FWM 311: PRINCIPLES OF SILVICULTURE

Polication of principles for the establishment and maintenance of forest

PRODUCTIVITY OF WOODY PLANT

The medductivity of plant on a given site is measured by its biomass. Biomass is

produced by green planta conytitine sunlight into plant material through
photosynthesis and includes all land- and water-based vogetation. A well as idl
organic wastes. Biomass is the amount of weight per unit area expressed in tons uere
or kg/hectare. It in the plant material derived from the reaction between CO2 in the
air, water and sunlight, via photosynthesis, to produce carbohydrates that form the
building blocks of biomass. The biomass resource een be considered as harganie
matter, in which the energy of sunlight is stored in chemical bonds. How long it takes
the winteriale To he accumulated i.e. kg/ha/year or biomass per unit time gives the
productivity. Biomass has always been a major source of energy for mankind and is
presently estimated to contribute of the order 10-14% of the world's energy supply
PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN TREE GROWTH
Three major physiological functions drive growth and development in plants. These
are photosynthesis? respiration and transpiration.
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the unique biochemical process by which plants produce glucose
and oxygen from carbon dixxide and water, using light energy from the sun. The
glucose produced is stored in the form of organic manter which it termed as live plant
biomass. Photosynthesis is the ultimate source of all of humankind's food
en: Inais the greatest production process on earth crust Photosynthesis converts appre
at-ly 200 billion tonnes of CO, into complex organic compounds annually and
produces approximi
Million tonnes of
oxygen into the atmosphere (Johnson, 2016). By facilitating conversion of solar
energy into chemical energy. pło synthesis acts as the primary energy input into the
global food chain. Typically, photosynthesis converts less than 1% of the available
sunlight to stored chemical energy. Leaf area supplies the surface to absorb radiatjoit,
and leaf protein content, plant water status, and climate (temperature and humidity)
largely determine The rate of photosynthesis. Only a small portion of the energy
incident upon leaves is converted Into supury and theri fo biomuss For forests, 1 MJ
of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) yields 1g biomass att
efficusly offabout 1.85%. Of the carbon fixed in photosynthesis in forests, roughly 50
is lost to re piration
of foliage, wucdy tissue, and fine roots and associated symbionta. The carbon
remaining lifter respiration can be Diponted to support (coarse roots, stem wood,
branches), light capture (leaves), nutrient uptake (fine rootk, root
withintek mycontiznej, reproduction (seeds and fruiting structures), and storage
(carbohydrates in ray parenchyina cells, fine roots and foliage).
Mechanism of photosynthetic processes
Theoverall process of photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts contained in leaves:
It is an oxidation-reduction Fiction with carbon dioxide and water. Carbon dioxide is
reduced and water oxidized leading to the formation of cubohydrate (CH:O). The
energy required for these reactions is provided by sunlight. Conventionally this
can be summarized by the equation
light CH10c+6H2O+60)
It tiken place in two muin phases namely: the light (photochemical phase) and dark
(biosynthetic phase). The Til seactions of photosynthesis involve light-driven electron
and proton transfers, which occur in the thylakold
Light reactions or the photochemical phase include light absorption, water splitting,
oxygen release, and the formation of high energy chemical intermediates, Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP) and Nicotinemide-Adenine
Djoutlestide Phosphate (NADPH), It involves electron transfer from water to NADPr
to form NADPH Au
these reactions are coupled with proton transfers that lead to the phosphorylation of
adenosine diphosphate (ADP) into ATP. The photochemical stage involves the
transporting of light energy by chlorophyll and its subsequent use in photolysis - a
photocatalyzed splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen 2H-O-light-+
O:+4H++4e ((Gº=+317kj-mol )
The positive sign of the standard free energy change of the reaction" G") given above
means that the reactine Teomites energy (an endergonic reaction). The energy
required is provided by absorbed solar energy, which IF coffvierted Bite the chemical
