for the calculation of the target on
municipal waste

• Recycling rate of paper; metal; plastic and glass household waste; in % =

Recycled amount of paper; metal; plastic and glass household waste
Total generated amount of paper; metal; plastic and glass household waste

• Recycling rate of household and similar waste; in % =

Recycled amount of paper; metal; plastic; glass waste and other single waste streams from households or similar waste stream
Total generated amount of paper; metal; plastic; glass waste and other single waste streams from households or similar waste
• Recycling rate of household waste in % =
Recycled amount of household waste
Total household waste amounts excluding certain waste categories

• Recycling of municipal waste; in % =

Municipal waste recycled
Municipal waste generated
• Recovery rate of construction and demolition waste; in % =
Materially recovered amount of construction and demolition waste
Total amount of generated construction and demolition waste
Physical Properties of Solid Waste

❑Moisture content
• Important when the refuse is processed into fuel or when it is fired directly
• If moisture content exceeds 50%, the high organic fraction can undergo spontaneous combustion in the material
is allowed to stand undisturbed.
• Moisture content, on wet basis, is presented as below:
𝑊𝑤 − 𝑊 𝑑
Mw = x 100
𝑊𝑤

• Moisture content, on dry basis, is presented as below:

𝑊𝑤 − 𝑊 𝑑
Md = x 100
𝑊𝑑

Where, Mw and Md are moisture content percent on wet and dry basis respectively (%). W w is initial
(wet) weight of sample (g); Wd is final (dry) weight of the sample (g).
Physical Properties of Solid Waste (Contd…)

❑Particle size
• The most accurate expression of particle-size distribution is graphical
• In water engineering, the particle size of filter sand is expressed using the uniformity coefficient

𝐷60
UC =
𝐷10

Where, UC = Uniformity coefficient, D60 = Particle (sieve) size where 60% of the
particles are smaller than that size and D 10 = Particle (sieve) size where 10% of the
particles are smaller than that size.
Physical Properties of Solid Waste (Contd…)

❑Permeability of compacted waste

• Hydraulic conductivity of compacted wastes governs movement of liquids and gases in a sanitary landfill
• Coefficient of permeability may be determined as presented

𝞬 𝞬
K = Cd2 µ = k µ
Where, K = Coefficient of permeability.
Cd = Constant or shape factor, dimensionless. γ = Specific weight of water.
μ = Dynamic viscosity of water. k = Intrinsic permeability (or specific) = Cd2 (Typical values for the intrinsic
permeability for compacted solid waste in a landfill are in the range between about 10 -11 and 10-12 m2 in the
vertical direction and about 10-10 m2 in the horizontal direction).
Physical Properties of Solid Waste (Contd…)

❑Apparent density
• Apparent density may be used in estimating amount of solid waste in some cases and to assess
requirements of a sanitary landfill cover material
• Apparent density of solid waste and garbage varies greatly with exerted pressure, degree of
compaction, level of economic development, concentration of produced waste products,
geographic location, and season of the year and storage time.
• Overall bulk density for a mixture of materials in a container may be estimated by knowing bulk
density of each substance separately.
𝜌𝐴𝑉𝐴+𝜌𝐵𝑉𝐵 𝑀 +𝑀
𝜌C = 𝜌A+B = = 𝑀𝐴𝐴 𝑀𝐵𝐵
𝑉𝐴 +𝑉𝐵
𝜌𝐴 + 𝜌𝐵
Where, 𝜌C = 𝜌A+B = Bulk density of the mixture of A and B; 𝜌𝐴 = Bulk density of material A; 𝜌𝐵 = Bulk density of material
B; 𝑉𝐴 = Volume of material A; 𝑉𝐵 = Volume of material B; M = Mass of the material (kg).
Physical Properties of Solid Waste (Contd…)

❑Angle of Repose
• the angle to the horizontal to which the material will stack without sliding.
• Sand, for example, has an angle of repose of about 35 ℃, depending on the moisture
content.
• Because of variable density, moisture, and particle size, the angle of repose of shredded
refuse can vary from 45 ℃ to greater than 90 ℃.
Physical Properties of Solid Waste (Contd…)

❑Size of reduction in volume (Reduction volume)

