Mark scheme (Results)

Summer 2022
GCE History (8HI0/2C)
Advanced Subsidiary

Paper 2: Depth study

Option 2C.1: France in revolution,

1774-99

Option 2C.2: Russia in revolution,

1894-1924
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Summer 2022
Question Paper Log Number P66258RA
Publications Code 8HI0_2C_2206_MS
All the material in this publication is copyright
© Pearson Education Ltd 2022
Generic Level Descriptors
Section A: Questions 1a/2a
Target: AO2: Analyse and evaluate appropriate source material, primary and/or contemporary to
the period, within its historical context.

Level Mark Descriptor

0 No rewardable material
1 1–2 • Demonstrates surface level comprehension of the source material without
analysis, selecting some material relevant to the question, but in the form of
direct quotations or paraphrases.
• Some relevant contextual knowledge is included, with limited linkage to the
source material.
• Evaluation of the source material is assertive with little if any substantiation.
Concepts of utility may be addressed, but by making stereotypical
judgements.
2 3–5 • Demonstrates some understanding of the source material and attempts
analysis by selecting and summarising information and making undeveloped
inferences relevant to the question.
• Contextual knowledge is added to information from the source material to
expand or confirm matters of detail.
• Evaluation of the source material is related to the specified enquiry and with
some substantiation for assertions of value. The concept of utility is
addressed mainly by noting aspects of source provenance and may be based
on questionable assumptions.
3 6–8 • Demonstrates understanding of the source material and shows some
analysis by selecting key points relevant to the question, explaining their
meaning and selecting material to support valid inferences.
• Knowledge of the historical context is deployed to explain or support
inferences, as well as to expand or confirm matters of detail.
• Evaluation of the source material is related to the specified enquiry and based
on valid criteria although justification is not fully substantiated. Explanation of
utility takes into account relevant considerations such as nature or purpose of
the source material or the position of the author.
Section A: Questions 1b/2b
Target: AO2: Analyse and evaluate appropriate source material, primary and/or contemporary to
the period, within its historical context.

Level Mark Descriptor

0 No rewardable material
1 1–2 • Demonstrates surface level comprehension of the source material without
analysis, selecting some material relevant to the question, but in the form of
direct quotations or paraphrases.
• Some relevant contextual knowledge is included, with limited linkage to the
source material.
• Evaluation of the source material is assertive with little or no supporting
evidence. Concept of reliability may be addressed, but by making
stereotypical judgements.
2 3–5 • Demonstrates some understanding of the source material and attempts
analysis, by selecting and summarising information and making
undeveloped inferences relevant to the question.
• Contextual knowledge is added to information from the source material to
expand, confirm or challenge matters of detail.
• Evaluation of the source material is related to the specified enquiry but with
limited support for judgement. Concept of reliability is addressed mainly by
noting aspects of source provenance and judgements may be based on
questionable assumptions.
3 6–9 • Demonstrates understanding of the source material and shows some
analysis by selecting key points relevant to the question, explaining their
meaning and selecting material to support valid inferences.
• Deploys knowledge of the historical context to explain or support inferences
as well as to expand, confirm or challenge matters of detail.
• Evaluation of the source material is related to the specified enquiry and
explanation of weight takes into account relevant considerations such as
nature or purpose of the source material or the position of the author.
Judgements are based on valid criteria, with some justification.
4 10–12 • Analyses the source material, interrogating the evidence to make reasoned
inferences and to show a range of ways the material can be used, for
example by distinguishing between information and claim or opinion.
• Deploys knowledge of the historical context to illuminate and/or discuss the
limitations of what can be gained from the content of the source material,
displaying some understanding of the need to interpret source material in
the context of the values and concerns of the society from which it is drawn.
• Evaluation of the source material uses valid criteria which are justified and
applied, although some of the evaluation may not be fully substantiated.
Evaluation takes into account the weight the evidence will bear as part of
coming to a judgement.
Section B
Target: AO1: Demonstrate, organise and communicate knowledge and understanding to analyse
and evaluate the key features related to the periods studied, making substantiated judgements and
exploring concepts, as relevant, of cause, consequence, change, continuity, similarity, difference and
significance.