bond energy. The biosynthetic phase involve the fixation of CO2 into carbohydrate,
via the Calvin cycle, which scout inl the Thờih. The Calvin cycle wies ATP and
NADPH to convert CO2 into carbohydrates, regenerating ADP and
NADP. The light and dark reactions are therefore mutually dependent on one another.
+ CH2O + H2O (AG° = +162 kj-mol )
FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The rate of photosynthesis is very important in determining the yield of plants.
Photosynthesis is under the Istheentes of Neveril factors, both internal (plant) and
external. The plant factors include the number, size, age orientation of leaves,
mesophyll cells and chloroplasts, internal CO; concentration and the amount of
chlorophyll. The plant of internal factors are dependent on the genetic predisposition
and growth of the plant The external factors include the availability of sunlight, CO2
concentration, temperature and water.
Availability of CO:
Carbon dioxide is the major limiting factor for photosynthesis. The concentration of
CO. is very low in the atmosphere (between 0.03 and 0.04 percent). Increase in
concentration up to 0.05 percent can canse in inerense in CO: fixation rater, beyond
this the levels can become damaging over longer periods, Photosynthesis ForIT only
in the palisade layers (parcichyma cells) and also in the spongy mesophyll. The guard
cells may also contain some chloroplasts in some species hence they do
photosynthesize. Availability of CO2 for photosynthesis differ depending on the rate
of closure and opening of stomata and the condition of the atmosphere. The rate of
chessme and opening of stomato depends on light. This is counter balanced by the
movement of anions accompanied by movement of water which makes the stomata
become turgid and hence opens The initial penetration of CO: into leaf is very rapid
until it reaches the wet surface. The diffusion of CO; in water is about 1000 timos
slower than what it is in the atmosphere. Therefore rate of diffusion is reduced once
itgets into the wet Beitindary layer. Even though the total distance between the cross
section of leaf is very small, thwcrate of diffisige from atmosphere to leaf seems to be
the limiting factor in the supply of CO; from atmosphere ines thic photosynthetic site.
Wind The fenf has a boundary layer which consist of vapour. This boundary layer
The biosynthetic phase involve the fixation of CO2 into carbohydrate, via the Calvin
cycle, which scout inl the Thờih. The Calvin cycle wies ATP and NADPH to convert
CO2 into carbohydrates, regenerating ADP and
NADP. The light and dark reactions are therefore mutually dependent on one another.
+ CH2O + H2O (AG° = +162 kj-mol )
FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The rate of photosynthesis is very important in determining the yield of plants.
Photosynthesis is under the Istheentes of Neveril factors, both internal (plant) and
external. The plant factors include the number, size, age orientation of leaves,
mesophyll cells and chloroplasts, internal CO; concentration and the amount of
chlorophyll. The plant of internal factors are dependent on the genetic predisposition
and growth of the plant The external factors include the availability of sunlight, CO2
concentration, temperature and water.
Availability of CO:
Carbon dioxide is the major limiting factor for photosynthesis. The concentration of
CO. is very low in the atmosphere (between 0.03 and 0.04 percent). Increase in
concentration up to 0.05 percent can canse in inerense in CO: fixation rater, beyond
this the levels can become damaging over longer periods, Photosynthesis ForIT only
in the palisade layers (parcichyma cells) and also in the spongy mesophyll. The guard
cells may also contain some chloroplasts in some species hence they do
photosynthesize. Availability of CO2 for photosynthesis differ depending on the rate
of closure and opening of stomata and the condition of the atmosphere. The rate of
chessme and opening of stomato depends on light. This is counter balanced by the
movement of anions accompanied by movement of water which makes the stomata
become turgid and hence opens The initial penetration of CO: into leaf is very rapid
until it reaches the wet surface. The diffusion of CO; in water is about 1000 timos
slower than what it is in the atmosphere. Therefore rate of diffusion is reduced once
itgets into the wet Beitindary layer. Even though the total distance between the cross
section of leaf is very small, thwcrate of diffisige from atmosphere to leaf seems to be
the limiting factor in the supply of CO; from atmosphere ines thic photosynthetic site.