• In design and operation when packaging or compacting solid waste in a landfill it is of value
computing size of reduction in volume
𝑉0
F=
𝑉𝑐
Where, F = Volume of reduction (remaining ratios of original size as a result of compaction). Vo =
Original Size (initial). Vc = Volume after compaction
• Relationship of reduction volume to apparent density can be found as
𝑀
𝑉0 𝜌0 𝜌𝑐
F= = 𝑀 =
𝑉𝑐 𝜌0
𝜌𝑐
Where, 𝜌0 is original apparent density and 𝜌𝑐 is apparent density after compaction.
Physical Properties of Solid Waste (Contd…)

❑Material Abrasiveness
• MSW and refuse consists of different types of abrasive particles and grains such as sand,
glass, metals and rocks. Removal of this abrasive material is often necessary prior to some
operations (such as pneumatic conveying) can become practical.
In class exercise I

• A landfill is to be designed to serve a population of 200000 for a period of 25

years. The solid waste (SW) generation is 2 kg/person/day. The density of the
un-compacted SW is 100 kg/m3 and a compaction ratio of 4 is suggested. The
ratio of compacted fill (i.e., SW+cover) to compacted SW is 1.5 m. What is the
required landfill volume (in million m3)?
In class exercise II

• For illustrative purpose only, assume that refuse has the following components and bulk
densities:
Component Percentage (by Uncompacted bulk
weight) density (lb/ft3)
Miscellaneous paper 50 3.81
Garden waste 25 4.45
Glass 25 18.45

• Assume that the compaction in the landfill is 1200 lb/yd3 (44.4 lb/ft3 ). Estimate the percent
volume reduction achieved during compaction of the waste. Estimate the overall uncompacted
bulk density if the miscellaneous paper is removed.
Chemical Properties of Solid Waste

• Chemical properties of solid waste are of value in economics of

material or energy recovery.
• Chemical components of solid waste have significant variability and
change due to the heterogeneity of solid waste, geographical
location and temporal changes.
• Typically, solid wastes represent a combination of semi-moist
combustible and non-combustible materials.
Chemical Properties of Solid Waste
(Contd…)
• Fusion point of ash
• The fusion point of ash may be defined as that temperature at which the ash resulting from the burning of
waste will form a solid (clinker) by fusion and agglomeration.
• Typical fusion temperatures for the formation of clinker from solid waste range from 1100 to 1200℃.
• Proximate analysis
• Proximate analyses are to determine percentage (fraction) of volatile organic organics and fixed carbon in
solid waste and garbage (fuel). (percentage of moisture, fixed carbon, volatile matter and ash)
• Ultimate analysis
• Ultimate analysis uses the chemical makeup of the fuel to approximate its heat value and it depends on
elemental composition. (carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), sulphur (S) and oxygen (O)).
• Volatile solids
• Volatile solids can be estimated upon ignition at temperature of 550 ℃ for 4 hours.
Chemical Properties of Solid Waste
(Contd…)

• Heat value of refuse is of great importance

• Heat value is expressed as kJ/kg in the SI system.
• Heat value of refuse and other heterogeneous materials may be measured with a
calorimeter.
• A calorimeter is a device in which a sample is combusted and the temperature
rise is recorded.
• Knowing the mass of the sample and the heat generated by the combustion,
kJ/kg is calculated.
 Chemical Properties of Solid Waste
(Contd…)

• The most popular method using ultimate analysis is the DuLong equation,
which originally was developed for estimating the heat value of coal.
• Energy values of solid waste and garbage can be estimated by using DuLong
equation
𝑂
kJ/kg = 337C + 1428(H- ) + 9S
8
Where, C = Carbon(%), H=Hydrogen(%), O=Oxygen(%) and S=Sulfur(%)

1 B.T.U = 252 cal =0.252 kcal

1 kcal = 3.968 B.T.U
Chemical Properties of Solid Waste
(Contd…)

• The DuLong formula is cumbersome to use in practice, and it does not give acceptable
estimates of heat value for materials other than coal.
• Total energy content may be determined using the modified DuLong formula
𝑂2
BTU/lb = 145C + 610(H2 - ) + 40S + 10N
8
𝑂2
kJ/kg = 337C + 1419(H2 - ) + 93S + 23.26N
8

Where, C = Carbon, percent by weight.