Level Mark Descriptor

0 No rewardable material
1 1–4 • Simple or generalised statements are made about the topic.
• Some accurate and relevant knowledge is included, but it lacks range and
depth and does not directly address the question.
• The overall judgement is missing or asserted.
• There is little, if any, evidence of attempts to structure the answer, and the
answer overall lacks coherence and precision.
2 5–10 • There is limited analysis of some key features of the period relevant to the
question, but descriptive passages are included that are not clearly shown to
relate to the question.
• Mostly accurate and relevant knowledge is included, but it lacks range or
depth and has only implicit links to the demands and conceptual focus of the
question.
• An overall judgement is given but with limited substantiation, and the criteria
for judgement are left implicit.
• The answer shows some attempts at organisation, but most of the answer is
lacking in coherence, clarity and precision.
3 11–16 • There is some analysis of, and attempt to explain links between, the relevant
key features of the period and the question, although descriptive passages
may be included.
• Mostly accurate and relevant knowledge is included to demonstrate some
understanding of the demands and conceptual focus of the question, but
material lacks range or depth.
• Attempts are made to establish criteria for judgement and to relate the
overall judgement to them, although with weak substantiation.
• The answer shows some organisation. The general trend of the argument is
clear, but parts of it lack logic, coherence and precision.
4 17–20 • Key issues relevant to the question are explored by an analysis of the
relationships between key features of the period, although treatment of
issues may be uneven.
• Sufficient knowledge is deployed to demonstrate understanding of the
demands and conceptual focus of the question and to meet most of its
demands.
• Valid criteria by which the question can be judged are established and
applied in the process of coming to a judgement. Although some of the
evaluations may be only partly substantiated, the overall judgement is
supported.
• The answer is generally well organised. The argument is logical and is
communicated with clarity, although in a few places it may lack coherence
and precision.
Section A: indicative content
Option 2C.1: France in revolution, 1774-99
Question Indicative content

1a Answers will be credited according to candidates’ deployment of material in relation to

the qualities outlined in the generic mark scheme. The indicative content below is not
prescriptive and candidates are not required to include all the material which is indicated
as relevant. Other relevant material not suggested below must also be credited.
Candidates must analyse the source to consider its value for an enquiry into Louis XVI’s
acceptance of the French Constitution in September 1791.
1. The value could be identified in terms of the following points of information from the
source, and the inferences which could be drawn and supported from the source:
• It suggests that Louis XVI had not been entirely honest with the National
Assembly about his reasons for accepting the new Constitution (‘Here are my
private reasons.’)
• It implies that, in reality, Louis XVI was not reconciled to the new Constitution
(‘these senseless Rights of Man.’, ‘the people will learn the real cause of their
misfortunes.’)
• It suggests that his acceptance was driven by public support for the Constitution
and his view that the latter would prove unworkable (‘such a change has not
taken place’, ‘It will be difficult … to be impossible.’)
• It implies that the King’s acceptance was really a strategy designed to undermine
the Constitution and restore his royal authority (‘If I adopt the principles of the
Constitution … their misfortunes.’).
• 2.The following points could be made about the authorship, nature or purpose of the
source and applied to ascribe value to information and inferences:
• As the author, Louis XVI would potentially be an informed source regarding the
King’s acceptance of the French Constitution in September 1791
• Louis XVI’s purpose in writing the letter was to explain the reasons why he had
accepted the new Constitution
• Louis XVI’s views were privately expressed to trusted family members, so he was
likely to be candid in his opinions; the content may have been influenced by the
anti-revolutionary sympathies of the recipients.
3.Knowledge of historical context should be deployed to support and develop inferences
and to confirm the accuracy/usefulness of information. Relevant points may include:
• The King was in a dilemma in September 1791 over the new Constitution, since
his religious character took the constitutional oath seriously but, at the same
time, he viewed the Constitution as fundamentally flawed
• Louis XVI reluctantly, but publicly, accepted the Constitution, partly in order to be
officially reinstated following his suspension over the flight to Varennes
• His lukewarm acceptance of the Constitution was reinforced by the hostile
attitudes of influential members of the royal family, e.g. Marie Antoinette argued
that it was ‘so monstrous it cannot survive for long’.
Option 2C.1: France in revolution, 1774-99
Question Indicative content

1b Answers will be credited according to candidates’ deployment of material in relation to

the qualities outlined in the generic mark scheme. The indicative content below is not
prescriptive and candidates are not required to include all the material which is indicated
as relevant. Other relevant material not suggested below must also be credited.
Candidates must analyse and evaluate the source in relation to an enquiry into the
September massacres in 1792.