prevents the movement of CO2 into the lear With night wind, the boundary can be
destroyed, leaf becomes drier and the rate of movement of CO;
Locine (aler enhancing higher rate of photosynthesis.
Light intensity
The rate of photosynthesis is directly proportional to light intensity. At very high light
intensities, photosynthesis 15 stowed, but these very high intensities do not occur in
nature. For example, shaded plans in the forest Hinderstory generally have low
photosynthetic capacity compared with sun-adapted plants Thus photosynthesis
mereungs au fires emerge from the understory into the canopy, irrespective of ages.
Also, the rate of the first stiga of.photosynthesis (photochemical or light phase) which
is light dependent can be increased by increasing Bolt Intensity within certain limits
Effect of temperature on photosynthesis
The influence of temperature in photosynthesis depends on both CO2 availability and
light intensity. If these two
ture adequate, photosynthesis will occur faster at high temperature than at lower
temperature. Temperature has little or no effect on photolysis (the splitting of water
into proton, electron and oxygen). This is because energy required for photolysis is
derived from light intensity. Apart from photolysis of water, other cesetitins of
photosynthesis will be affected by temperature. The dark reactions being enzymatic
are temperature dependent thu, merpuding temperature within certain limits increases
the rate of these reactions. Though the fight reactions que llo temperature sensitive
they are affected to a lesser extent. The temperature optimum for photosynthesis of
different plants also depends on the habitat that they are adapted to.
Water Availability
Wites is crucial to photosynthesis. The splitting of water in the light phase provides
the hydrogen fous (protons!
electmus and oxygen (an end product of photosynthesis which is needed for
respiration). These electrons and
presuins help in the synthesis of ATP and NADPH which are used in the dark reaction
to produce carbohydrates Even though water is one of the reactants in the light
reaction, the effect of water as a factor is more fftrough its effect on the plant, rather
than directly on photosynthesis. Water stress cames the stomata to close hotice
leifueing the CO: availability. Bendes, water stress also makes leaves wilt, thus,
reducing the mittlice ares allthe leaves and their metabolic activity as well
Ecaf Age
Ax imfevidual leaf on a plant grow and develops, photosynthesis increases with time
and decreases later when Isat becomes old
RESPIRATION
The biochemical breakdown of the product of photosynthesis is called respiration.
Respiration makes available this chemienl energy stored in sugar and other foods and
permits the use of this energy within the tree iti a Variety of useful ways. An
understanding of respiratory process is necessary, for a good appreciation of various
tree behaviours md silvicultural techniques. Root growth and seed germination are
often hindered by soil condition which limit respiration, Remedial measures such as
drainage and/or tillage are usually done to enhance respiration. Successful seed
storage also partly depends on maintaining environmental conditions which control
respiration of the deed. Although some minimal level of respiration ix essential for
cell survival and to sothe extent a higher rate is needed for growth, the rate of
respiration sometimes rises far above quential level and results in waiteffil
consumption of food, which might otherwise be used in assimilation to produce nese
fixtuell or accumulated in storage organs.
As respiration occurs in all living tissues continuously all the time and photosynthesis
occurs early in the light and directly in the leaves, the rate of photosynthesis must be
maintained at levels several times ns rapid as the tite uf respiration if any net increase
in dry weight is expected. Hence Polster (1950) has suggested that the productivity of
a forest stand weight be increased more by treatments which reduce respirating than
by traumdients Uint ingrouse photosynthesis. Foresters can achieve this for example
by pruning off lowet hraniles willeli tend to jegglire more than they photosynthesize
Stechanism of respiration. In plants, oxypan required for respiration ind obtained from
the atmosphere enters through the stomata especially during the day,and lenticels and
cuticular spaces during the night. Within the plant, the oxygen diffuses through the
intercellular air spaces to the organs, tissues and every living cell of the plant. As in
photosynthesis, the respiratory breakdown of food does not occur as a single gross
reaction but rather as a series of smaller step- Wife reactions, each catalyzed by an
enzymes. These steps are divided into three, namely, glycolysis, Kich's cycle Citric
acid cycle and Electron transport system (ETS).
Glycolysis: this takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell and is common to both
aerobic and anaerobic respirations. It involves the anderobie conversion or step by
step reduction of glucose to pyruvic acid, a compound containing thise cacbon atotis.
Glycolysis literally means "sugar splitting". The reaction begins with the
phosphorylation of glucose ind the energy for the reaction is derived from the
hydrolysis of ATP. Two molecules of ATP usually energize each molecule of sugar.
The phosphorylated sugar then split into two molecules of a 3-carbon (Trione) aligar,
which is converted to pyruvie neid. The subsequent conversion of triose sugar to
pyruvic acid yields some ATP. The overall reaction of glycolysis is CHGOLF2ATP
+4ADP +2NAD
-+2CHICO.COOH+2ADP+4ATP +2NADH
In the presence of oxygen, the pyruvic acid enters a mitochondrion where it is
converted to a 2-carbon compound of acetic neid called acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-
CoA). In this reaction carbon dioxide is given off and the pyruvic acid loses two
hydrogen atoms with the resultant formation of three molecules of ATP Acetyl Coa is
an
extremely important intermediate in the breakdown of sugar and links glycolysis with
the nextseries ofreactions, the Kreb's cycle
Karl's Cycle citric acid cycle/tricarboxylic acid cycle: this is the second phase in
aerobic respiration mimed after Sie His Krebs, who discovered the intermediate
compounds of this cycle. Acetyl CUA condenses with # 40 compound called Oxalo
acetic acid (OAA), forming a 6C citric acid. As the first compound formed during
let's cycle is citric acid, this cycle is also called 'citric acid' cycle. Organic acids
containing three carboxylic acet groups (COOH) are also formed during this cycle.
Hence, it is also called 'tricarboxylic acid' cycle Carbon iv oxide is released to the
atmosphere or use for photosynthesis. The hydrogen which is present in glucose will
be used for reducing NAD and FAD to NADH and FADHy respectively.
Electron tritsport system (ETS)/Oxidative phosphorylation: this is the third step of
aerobic respiration, taking place in the inner mitochondrial membrane (Cristae). In
this sitep of respiratory process. NADH and FADHz formed during glycolysis and