H2 = Hydrogen, percent by weight. O2 = Oxygen, percent by weight. S = Sulphur,
percent by weight. N = Nitrogen, percent by weight.
Chemical Properties of Solid Waste
(Contd…)

• Formulas based on compositional analyses are an improvement over formulas based on

ultimate analyses.
Btu/lb = 49R + 22.5(G+ P) - 3.3W
• Using regression analysis and comparing the results to actual measurements of heat value, an
improved form of a compositional model
Btu/lb = 1238 + 15.6R + 4.4P + 2.7G - 20.7W
• Where
R = Plastics, percent by weight, on dry basis.
P = Paper, percent by weight, on dry basis.
G = Food wastes, percent by weight, on dry basis. W = Water, percent by weight, on dry basis.
Chemical Properties of Solid Waste
(Contd…)
In Class exercise III

• The weight composition of a MSW is, C: 40.5 (%), H: 5.9 %, O: 20.1 %, N:1
%, S:0.10 %, Cl:0.40 %, Moisture:25 % and Ash:7 %. Assume average
molecular weight of ash is 56. What is the molecular formula and heating value
of the MSW? Higher heating value can be calculated from; (HHV in MJ/Kg =
0.3516*C + 1.16225*H - 0.1109*O + 0.0628*N + 0.10465*S).
In Class exercise IV

• A carbonaceous waste has the molecular formula of C 65.5H102.3O40.8N1.1. Using

the following empirical formula (HHV= 0.3516*C + 1.16225*H - 0.1109*O +
0.0628*N + 0.10465*S) for determining heating value, calculate the gross
heating value of this MSW.
Determining the • Determine the chemical composition of the organic fraction
Chemical of the waste described in Table, with and without sulphur
and with and without water.
Composition of
Solid Waste (V)

Component Wet Weight, lb Percent MC

Food Wastes 9 70

Paper 34 6

Cardboard 6 5

Plastics 7 1

Textiles 2 10

Rubber 0.5 0

Leather 0.5 20

Yard Wastes 18.5 65

Wood 2 20

Inorganic 20.5 3
Estimation of energy content of typical
residential MSW based on chemical
composition.

• Determine the energy value of typical residential MSW with the average
composition determined earlier including sulphur and water.
In class exercise VI • Different samples of waste
collected in a city have been taken
and analysed. It has been found
that it can be divided into four
categories which are Food Waste,
Paper, Cardboard and Plastic.
Amount of potentially critical
elements against each category can
be found in Table.
• Find
• Approximate formula of solid
waste
• Energy contents of solid
waste per Kg. (Assume that
Ash is already removed
before incineration)
Hazardous Waste

• It is a solid waste that poses substantial or potential threats to public health or the environment.
• Hazardous wastes fall into two major categories:
• Characteristic hazardous wastes are solid wastes that are known or tested to exhibit a hazardous trait such
as:
• Ignitability (i.e., flammable)
• Reactivity (reacts vigorously when exposed to water, heat, or pressure)
• Corrosivity (strong acids or bases)
• Toxicity (fails test for toxicity)
• Listed hazardous wastes are materials specifically listed by the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) or
State as a hazardous waste. Hazardous wastes listed by EPA fall into two major categories:
• Process wastes from general activities (F-listed) and from specific industrial processes (K-list)
• Unused or off-specification chemicals, container residues and spill clean-up residues of acute hazardous waste
chemicals (P-listed) and other chemicals (U-list)
Hazardous Waste Label
The Hazardous Waste Management
Hierarchy

• Source Reduction is a combination of avoiding waste generation, generating the least amount
and concentration, and generating the least toxic waste possible.
• Recycling/Reuse includes using constituents of a waste material to manufacture a product,
removing contaminants from a waste for reuse, and using a waste as a substitute product for a
commercial product.
• Treatment is a process that modifies the physical, chemical, or biological character of a waste.
Methods of treatment include processes such as: incineration, chemical treatment, biological
treatment, thermal treatment, chemical stabilization, evaporation, and oxidation.
• Disposal is the discharge, deposition, injection, dumping, spilling, leaking, or placing of any
waste into the environment, including land, water, or air.
Characteristic Hazardous Waste