1. The following points could be made about the origin and nature of the source and
applied when giving weight to selected information and inferences:
• As a high-ranking diplomat based in Paris, Gower was in a good position (and
would be expected by his own government) to provide an informed account of
the September massacres
• The partisan nature of the source is reflected in the negative description of the
violence (‘massacred with shocking barbarity.’, ‘same cruelties were committed’)
• Gower’s account of the September massacres was mainly confined to specific
acts of violence.
2. The evidence could be assessed in terms of giving weight to the following points of
information and inferences:
• It indicates that the September massacres were triggered by news of the
Prussian military threat, and refractory priests and prison inmates were the
principal victims (‘This announcement created … prisoners there.’)
• It indicates that a large number of people were killed during the September
massacres (‘160 priests … fell victim’)
• It suggests that this brutal episode was driven by a public frenzy of violence (‘fury
of the enraged crowd’, ‘The vengeance of the mob’).
3. Knowledge of historical context should be deployed to support and develop
inferences and to confirm the accuracy/usefulness of information or to note limitations
or to challenge aspects of the content. Relevant points may include:
• The September massacres were triggered by rumours that imprisoned counter-
revolutionary suspects planned to escape, kill the Parisian population and hand
the capital over to the Prussians
• The September massacres lasted for five days and resulted in 1100-1400 deaths;
about a quarter of the victims were priests and nobles, the rest were imprisoned
common criminals
• The perpetrators of the violence were the sans-culottes of the Sections; no
attempt was made to stop them, since this meant mobilising the National Guard
and risking another Champ de Mars incident.
Option 2C.2: Russia in revolution, 1894-1924
Question Indicative content

2a Answers will be credited according to candidates’ deployment of material in relation to

the qualities outlined in the generic mark scheme. The indicative content below is not
prescriptive and candidates are not required to include all the material which is indicated
as relevant. Other relevant material not suggested below must also be credited.
Candidates must analyse the source to consider its value for an enquiry into the
conditions experienced by workers at the Lena Goldfields in 1912.
1. The value could be identified in terms of the following points of information from the
source, and the inferences which could be drawn and supported from the source:
• It provides evidence of living and working conditions at the Lena Goldfields
(‘compulsory work on Sundays’, ‘forced women’s labour’, inadequate ‘ventilation
and lighting in living quarters’)
• It suggests that worker dissatisfaction with their living and working conditions
was widespread (‘We demand’)
• It suggests that the actions and attitudes of the management had made
conditions worse (‘Managers cannot sack workers as they please’, ‘Managers
must address workers politely.’).
2. The following points could be made about the authorship, nature or purpose of the
source and applied to ascribe value to information and inferences:
• The author(s), being workers at the Lena Goldfields, were potentially in a good
position to offer an informed account of conditions at these mines
• As a set of demands sent to the management, it shows how the workers were
attempting to persuade the Lenzoloto Mining Company to make improvements
in living and working conditions
• The document was written in March 1912 and so ‘Our Demands’ is valuable
because it covers living and working conditions at the Lena Goldfields in the
specified year.
3. Knowledge of historical context should be deployed to support and develop
inferences and to confirm the accuracy/usefulness of information. Relevant points
may include:
• Workers at the Lena Goldfields were housed in poor quality accommodation and
provided with low grade food in the company canteen, including rotten
horsemeat

• The working day at the Lena Goldfields was long and arduous – eleven or eleven
and a half hours, depending on the season
• The Lenzoloto Mining Company management refused to improve conditions for
the workers and, after the Lena Goldfields massacre, conditions remained
essentially the same.
Option 2C.2: Russia in revolution, 1894-1924
Question Indicative content
2b Answers will be credited according to candidates’ deployment of material in relation to
the qualities outlined in the generic mark scheme. The indicative content below is not
prescriptive and candidates are not required to include all the material which is indicated
as relevant. Other relevant material not suggested below must also be credited.
Candidates must analyse and evaluate the source in relation to an enquiry into the role
of the Military Revolutionary Committee in October 1917.
1. The following points could be made about the origin and nature of the source and
applied when giving weight to selected information and inferences:
• As a key member of the Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC), the author
was likely to be well informed about the role of the MRC in October 1917
• The credibility of the source is potentially reduced by the fact that it was
produced by a Bolshevik author who was directly involved