Kreb's cycle are oxidized to NAD and FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide). Total gain
of ATP moleculen at the end of complete oxidation of one molecule of glucose is
equal to 38. The overall equations for acroble respiration can be written as follows
Glucose [C( H|: On ] + 60g 6CO2 + 6H2 O+38ATP
Relationship between photosynthesis, respiration and tree growth
The relationship between photosynthesis and respiration is best illustrated by their
action in wood formation which is the primary goal of tree crop production. Wood
consist largely of cellulose which is made from glucose mitmafacture by the process
of photosynthesis. Respiration which is the reverse of photosynthesis, decomposes
glucose, affecting the amount of glucose available for wood formation. Thus the
difference between the ratio of' photosynthesis to respiration will determine the
amount of glucose available for wood formation. In other words dus greater the rate
of photosynthesis in proportion to that of respiration, the greater will be the amount of
glucose available for growth and development of a given free.
Thus, when the rate of photosynthesis is high and the rate of respiration is also high or
nhove normal, growth iz likely to be low, whereas if the rate of photosynthesis is high
and the rate of respiration is low growth is likely no be high. For satisfactory growth,
the rate of photosynthesis should be about ten times greater than the rate of
respiration. However, pruning or thinning of trees can be employed to bring and to
keep this ratio at the desire point
TRANSPIRATION
In trees, wutet is absorbed primarily by the roots and evaporation of water occurs
through the stomata openings of the Serres though a processi known as transpiration.
The water movement via plant is called the transpiration jan The water thovement
during this pathway is initiated at the root epidermis mod progressed ayarplastically
and apuplusically to the endodermis and remains in the root's vascular cylinder. The
endodermal transpor proleiba accumulate in the water and mineral solution then push
them up to the xylem of each root, stem, and the Set of'/'se plinit. In fact, in the leaf,
the soil solution covers the cells in the mesophyll apoplastically, vantthen into the gas
spaces among the cells, and given out from the leaf into the air via stomata.
Tellepimtion e important to plant for the following reasons;
F. hienhances nutrient uptake from the surrounding soil as the water that pass through
the root contains mamy important soluble nutrients crucial for plant growth.
2 In hata cooling effect on the tree
3. Sienta open. during conspinacion does not only allow water tui core światowy if ro
but also allow carbon dioxide to enter.
Factors that affect transpiration Jate
Transpirationis supported by two significant factors, including plant parameters and
environmental conditions:
Theseare Licorbed below:
A. Plant I caf Attributes
Thiele comprises of the leaf number, shape, size, stomata, and waxiness of the leaf
surfisces: These leaf
characteristics nid plants control of transpiration rate by reducing water flow out of
the plant.
Stumata: They are small breathing pores in the leaf that permit gaseous interchange
where water vapour, and CO2 enter the plant leaves. Guard cells regulate stomata
opening and closing. Plants control water Toet via transpiration by opening and
closing stomata. Once stomata are exposed to sunlight, transpiration
rates inerende, as soon as they are closed, transpiration rates decrease. Diurnal
variation Is affected by
transpiration rate mainly due to stomata response. Normally stomata are open in the
day and closed
during night. "Normally transpiration cannot go beyond evaporation and under ideal
conditions Iritupiration may attain 95% of evaporation.
Boundary Layer: It is a delicate Inyer of static air enclosing the leaf surface. When
transpiration occurs, Water vapours exit from the stomata rench the atmosphere
through this layer where the water vapour will be vanished by moving air. Layers
located on edges increase as leaf size increases causing substantial reduction in
transpiration rates:
Cuticle: It is waxy and hydrophobic layer present on all above-ground tissue of a plant
and serves ns barrier that water cannot move through it very easily, The thicker the
cuticle Inyer on a leaf surface, the blower the transpiration rate. Conifer needles are
more efficient at retaining moisture than broadlent trees because they have stiff, waxy
leaves (needles) with small stomata that are buried in the leaf surface that is why
conifers are found in drier and colder environments where water supplies are
restricted.
Leaf area: Greater leaf area is responsible to increases transpiration rate. It was
examined that hit the uppermost part of the canopy, transpiration is higher than near
to ground level. An exposed canopy canea transpiration compared to a closed canopy.
Isolated tree has a greater transpiration rate than a tree ina forest surrounded by other
trees.
B. Environmental Conditions
Some environmental conditions accelerate transpiration rate while others has modify
the plant's capability to
regulate water loss
Relative humidity: It is the quantity of moisture in the air related to the quantity of
moisture that air could keep at a given temperature. A turgid leaf would have a
relative humidity near 100%, just like an atmosphere on a rainy day. When relative
humidity is less, the air holds less moisture and thus, increases the transpiration rate:
The higher the relative humidity, the more moisture in atmosphere and there will be
less transpiration.
Soil water: The soil water is the main source of water for transpiration. It is important
to have sufficient amount of available soil water for transpiration. Plants with suitable
soil moisture will usually transpire It griéditer ztes since soil delivers the water to
move via plant. If the soil is dry, leaves will droop and wilt plants cutinot continue to
transpire anymore.
Solar radiation: Intensity of solar radiation is also a major factor that influences the
rate of transpiration. Transpiration is greatest during the mid-day when maximum
solar radiation is available and nearly stops cing the mid-night, It was clearly
observed that trees have to increased transpiration rate with increased hipirittures and
sunlight intensity. If it gets too hot, though, transpiration will shut down.
Sun light: Light and CO becomes available to plant whon stomata are open in the
light so that it becomes tecessible for photosynthesis. In dark, stomata are closed in
most plants. Low light intensity at morning con casse stomata to open and they can
access CO2 for photosynthesis as Soon as the sunrays hit their leaves Stouto are most
sensitive to blue light, the light component pre alling at sunrise!
Wind Wind Volucity om change rates of transpiration by removing the boundary
layer- inmobile liver Af anter molecules enclosing the leaf surfice Wind velocity
accelerates the water movement from the Traf maface while it decreases the boundary
layer.