• Ignitable (D001)
• acetone, benzene, waste gasoline, alcohols, naptha, petroleum distillates, and other used solvents such as xylene.
• Corrosive (D002)
• Acid from lead/acid batteries, etching solutions from printing/photography, ammonium solutions, hydroxide solutions, acid or
alkaline cleaning solutions, rust removers, battery acid, and caustic hot tanks waste.
• Reactive (D003)
• cyanide plating wastes, waste concentrated bleaches, pressurized aerosol cans, and metallic sodium and potassium.
• Toxic (D004 – D043)
• Painting wastes that contain toxic metal-based pigments and/or certain solvents, such as Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK); treated
wood waste where the treatment was done with “penta,” or pentachlorophenol; and oily wastes, such as used oil filters that exceed
the levels for benzene and/or lead.
Universal Wastes

• certain types of wastes that are generated on a regular basis by almost every business and
industry (universally).
• Many of these wastes are so commonly generated that their associated hazards and dangers are
often downplayed or ignored.
• batteries
• pesticides
• mercury-containing equipment
• thermostats
• lamps

• Labelling requirements are simplified—universal waste doesn’t need to have a hazardous waste
label
Emerging waste streams

• Photovoltaics
• Glass, copper aluminium etc recycled (95%)
• Silicon, silver contacts, tin, and heavy metal containing lead end in incineration plants
(remaining percent)
• Hazardous substances such as cadmium, arsenic, lead, antimony, polyvinyl fluoride and
polyvinylidene fluoride – challenges for recycling

• Lithium-ion batteries
• High safety risks during transport and recycling
• Material values (e.g. cobalt or nickel) not being high enough to cover costs of recycling
Solid waste source of energy
Solid waste source of energy
Solid waste source of energy
 Waste to Energy

Incineration is the combustion of waste in a controlled manner

in order to destroy it or transform it into:
- less hazardous
- less bulky
- more controllable constituents.

Incineration may be used to dispose of a wide range of waste

streams including municipal solid waste (MSW), commercial,
clinical and certain types of industrial waste.

Incineration is generally the second more frequently selected

method of waste management after landfilling. Disposal is a major
concern of incineration because landifill space is becoming
scarce. Incineration of MSW with energy recovery can be viewed
as an attractive alternative to landfilling in many situations.
 Waste incineration brief history
The first incinerators were developed in the United Kingdom at the end of 19th
century based on the need to manage waste in a sanitary fashion and at the same
time to supply energy for industry. After some trials with co-incineration of coal
and waste, the first municipal solid waste incinerator was constructed in 1876 in
Manchester.
After some years incineration spread to other countries: Hamburg, Germany in
1896, followed by Brussels, Stockholm, Copenhagen and Zurich in 1904. British
technology was used for the first plants in other parts of Europe.
The basis of today’s moving grate technology was developed in the 1920s and
1930s by still existing companies as Martin and Von Roll. The company Babcock
&Wilcox presented the combination of a grate with rotary kiln. Significant
improvement in environmental performance occurred in 1970s when electrostatic
precipitator removed the majority of the dust, and in the 1980s boosted by the
application of air pollution control equipment.
 The incineration process
The typical (nominal) MSW heating value is generally in the range 10 to
12 MJ/kg and the allowable variation is 8.5 to 14.5 MJ/kg. This a very
broad interval compared to systems designated for combustion of a
single type of fuel such as coal or wood chips. Reason is very variable
character of waste to be incinerated.

In the furnace, the overall result of the incineration process is that

combustible components react with oxygen of the combustion air,
releasing significant amount of hot combustion gas. Furthermore the
moisture content of the waste is evaporated in the initial stage of the
incineration process and the incombustible parts of the waste form solid
residues (bottom ash, fly ash). During incineration proces in the furnace,
the solid constituents of the waste undergo a range of processes as a
result of exposure to heat and contact with combustion air:
- drying
- gasification (formation of combustible gases)
- ignition and combustion of gases
- burnout of the solids.
 Process and energy recovery

The combustion gases pass from the furnace to the after burning
chamber. To ensure complete burnout the combustion gases must be
retained at least 2 seconds in the afterburning chamber (within the EU
850°C for municipal waste, 1100°C for certain types of hazardous
waste). No waste is fed into the incinerator before the required
temperature has been reached.

The flue gas is cooled in boiler and the presurised water is heated and in
high pressure boiler evaporated and steam may be superheated (above
its saturated temperature). The purpose – to exploit its energy contents
by expansion in steam turbine connected to power generator.