• The source was produced in 1932 in exile and this may raise issues relating to
hindsight; Trotsky may have been anxious to boost his role and credentials as
a revolutionary in 1917, given his present situation.
2. The evidence could be assessed in terms of giving weight to the following points of
information and inferences:
• It indicates the MRC played a central organising role in the removal of the
Provisional Government (‘weakening the Provisional government …
overthrowing it.’, ‘leading the resistance … conspirators’.’)
• It indicates that the MRC was able to mobilise popular and military support in
its bid to oust the Provisional Government (‘with the pressure of the masses
and … the strength of the Petrograd garrison.’)
• It suggests that the MRC was in an overwhelmingly favourable position to
take power in October 1917 (‘the superiority of the MRC’s forces … increasing
hour by hour.’).
3. Knowledge of historical context should be deployed to support and develop
inferences and to confirm the accuracy/usefulness of information or to note
limitations or to challenge aspects of the content. Relevant points may include:
• Since it was created by the Petrograd Soviet, the MRC provided Trotsky with a
body to organise and camouflage the Bolshevik takeover of power in October
1917
• The MRC gave the Bolsheviks access to military intelligence and weapons, and
enabled them to control key strategic points in Petrograd prior to the takeover of
power
• During October 1917, the MRC formed close links with military units in Petrograd,
thereby allowing Trotsky to assemble a sizeable force of Red Guards, Kronstadt
sailors and some army units.
Section B: indicative content
Option 2C.1: France in revolution, 1774-99
Question Indicative content
3 Answers will be credited according to candidates’ deployment of material in relation to
the qualities outlined in the generic mark scheme. The indicative content below is not
prescriptive and candidates are not required to include all the material which is indicated
as relevant.
Candidates are expected to reach a judgement about the extent to which the onset of
revolution in 1789 was due to the summoning of the Estates-General.
Arguments and evidence that the onset of revolution in 1789 was due to the summoning
of the Estates-General should be analysed and evaluated. Relevant points may include:
• The summoning of the Estates-General raised public expectations of reform,
including a new constitution, whereas Louis XVI regarded it chiefly as forum for
raising new taxes to stabilise the national finances

• Louis XVI failed to exert his influence over the Estates-General and this enabled
the Third Estate to take the initiative, e.g. by declaring a National Assembly that
directly challenged the King’s authority

• The Tennis Court Oath defied the King and indicated the deputies’ intention to
establish a constitution, with or without his approval; deputies from the First and
Second Estates began joining the National Assembly

• Louis XVI’s military build-up in and around Paris prompted fears that the King
intended to close the National Assembly by force and contributed to the popular
revolt in Paris.

Arguments and evidence that the onset of revolution in 1789 was due to other factors
and developments should be analysed and evaluated. Relevant points may include:
• The storming of the Bastille showed the weakness of royal authority and the
power of the mob, and within a month the King had accepted constitutional
change and the abolition of the feudal system
• The uprisings that became known as The Great Fear were widespread and forced
the Assembly to abolish the feudal system, marking the end of the ancien régime
• The Parisian bourgeoisie undermined the ancien régime in 1789 by taking matters
into their own hands, e.g. establishing institutions to protect their own interests,
notably the Commune and National Guard.

Other relevant material must be credited.

Question Indicative content
4 Answers will be credited according to candidates’ deployment of material in relation to
the qualities outlined in the generic mark scheme. The indicative content below is not
prescriptive and candidates are not required to include all the material which is indicated
as relevant.
Candidates are expected to reach a judgement on how significant the role of
Robespierre was in the development of the Terror in 1794.
Arguments and evidence that the role of Robespierre was significant in the development
of the Terror in 1794 should be analysed and evaluated. Relevant points may include:
• Robespierre played a central role in the purge of the Hébertists and Indulgents,
which enabled the Committee of Public Safety (CPS) to pursue a policy of
increasing terror and centralisation
• Robespierre (along with Couthon) drafted the Law of 22 Prairial (10 June 1794)
that significantly undermined the rights of those accused and greatly increased
the number of victims guillotined
• Robespierre attempted to impose a new state religion, known as the Cult of the
Supreme Being, in June 1794; this was designed to replace atheism and
Catholicism and prohibited freedom of worship
• Robespierre introduced ‘virtue’ as a new moral justification for terror; the
winding down of the Terror after Robespierre’s fall in July 1794 suggests he had
played a significant role in its development that year.
Arguments and evidence that Robespierre’s role was not significant/other factors were
more significant in the development of the Terror in the 1794 should be analysed and
evaluated. Relevant points may include:
• Robespierre was only one of 12 CPS members, all committee decisions were
collective, and he personally signed only a relatively small number of the
Committee's decrees
• Robespierre’s influence and authority regarding the Terror in 1794 was limited,
e.g. he disagreed with the policy of de-Christianisation and he lost an important
ally when St-Just left to oversee the war effort in Belgium