ARTIFICIAL REGENERATION
Regeneration of forests artificially has over time been found useful where natural
regeneration feileror where the rate of regeneration cannot Keep up pace with
exploitation of forests: The performance of natural regeneration in the tropical has
proven inadequate, coupled with the treressing demand for wood of all classes Gom
the e forests. Artificial regeneration therefore Becomes necessary with its major
management objective being maximum production of useful Limber from forests that
are depleting fast.
AHilejat segeneration involves forest regeneration by man. using two main methods-
planting Wellings (raised in a nursery) or by direct sowing of seeding Where
seeillings have slow rowth, there is abschce of seedlings of desirable species or
germination Is difficult or Thsufficient in the wild, artificial regeneration is a good
option.
Alibibagh direct seeding is an easy and cheap method of artificial regeneration. it
could discutiventageous particularly with seeds and seedling that are edible to rodents
and insects. Also. site environment may not be too favourable to the seedlings at
juvenile stages because the seedlings have to struggle with the uncontrollable changes
in the environmental conditions of the Site. Such seedlings delay in attaining
maturity: However, direct sowing can be successfulin a moist environment. Other
sources of materials for artificial regeneration include wildings. saplings. stumps,
striplings ete;
NURSERY TECHNIQUES
Why establish a nursery?
*** The success of tropical forest regeneration, particularly plantation establishment
depends on the avantability of healthy and quality planting stock in large quantity.
These planting stock are carefully selected and raised in intensive care in a place
called a nurse y, In cases where seeds of many useful species are not suitable for
direct sowing in plantation because of their small size dormancy, slow growth or are
scarce, seedlings have to be raised in a-nursery first and later. tribiferred to the
plantation. Also, natural forests cannot provide enough seedlings in for artificial
regeneration such as plantation establishment.
uindia
Types of Nurseries
. There are different types of nursery currently existing in Nigeria, and these type of
numerles are
categorized by the production capacity or type of species produced. The main types
include
· Temporary or shifting nursery
· Permanent or central nursery:
· Individual/community nursery
Offers Include
· Research mirsery
· Agricultural nursery
"heferiftiral nurseryTemporary or Shifting Nursery
Temporary nurseries are relatively small in size and are increased or degrensed in size
and metber depending on the planting stock demand. It is a government owned
nursery established to provide planting stock for a particular project, for a short time
(1-3years). In Nigeria, the nurseries are usually located on recently felled high forest
areas where there is - Ibmandance of organic matter in the soil and are abandoned
before the soil deteriorates under thecesove cropping or when the government project
is completed. Temporary nurseries tire mefit in arms where a small number of plant is
needed, beating up or supplementing natural
regeneration is required.
Int temporary nursery, cost of transportation and handling risks is reduced to the
minimum due to the proximity of nursery to the planting site.
Permanent or Central Nursery
Permanent parsenies are larger than temporary nurseries and are intens vely managed,
having large quantity of stock (usually well over 500.000 seedlings). These nurseries
are often government owned and produce seedlings year in yenr out on the same site.
The initial capital
volvement for central nursery is greater than for temporary nurseries. The forest
manager of these large nurseries are able to concentrate their skilled supervisory staff
and provide bettur and equipment and facilities for staff and labour. This implies that
a central nursery is more easily supervised, better cared for and the stock can be
grown at a lower cost!
Ihurt In several shifting nurseries of equal production. However, the cost of
transporting
Compare
seedlings from permanent nurseries to planting sites may be high. Also, cultivation,
leaching forma Doras anTemporary or Shifting Nursery
Temporary nurseries are relatively small in size and are increased or degrensed in size
and metber depending on the planting stock demand. It is a government owned
nursery established to provide planting stock for a particular project, for a short time
(1-3years). In Nigeria, the nurseries are usually located on recently felled high forest
areas where there is - Ibmandance of organic matter in the soil and are abandoned
before the soil deteriorates under thecesove cropping or when the government project
is completed. Temporary nurseries tire mefit in arms where a small number of plant is
needed, beating up or supplementing natural
regeneration is required.
Int temporary nursery, cost of transportation and handling risks is reduced to the
minimum due to the proximity of nursery to the planting site.
Permanent or Central Nursery
Permanent parsenies are larger than temporary nurseries and are intens vely managed,
having large quantity of stock (usually well over 500.000 seedlings). These nurseries
are often government owned and produce seedlings year in yenr out on the same site.
The initial capital
volvement for central nursery is greater than for temporary nurseries. The forest
manager of these large nurseries are able to concentrate their skilled supervisory staff
and provide bettur and equipment and facilities for staff and labour. This implies that
a central nursery is more easily supervised, better cared for and the stock can be
grown at a lower cost!
Ihurt In several shifting nurseries of equal production. However, the cost of
transporting
Compare
seedlings from permanent nurseries to planting sites may be high. Also, cultivation,
leaching forma Doras an