In a combined heat and power plant (co-generation system) typically

25% of steam’s energy is transformed into electrical power. The
remaining energy is regaining by condensation of the steam from turbine
in a heat exchanger generating hot water for heating purposes.
 Waste as a fuel

Waste incineration plants are designated to treat waste with great

variation in the composition of the incoming waste. This is the primary
difference between waste incineration and other combustion systems,
and it has large implication on the design of the incineration plant.

The practical design of incineration systems, however, limits the

allowable variations of the waste composition. For the design of a waste
incineration plant, the best available data on the amount and
composition of each waste type is needed and the effect of expected
future changes in the waste management system should be taken into
consideration, for example the introduction of source segregation or
pretreatment.

The waste being led to the incineration plant often consists of several
types of waste, such as household waste, commercial and institutional
waste and some industrial waste. The different waste types received at
the incinerator have significantly different characteristics.
Tanner´s triangle for assessment of combustibility of
waste
 Key variables in characterizing waste as fuel

- moisture content (W) (typically 15-35%, when drying at

105°C)
- ash (inorganic) (A) content (typically 10-25% after ignition
at 550°C)
- combustible (organic) solids (C) as the difference
between the dry solids and the ash content (typically
40-65%)
 Principles of waste incineration

Incineration can be viewed as the flame-initiated, high temperature air

oxidation of organic matter. Incineration is currently practised to some
extend on municipal waste, medical waste and hazardous waste.
Incineration can only destroy the organic compounds, it cannot destroy
inorganic (mineral) compounds – which end up as residual ash. Because
waste must be oxidised nearly completely (99.99% destruction and
removal capacity is required) a large excess of air is used to ensure the
sufficient oxygen to do the job.

Emissions from waste incinerators include unburned organic wastes,

products of incomplete combustion or by–products of combustion, heavy
metals, acid gas, ash and others. Emissions of these pollutants can be
controlled to very low rates by modern air pollution control equipment.
Incineration has several advantages as well as disadvantages when
compared with other methods of waste treatment, so it is not always the
preferred choice.
 Waste incineration

The specific benefits of incineration:

- A reduction in the volume and weight of waste especially of bulky

solids with a high combustible content. Reduction achieved can be up
to 90% of volume and 75% of weight of materials going to final landfill.
- Destruction of some wastes and detoxification of others to render
them more suitable for final disposal, e.g. combustible carcinogens,
pathologically contaminated materials, toxic organic compounds or
biologically active materials that could affect sewage treatment work.
- Destruction of organic components of biodegradable wastes which
when landfilled directly generates landfill gas (LFG).
- The recovery of energy from organic wastes with sufficient calorific
value.
- Replacement of fossil fuels for energy generation with consequent
beneficial impact in terms of the ‘greenhouse‘ effect.
 Solid residues

The main part of the ash content of the waste leaves the furnace as a
solid residue i.e. bottom ash or slag. The remaining ash leaves the
furnace as fly ash. The fly ash is normally separated from the flue gas in
the flue gas treatment system in an electrostatic precipitator or bag
house filter.

There are three types of incinerators:

- moving grate incinerator – mostly for municipal waste
- rotary kiln incinerator – for industrial waste (liquid, solid and
sludge)
- fluidised bed incinerator – solid particles mixed with fuel are
fluidised by air

In the case of grate incinerator, the bottom ash (slag) drops from the end
of the grate into the water trap of the slag pusher. The amount of slag is
usually 10-20% by weight of the waste feed, depending on the water
composition. Fly ash constitute usually 5-10% of the ash content.
 Moving grate incineration

The convential mass burning incinerator based on a moving grate

consists of layered burning of the waste on the grate that transport the
waste through the furnace. On the grate the waste is dried and then
burn at the high temperature while air is supplied. The ash (including
noncombustibile waste fractions) leave the grate via the ash chute as
slag (bottom ash). The main advantages of the moving grate are that it
is well proven technology, can accomodate large variations in waste
composition and in heat values and can be built in the very large units
(up to 50 t/h). The main disadvantage is the investment and
maintenance cost which are relatively high.