• Other members of the CPS played a key role in the development of the Terror in
1794, e.g. St-Just argued that a continuation of the Terror was necessary to
create a utopian French republic

• The terror campaign of early 1794 in the Vendée, which led to some 250,000
deaths, was locally organised by General Turreau and Jean-Baptiste Carrier, the
representative on mission.

Other relevant material must be credited.

Question Indicative content
5 Answers will be credited according to candidates’ deployment of material in relation to
the qualities outlined in the generic mark scheme. The indicative content below is not
prescriptive and candidates are not required to include all the material which is indicated
as relevant.
Candidates are expected to reach a judgement on how accurate it is to say that the
Directory brought stability to France in the years 1795-99.
Arguments and evidence that the Directory brought stability to France in the years 1795-
99 should be analysed and evaluated. Relevant points may include:
• Two-thirds of the national debt was written off in September 1797 through the
issue of bonds to government creditors, which reduced interest payments and
stabilised French finances at least for a time

• Finance Minister Vincent Ramel reformed the taxation system in 1798 (by
introducing four new direct taxes and making tax collection more efficient),
bringing the regime greater financial stability

• The Directory’s constitutional arrangements (based on the Directory of five, the

Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Ancients) prevented the
concentration of power and avoided the extremism of 1793–94

• Until Fructidor (1797) the Directory provided a moderate ‘representative’

government, steering a middle course between the restoration of the monarchy
and the introduction of popular democracy.

Arguments and evidence that the Directory did not bring stability to France in the years
1795-99 should be analysed and evaluated. Relevant points may include:
• Attempts to restore the Treasury’s finances were not wholly successful, e.g. the
value of the assignat collapsed, the new currency became worthless, and the
introduction of indirect taxes was unpopular

• The monetary crisis of 1795–97 reduced purchasing power, which undermined

economic stability; the bonds issued to write off government debt quickly
slumped in value, which alienated government creditors

• The constitution of Year III, which established annual elections and provided no
mechanism to resolve executive-legislature disputes or alter the constitution,
failed to give the Directory political stability

• In an attempt to preserve a non-Jacobin/Royalist majority, the directors

interfered with elections, which undermined respect for the political system, e.g.
Law of 22 Floréal.

Other relevant material must be credited.

Option 2C.2: Russia in revolution, 1894-1924
Question Indicative content
6 Answers will be credited according to candidates’ deployment of material in relation to
the qualities outlined in the generic mark scheme. The indicative content below is not
prescriptive and candidates are not required to include all the material which is indicated
as relevant.
Candidates are expected to reach a judgement about how significant revolutionary
activity was in the Russian empire during the 1905 Revolution.
Arguments and evidence that revolutionary activity in the Russian empire was significant
during the 1905 Revolution should be analysed and evaluated. Relevant points may
include:
• Revolutionary activity took place across the Tsarist Empire in 1905 (e.g. St
Petersburg, Moscow, the Ukraine, Baltic, Georgia, Ivanovo-Voznesensk and
Nizhny Novgorod) making it a significant threat to the regime

• Various groups, motivated by a range of grievances, participated in revolutionary

activity in 1905 (e.g. workers, peasants, nationalities, the middle class, students
and troops), forming an anti-tsarist ‘coalition’
• The sheer scale and extent of popular protest and revolutionary activity in 1905
forced the Tsarist regime to make concessions, e.g. the October Manifesto and
reducing/abolishing redemption payments.
Arguments and evidence that revolutionary activity in the Russian empire was not
significant during the 1905 Revolution should be analysed and evaluated. Relevant
points may include:
• Key disaffected social groups across the Empire challenged the Tsarist system at
different times, had different aims and failed to work together for greater
impact; much discontent was economic not revolutionary

• Fundamental divisions between opposition groups prevented cooperation, e.g.

liberals and Marxists disagreed over capitalism and political violence, and the SRs
and Marxists had different conceptions of socialism

• Revolutionary activity did not spread significantly to one key group - the military;
the bulk of the army remained loyal, giving Nicholas II the capability to crush
hard-line opposition, e.g. the Moscow uprising

• The October Manifesto, which introduced a constitution and the prospect of

representative government, drove a wedge between the liberals and the
workers, thereby undermining anti-Tsarist activity in late 1905.