Temporary or Shifting Nursery

Temporary nurseries are relatively small in size and are increased or degrensed in size
and metber depending on the planting stock demand. It is a government owned
nursery established to provide planting stock for a particular project, for a short time
(1-3years). In Nigeria, the nurseries are usually located on recently felled high forest
areas where there is - Ibmandance of organic matter in the soil and are abandoned
before the soil deteriorates under thecesove cropping or when the government project
is completed. Temporary nurseries tire mefit in arms where a small number of plant is
needed, beating up or supplementing natural
regeneration is required.
Int temporary nursery, cost of transportation and handling risks is reduced to the
minimum due to the proximity of nursery to the planting site.
Permanent or Central Nursery
Permanent parsenies are larger than temporary nurseries and are intens vely managed,
having large quantity of stock (usually well over 500.000 seedlings). These nurseries
are often government owned and produce seedlings year in yenr out on the same site.
The initial capital
volvement for central nursery is greater than for temporary nurseries. The forest
manager of these large nurseries are able to concentrate their skilled supervisory staff
and provide bettur and equipment and facilities for staff and labour. This implies that
a central nursery is more easily supervised, better cared for and the stock can be
grown at a lower cost!
Ihurt In several shifting nurseries of equal production. However, the cost of
transporting
Compare
seedlings from permanent nurseries to planting sites may be high. Also, cultivation,
leaching forma Doras and removal of yearly crops of seedlings result in rapid
depletion of the fertility of permanent
nurseries These problems can be reduced by the use of polythene pots.
Fidividual/Community Nurserie:
This type of nursery is owned by private individuals or communities. this a type st
temporary nursery where seedlings can be raised for personal or commercial purpose
liusmall quantities. Scale of production depends on the need and financial standing of
the contaunity or individual. "Agroforestry practice, woodlots and windbreaks
establishments that have begun to gain popularity, have made these nursery types
necessary. matan
Research nurseries are nurseries of institutions of learning such as universities,
polytechnics sind research institutes. They are funded by government or other bodies
and are basically for training, teaching and research. Research findings are obtained
from these nurseries and they are not managed for profit making.
Some nurseries, are established on the basis of the types of plants raised. Agncultural
nurseries are for agronomic crops such as Coffee Arabica. Theobroma cacao, Eliniex
gumensis, Havea brassilensis etc. Horticultural nurseries are for ornamental and
landscaping purposes. Examples are exotic palms, Delonix ragia, Ixora etc. most of
these are owned by individuals and are basically for commercial purposes.

Factors considered when selecting a nursery site

There are a number of factors that determine the success of producing nursery stock
fin forest planting. Selecting an ideal site for the nursery is also dependent on these
factors The factors'hte efficient administration and supervision, suitability and degree
of development of the mummery site, cultural practices employed. The most
important factors taken into consideration are soil and topography of the site,
adequate supply of water: labour and supervision; accessibility to major roads,
neamess to planting site as well as freedom from adverse biotic factors.
The administration is responsible for determining the species, the amount and various
classes ol stuck required annually and the distribution channels to various
administrative omits of forest mean The early decision by the administrator, for,
instance, whether or not to produce Il potted or open-rooted stock will eliminate
subsequent dispatch of open-rooted stock te harsh sites where they may not succeed.
To enhance efficiency adequate supervision must be provided Due to the exacting
nature of the business, extensive scale of demand, alphin. carefully arranged budget to
cater for all the various operations in essential, mdladino accurate set of nursery
records,
Selection of nursery sites for large-scale is quite difficult as careful study is required.
This H because large scale production of planting stock in expensive and can be
exacting on the site The site must therefore be chosen with care to ensure that
operational costs are minunal both In temporary and permanent nurseries Proximity to
nursery site should also be considered in looming a nursery since it affects
transportation of seedlings to a large extent AHo, Ha
nursety should also be located close to, source of labour. Adequate supply of labour
and proper upervision is essential during transplanting, weeding and lifting of planting
stock
A good soll is essential for the success of nursery stock production, Soils that must
fully meet the requirements for growing a diversity of species are uniformly deep with
fine w come sandy lowun texture underlain by a sub-soll that is stiffer yet permeable.
These soils de better drained und gany to work, and permits better seedling root
development. Extremely light und loose handy soils with low organic matter are not
suitable as they have poor moisture retention capacity and are susceptible to leaching
and erosion under heavy rainfall er wind groslen in the savanna zones. Acidity of the
soil should also be suitable. This is because some mmeral mtrients can be unavailable
under very acid soll and more alkaline spil favour a iping off fungi and root-rot
disease. Organic matter content and nutrient status should be mgh and capable of easy
maintenance/ Improvement in permanent misery. Myceriniza- forming fungi should
be available where pines are to be raised.
It & important to site nurseries close to adequate supply of water. The amount of
water in the poul has tremendous effect on seed germination and growth In Nigeria
for example, tempotrzy nurseries are sited on river banks. Wells can be provided
where the streame tun de dining the dry season.
In the zavanna region, wind in the dry season cause high rate of mortality among
seedlings in exposed nurittries. Therefore, the nurseries should be sited in areas that
are naturally khailed Fit example, in Uganda, closely planted hedges/wind-breaks,
which are fost growing trees HE =Habbibed around and at intervals within nursery.
However artificinl shelters are often Heeded in their early stage before the hedges
establish

Site preparation

The first step in starting both permanent and temporary nurseries in the tropics
involves removal of any existing vegetation on the site, as a clean nursery site is of
paramount important to efficient seed sowing. The choice of the technique for
clearing the site will depend on the nature of the pre-existing vegetation, the area to be
cleared and available funds. The main aim of site preparation is to have a perfectly
prepared medium to receive tree seeds in germination beds or seedlings in transplant
beds or pots. Sons can be tilled and Tposened to a working depth of about 20cm to
25cm to facilitate root penetration, good
moisture retention and weed elimination.
Nursery layout
A nursery layout should be properly designed when establishing a nursery. The
nursery
should be separated into different blocks and arranged to ensure a smooth flow of
misery
operations. The main parts of the nursery include
greas to be occupied by planting stock/seedlings (germination and tramuplaint beds or
polypots), storage areas for tools and equipments, necess roads paths into and within
the nursery, water source, drainage ditches etc. In permanent nurseries, the store for
thor and equipments should be located near the entrance or gate. Fencing a nursery is
of necessity (wind breaks included) so as to control access into the nursery area. Also,
attention should be
paid to vehicle access, Where mechanical operations will be involved, adequate
tuminig oreas should be provided to avoid unnecessary reversing.