The bottom ash (slag) drops from the end of the grate into the water
trap of the slag pusher than cooled by contact with cooling water and
pass to the conveyor system. The amount of slag is usually 10 - 25 % by
weight of the waste feed.
Fluidised bed incinerator
 Fluidised bed incineration

Fluidised bed incineration is based on a principle where solid particles

mixed with the fuel are fluidised by air. By fluidisation the fuel and solids
are suspended in an upward air stream, thereby behaving like a fluid.
The reactor usually consists of a vertical refractory lined steel vessel
containing a bed of granural material such as silica sand, limestone or a
ceramic material.

The fluidisation of the bed is ensured by air injection through a large

number of nozzles in the bottom of the incinerator. This causses a
vigorous agitation of the bed material in which the incineration of waste
takers place in close contact with the bed material and combustion air.
This allows for relatively low excess air level, thereby allowing for a high
thermal efficiency, up to 90 %.

The fluidised bed incinerator is primarily used for homogenous waste

type including liquid waste.
Rotary kiln incinerator
 Rotary kiln incineration

The mass burning incinerator based on a rotary kiln consists of a

layered burning of the waste in a rotary cilinder. The material is
transported through the furnace by the rotations of the inclined cylinder.
The rotary kiln is usually refractory lined. The diameter of the cylinder
may be 1 - 5 m and the lenght 8 - 20 m. The capacity may be as low as
2.4 t/day and is limited to a maximum of approximately 480 t/day. The
kiln rotates with a speed of typically 3-5 rotations/h.

The excess air ratio is well above that of the moving grate incinerator
and the fluidised bed. Consequently, the energy efficiency is slightly
lower and may not exceed 80 %. As the retention time of the flue gas
usually is too short for complete reaction to take place in the rotary kiln
itself, the cylinder is followed by an after burning chamber, which may be
incorporated in the first part of the boiler.
The energy recovery system of a waste fired in
combined heat and power plant
 Energy conversion technology

The energy recovery from a steam producing boiler is known from

conventional power plant technology as the Rankine process. The Rankine
process allows for energy output in the form of power, steam and various
combinations of power, steam and hot water. The energy from the hot flue
gases is recovered via the boiler and passed in the internal circuit of steam.
The steam energy may be converted to power by means of a
turbine/generator set. The superheated and high-pressured steam from the
boiler expands via the steam trurbine and the energy content of the steam is
hereby transformed to kinematic (rotation ) energy, which is further
transform to electrical energy by the generator. The excess heat of the low
pressure steam is via the heat exchanger (condenser) converted to hot
water and passed to district heating network or cooled away.

When producing electric power only it is possible to convert an output up to

35 % of the available energy in the waste to power. When producing a
combination of heat and power so called co-generation, it is possible to
utilise more then 90 % of the energy in the waste (27 % electricity output, 60
- 65 % heat output).
 Disadvantages of waste incineration

- High capital investments requires longer payback period than

final disposal to landfill.

- Because of high capital costs, the incinerator must be tied to

long-term waste disposal contracts.

-The incinerator is designed on the basis of certain calorific value

for the waste. Removal of materials such as paper or plastics for
recycling and resource recovery reduce the overal calorific value
of the waste and consequently affect incinerator performance

- The incineration proces still produce a solid waste residue that

requires management and final disposal
 Current development in waste incineration

In the last years the flue gas cleaning has been improved. The
current prioriry is the optimisation of the thermal process to:
- increase the energy efficiency
- reduce the flue gas flow
- minimize the development of hazardous substances like
dioxins, CO and NOx
- minimize corrosion
- improve the ash management
 Emmissions from waste incinerator

The most important compounds of emissions from incinerator are:

- acidic gases – hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrofluoric acid (HF),
sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
- particulates
- oxides of nitrogen (NOx) – formed from waste containing
nitrogen compounds or mostly by high temperature fixation of
nitrogen in the combustion air. Formation of thermal NOx depends
on oxygen availability and the temperature, pressure and
residence time of gas in the combustion unit
- organic compounds such as dioxins and furans
- carbon dioxide – not considered as pollutant, however,
contributing to the formation of greenhouse effect
 Emmissions from waste incinerator
Technologies for their removal

Particulates – electrostatic precipitators, fabric filter

(general efficiency more than 99%)

Acidic gases – neutralisation with Ca(OH)2 or NaOH in

scrubers (wet, semi-dry, dry)

Oxides of nitrogen – catalytic or non-catalytic reduction

with ammonia or urea resulting in the transformation of NOx
to N2.