Other relevant material must be credited.

Question Indicative content
7 Answers will be credited according to candidates’ deployment of material in relation to
the qualities outlined in the generic mark scheme. The indicative content below is not
prescriptive and candidates are not required to include all the material which is indicated
as relevant.
Candidates are expected to reach a judgement on how accurate it is to say that the
closing of the Constituent Assembly was the main reason for the onset of the Russian
civil war.
Arguments and evidence that the closing of the Constituent Assembly was the main
reason for the onset of the Russian civil war should be analysed and evaluated. Relevant
points may include:
• Many Russians viewed the closure as an act of political hypocrisy, since the
Bolsheviks had previously called for Constituent Assembly elections; this
hardened anti-Bolshevik opposition, making civil war more likely
• Having secured just 22.5 per cent of the popular vote in the Constituent
Assembly elections, the Bolsheviks were determined to hold on to power at any
cost and by any means, and this brought civil war closer

• The Socialist Revolutionaries, victors in the Assembly elections, afterwards

headed anti-Bolshevik governments in other parts of Russia, which increased the
momentum towards civil war, e.g. the Samara government.
Arguments and evidence that the closing of the Constituent Assembly was not the main
reason/other factors were the main reason for the onset of the Russian civil war should
be analysed and evaluated. Relevant points may include:
• The closing of the Constituent Assembly did not provoke widespread public
condemnation; radical workers preferred the Soviet government model and
most peasants remained indifferent
• The draconian terms of Brest-Litovsk (e.g. Russia lost 27 per cent of its farmland
and 74 per cent of its iron ore and coal reserves) galvanised anti-
Bolshevik/nationalist groups in Russia and led to the civil war
• Foreign intervention, beginning in early 1918, contributed to the onset of the civil
war, since it was designed to protect foreign interests in Russia and overthrow
the Bolshevik regime
• The Czech Army of Liberation posed a real threat to Bolshevik rule in mid-1918
by taking control of western Siberia and parts of east European Russia and then
advancing towards Moscow, making conflict inevitable.
Other relevant material must be credited.
Question Indicative content
8 Answers will be credited according to candidates’ deployment of material in relation to
the qualities outlined in the generic mark scheme. The indicative content below is not
prescriptive and candidates are not required to include all the material which is indicated
as relevant.
Candidates are expected to reach a judgement about how accurate it is to say that the
Bolshevik regime succeeded in imposing central control over the Russian economy in the
years 1917-24.
Arguments and evidence that the Bolshevik regime succeeded in imposing central
control over the Russian economy in the years 1917-24 should be analysed and
evaluated. Relevant points may include:
• Under state capitalism (1917-18), private companies were directed and monitored
by the state, Vesenkha was created to supervise industry and manage the economy,
and limited nationalisation took place
• Under War Communism (1918-21), the Bolsheviks imposed compulsory
requisitioning of grain, banned private trade and placed large-scale industry
directly under state control to maximise the war effort
• Under the NEP (1921-24), the Bolshevik regime imposed a ‘tax-in-kind’ on the
peasants, payable in grain, and the ‘commanding heights’ of the economy (e.g. coal,
transport, banking) remained under state control.
Arguments and evidence that the Bolshevik regime did not succeed in imposing central
control over the Russian economy in the years 1917-24 should be analysed and
evaluated. Relevant points may include:
• Under state capitalism, the Bolsheviks could not impose wide-ranging central
economic control because they needed to maintain worker and peasant support,
e.g. the Decrees on Land and Workers’ Control (1917)
• Under War Communism, Bolshevik attempts to centralise economic control were
counterproductive, e.g. the development of a thriving black market in foodstuffs
and urban workers abandoned the main cities
• Under the NEP, Bolshevik central economic control was consciously diluted, e.g.
peasants could sell surplus grain for profit on the open market and private
ownership/trading of small businesses was legalised.
Other relevant material must be credited.

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