Nursery Schedule
This is the timing of the various nursery activities that will lead to planting out. The
main operitions inva nursery include location of nursery, preparing beds/pot filling,
stacking pots. sowing desired seeds, trusplanting and tending operations. Operational
schedule must be strictly followed to achieve success. After preparation of nursery
site, seed collection, acquiring of tools. prepartion of beds, pot-filling and stacking,
pot-lifting and stacking, seedi
pruning hardening off and seedling evacuation are the main activities before planting
our. At the
end of mising seedlings in the nursery, tools are cleaned and stored away. At 30 -
45cm, nursery seedlings can be planted out. Nursery schedule must be properly
planned before commencement. A nursery schedule is usually prepared in a tabular
form, as it makes it easy to read nd understand at a glance. A well prepared nursery
schedule makes planning easy. time and labour well managed. This ensures the
success of seedling production.

ADD TABLE HERE

Generalized working schedule for nursery operations in Nigeria
Planting time out for some species include
· Nauclea diderrichit-12-18 months
Milicia excelsa - 12-18 months
· Treculia africana - 6-12 months
· "Khaya senegalensis - 6-12 months
· Terminalia ivorensis -6-12 months

Preparation of Germination beds and Polythene pots

Seedlings are sometimes raised on germination beds (especially bare-rooted stock)
and are thereafter transferred to transplant beds, poly-pots or other containers. In
constructing germination beds, stumps and stubbles present on site are removed and
the ground is theroughly tilled. The soil is then raised to about 30cm height and 1.2m
width. Bed length should not be more than 20m in length. Paths between beds should
be 60cm.
Seedlings may also be transplanted into containers when of is necessary to plant out
with considerable quantity of soil, ensuring the roots are not disturbed in any way:
There are different types of containers used for this purpose, split coconut shell,
baskets lined with coconut leaves (Gliana), earthen ware pots (Democratic Republic
of Congo), cavity trays (Brazil), paper pots (Japan), calabash and baskets and
polythene pots. The most commonly Hised in Nigeria is the poly-pots. The poly-pots
have gained popularity due to the convenience and ease of use, and to meet the high
targets for afforestation projects.
Irrespective of the type of container used, the quality of soil mixture used to fill it is
Important as roots have a limited space to develop. Organic or inorganic manure can
also be used to enhance seedling growth. Some potting mixture used include,
River sand + composted cow dung
2 River sand + mychorrhizal innoculum
River sand + forest top soil
4. River sand + bone meal for fertilizer/superphosphate

Poly-pots are In three sizes, small medium and large. Commonly used are the medium
and small sizes of dimensions, 16x8cm and 12x5cm respectively. The size of pots to
be used will depend on the purpose of use.
Seed sowing
The time of seed sowing in the tropics varies with species. In Nigeria for example,
sowing towards the end of the dry season (February/March in the South and
March/April in the North) and watering the germination beds. This has proven
cheaper as transplanting is then done in the rainy season. Seedlings are then able to
establish properly in the rainy season.
Generally, two methods of sowing, broadcast and drilling with finger or stick
decommonly used. In brondeast sowing, seeds are uniformly distributed over the seed
bed or germination tray. Pricking out seedlings is carried out after germination of
broadcast seeds. In Nigeria, seeds of Terminalia, Nauclea, Milicia are sown broadcast
in germination beds or seed boxes and later transplanted. Mixing the tiny seeds with
sand when broadcasting, will give seeds weight, ensure a uniform spread of seeds and
protect seeds from direct impact of watering. After which very light soil is used to
cover seeds. Tiny seeds can however be sown by drilling when mised in a container.
Bigger seeds such as seeds of Neem and Gmelina are sown by drilling holes in
germination beds or containers. Sowing beds should not be too deep so as not to
reduce germination, aeration of germinated seeds and germination rate. Although,
sowing depth can also depend on the size of seed, conditions of seed bed and sowing
season. Sowing of seeds directly in individual containers that will be planted out with
seedlings is quite distinct from sowing in germination beds, Germinations beds and
the cost associated with pricking out are eliminated. Handling damage done to the
stems of tender seedlings during planting is avoided. Isolating the seedlings from
eschi by this process decreases mortality from fungal pathogens such as damping-off,
It is
also economical as only a small amount of seedling is required per container.
To ensure the success of these sowing techniques, seed beds and potting mixtures
must be thoroughly watered just before sowing and continued thereafter through
germination and early seedling development.
Cultural practices in the nursery (nursery care)
1 I. Watering
Watering is a very important part of nursery operations and source of water must be
taken into consideration when locating a nursery. Exposing seedlings to water stress
can be highly detrimental to the success of seedling production. Germination beds
should be watered immediately after sowing of seeds and beds should be continuously
kept moist. Beds should never be allowed to dry up. It is important to keep beds moist
with light application of water at least twice a day, during the initial germination
period. Timing of watering is important until the roots are long enough to penetrate
the mineral soil to sustain the seedling growth. Excessive watering must be avoided
this is because it will increase cost, lead to leaching out of nutrients and create
favourable conditions for damping off disease. The need for watering! frequency and
amount of water is dependent on the climatic condition in the nursery, rate of water
absorption by the roots and water holding capacity of the soil in the root zone. Also,
nutrient uptake and the growth rate of seedlings is affected by the frequency and
quantity of moisture application. Watering cans, knapsack mist sprayers and drip
irrigation (automated system) are used for watering in nurseries. Water is pumped
through pipes bearing nozzles in the automated system. Sprinkling devices with
changeable nozzle diameter units is recommended so as to regulate watering at
different growth stages of seedlings. The use of hosepipes and buckets should not be
used for watering.
2. Weeding
When weeds are allowed to compete with seedlings at this stage (for moisture, light,
mineral nutrients), the seedling growth can be stunted or large percentage of the stock
can be killed. Weeds must therefore be controlled in germination beds, transplant beds
and . potting media. Hand weeding is commonly used for polypots while hoes can be
used in transplant beds. Care should be taken when weeding so as not to cause any
damage to the seedlings.
3. Shading
Different tree species have their various shade requirements. Light demanding species
like Gmelina and Tectona can germinate without shade. In southern Nigeria, shading
of germination beds is more or less routine. Some species cannot bear the impact of
the sunlight even on the bare ground around them. Such seedlings may require some
shade In the savanna zones, shading is provided for small seedlings sown in boxes or
trays. Mature trees at nursery boundaries can also provide some shade and reducing
the temperature within nursery.