Dioxins and furans – sorption on activated carbon or

decomposition by special catalysts simultaneously with
NOx removal.
 Controlling emissions to atmosphere

Continuous emissions measurement made on the flue gas

at the stack:
- particulates – measured directly the amount of light
reflected by the particulates (Tyndall effect)
- carbon monoxide
- hydrogen chloride
- sulfur dioxide
- nitrogen dioxide
- oxygen content
 Removal of contaminants

NOx reduction
NOx formation
- by oxidation of nitrogen in waste
- by high temperature fixation of nitrogen in combustion air (depends on oxygen
availability, temperature, pressure and residence time of gas in combustion unit)
NOx removal
By catalytic or non-catalytic reduction with ammonia or urea.

Dioxins and furans

Precursors – products of incomplete combustion
Removal – from the gas stream by scrubing the gases and by injection of
activated carbon into the gas stream.
New approach – catalytic decomposition together with NOx reduction.
 Removal of contaminants

Acidic gases (HCl, HF, H2SO4)

Formation – by combustion of materials containing these elements
Removal – by scrubing and subsequent reaction with bases (Ca(OH)2 or
NaOH.

Particulates
Removal technology depends on the particle size distribution and the
removal efficiency required
- fabric filters (baghouse)
- electrostatic precipitators
 Organic micropollutant emissions from waste
incinerator
There is no evidence that incineration with proper flue gas purification is the
cause of environmental and health damages, but nevertheless it remains an
unpopular and controversional waste management option.
The main concern – polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans.

Routes by which organic micropollutants can be formed and emitted from

incineration processes:

1. As a result of incomplete combustion of organic wastes present in the original

waste. If PCB is subjected to a destruction with removal efficiency of 99.9999%
than the uncombusted fraction comprising 0.00001% (1 mg for every kilogramme
incinerated) will be emitted to the atmosphere.
2. As a result of the synthesis of ‘new compounds‘ in the combustion and post-
combustion zone of incinerator.

Formation of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated

dibenzofurans (PCDFs)
 Alternative thermal processes
- Pyrolysis
- Gasification
- Hydrogenation and hydrolysis

Pyrolysis represents the thermal decomposition of organic molecules in

absence of gasification aids such as oxygen, air, CO2, steam, etc. In the
temperature range between 150 – 900oC volatile compounds are expelled and
complex molecules are broken down into simpler ones. This process is also
called low temperature gasification or destructive distillation.
Generated pyrolysis products are:
- pyrolysis gas
- pyrolysis coke
- oil
- tar.
Main product is a gas with heating value 12.5 to 46 MJ/Nm3.
The solid residue consists of pyrolysis coke containing varying amount of
residual carbon that, unlike gasification, is not converted to gas in this process.
 Gasification and pyrolysis

The process of gasification and pyrolysis, discovered at the outset of the

nineteen century, has only recently (20 – 30 years ago) been proposed
for use in the treatment of wastes as an alternative to the ‘traditional‘
thermovalorisation based on combustion process.
Gasification is the conversion of organic fraction of wastes or biomasses
into a mixture of combustible gases by means of partial oxidation at high
temperatures (400 – 1500oC). The gas thus produced made up mainly of
a mixture of CO and H2 has calorific potential 4 – 6 MJ/Nm3 and may be
used to fuel internal combustion engines or gas turbines. In addition, the
gas may be used as raw material for the manufacturing of chemical
products (e.g. methanol).
Pyrolysis is endothermal transformation, in the absence of oxygen, of
biomasses or liquid, solid or gaseous fractions of wastes. Pyrolysis can
also be applied in the production of bio-oils with an efficacy reaching
80%.
Commercial application especially in Japan.
 Waste pyrolysis

The technology of pyrolysis is a form of incineration that chemically

decomposes organic materials by heat in the absence of oxygen. Pyrolysis
typically occurs under pressure and at operating temperatures above 430°C.
During pyrolysis organic matter is transformed into gases, small quantities of
liquid and a solid residue containing carbon and ash. Off-gases are generally
treated in a secondary thermal oxidation unit.