1. Pricking-Out
Seedlings soon become overcrowded in a germination bed. Therefore as soon as
seedlings reach appropriate size (which varies with species), they are carefully lifted
and transplanted to transplant beds, individual pots or other containers. This operation
is carried out when seedlings are large enough to handle, at about two-leaf stage. The
main aim of pricking out and transplanting is to give the seedlings even and wider
space to develop without competition from other seedlings.
2. Root pruning
Root pruning is carried out both for potted and bare rooted stock production. It is the
pruning of the main tap root of a growing seedling and is carried out when there is a
need to retard or reduce shoot development or to promote the development of lateral
roots. This is to enable the plant withstand the harsh conditions of the field by
developing new rooting system. Also the growth of these fibrous roots will enhance
more access to immobile soil nutrients, and the tangling of nearby rooting system will
be prevented.
In potted seedlings, the root tips that have grown out through the perforated bottom of
the pot are pruned, using a very sharp knife/scissors. This is commonly practiced in
savanna zones and in irrigated nurseries.
The optimal severity and frequency of pruning is dependent on species and the
conditions under which it is grown.
3. Hardening-off
This is an important operation which is often overlooked in nurseries. Nursery plants
are grown in fertile soils and are well supplied with water. The plants become
vigorous. succulent and are therefore not equipped enough to withstand the harsh
conditions on the feld. When such species are planted out can experience some shock
that could slow Bown its growth temporarily. Therefore a process needs to be applied
to the seedlings where reduction in watering frequency, removal of shade (for shaded
species) is gradually imposed on seedlings before they are planted out. This is called
hardening off
4. Lifting and Transportation of Nursery stock
The way and manner in which seedlings are evacuated to the plantation establishment
site is important to the overall success of the nursery work and planting project.
Nursery stock must be handled with great care in the process of lifting from the
nursery to ensure survival in the field after planting. The labour to do evacuation
efficiently, equipment and materials for lifting as well as good transportation to safely
take seedlings to site must be prepared. Root damage (while lifting) and root
desiccation (during waiting before planting) should be avoided. Bedded stock should
always be lifted when the ground is moist or after thoroughly irrigating, and should be
lifted gently. Bedded stocks ure usually made into striplings or stumps. Striplings are
made by removing all seedling leaves, leaving only the apical ones. Stumps are made
by cutting seedlings to 30cm in length (25cm below root collar and Sem above it).
The shoot is given a slant cut to allow water runoff and prevent infection. After
preparation the rooting portions of the striplings and stumps are dipped in mud to
prevent drying out. Hand, hoes, trowels machetes are often used for lifting bedded
stock.

Nursery Tools and Materials

Tools and materials used in the nursery include,
Wwwcellthrow, axe, digger, dibble, cutlass, garden fork, sieve, watering can,
secateurs, funnel.
knapstick sprayer, trowel, rake etc.
Importance of Keeping Nursery Records
Keeping records in a nursery is a very vital part of nursery operations. The records
will help in
improving nursery management, keep account of costs and seedling distribution, and
provide
Information on seed source, pest/disease control techniques etc. Record keeping can
also help
identify nursery research needs as well as enable the nursery administration establish
effective management techniques:
Some aspects covered in nursery record include
Area and location of nursery
· Labour
:: Quantity of seeds collected/purchased
· Number of beds/pots/seedlings raised per species
· Sowing/germination/transplant dates
Equipment/tools/potting mixtures and ratios