There are several variation of pyrolysis system, including rotary kiln, rotary
hearth furnace and fluidized-bed furnace. Unit designs are similar to
incinerators except that they operate at lower temperature and with less airs
supply.

Major applications of pyrolysis are in the treating and destruction of

semivolatile organic compounds, fuels and pesticides in soil. Pyrolysis
systems may be applied to a number of organic materials that crack or
undergo a chemical decomposition in the presence of heat.

The technology is likely more economical on a small scale, such as in

treatment of certain types of contaminated soils or hospital wastes.
 Gasification

Gasification refers to the conversion of carbon-containing materials at high

temperature into gaseous fuels.
Gasification is differentiated from pyrolysis by the addition of reactive gases,
which further convert gaseous fuels carbonized residues into additional gaseous
products.
Gasification is, strictly speaking, the continuation of pyrolysis proces, where the
residual carbon (pyrolysis coke) is oxidized at temperatures above 800°C with a
sub-stoichiometric oxygen.
Steam, carbon dioxide, oxygen or air are often used as gasification agents. Just
as pyrolysis, gasification is an independent process, but is still a part of
combustion processes. The products generated in the gasification process are
determined by the type of agent use, e.g. lean gas, water gas etc.
The necessary reaction energy for the gasification proces is generated by the
partial combustion of organic materials in the reactor. Commercial application
for waste treatment not fully developed.
Pyrolysis of organic materials generates several hundred different polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) but only small quantity of dioxins (PCDD) and
furans (PCDF) because oxygen is necessary for these to form.
 Plasma

Plasma gasification technology is a novel method for the treatment of

wastes at high temperatures in which waste are converted into gas and
an inert residue.

The term plasma refers to a conductive, electrically ionised gas.

Several gases such as argon, helium, methane or steam can be used for
this purpose. In case of wastes the most commonly used gas is air. The
air is rendered electrically conductive by subjecting it to marked
differences of electric potential, generating a stable electric discharge
(arc) between two electrodes. Resistance afforded by air versus the
flow of electrons produces considerably quantities of thermal energy
ranging from to 5000 to 10 000°C.

Two main technologies:

- plasma torch
- system using graphite electrodes
 Plasma technology

Plasma technology is known since 70´s. The high temperature and the
plasma arch are able to melt almost everything in seconds. Even so a lot
of research was done in the past the plasma technology never became
a real option in waste management.

The reasons are quite clear:

- to establish a plasma arch and run a plant is very costly
- the plasma arch allows only very small amounts to be melted, what
makes big amounts of waste unsuitable to be treated by this technology
- there are no long-term experiences with this technology

The conclusion is that plasma technology is not the right technological

option of the ‘everyday‘ waste management.
 Plasma technologies

Plasma processes are suited for treatment of a large variety of wastes

having a high inorganic fraction and low heat potential. This is due to the
fact that a large portion of the heat required for treatment is provided by
the plasma and not by oxidation processes.

For the above reason and due to the high operational costs, plasma
technologies are mainly applied in the treatment of hazardous or
radioactive wastes.

A more extensive distribution of these plants will likely occur once their
design and development has been rendered increasingly simple and
economical. In the future the system may even constitute a promising
alternative to the traditional systems of thermovalorisation, leading to the
release of gas emissions with a lower pollutant potential and vitirified
solid residue.
 Refuse derived fuels (RDF)
RDF is a result of processing solid waste to separate the combustible fraction
from the non-combustibles, such as metals, glass and cinder in municipal solid
wastes (MSW). RDF is predominantly composed of paper, plastics, wood and
kitchen and yard wastes and has a higher energy content than MSW, typically in
the range 12 to 15 000 kJ/kg.
Like MSW, RDF can be burned to produce heat or/and electricity. RDF
processing is often bound with the recovery of metals, glass and other
recyclable materials, thereby improving on paybacks for investment costs.
At present time RDF combustion is less common than mass burning of MSW,
but it may change in the future as recovery of recyclable materials and
environmental concerns over incinerators emissions become more important.
The major benefints of RDF are:
- It can be shredded into uniformly sized particles or densified into briquets.
Easily handled, RDF can be burned or co-fired with another fuel such as wood or
coal in an existing facility.
- Fewer noncombustibles such as heavy metals are incinerated. The high
temperature of MSW furnace can cause metals to partially volatize, resulting in
release of toxic fumes and fly ash.