Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384

João Vidal Carvalho

António Abreu
Dália Liberato
José Angel Díaz Rebolledo Editors

Advances in
Tourism, Technology
and Systems
Selected Papers from ICOTTS 2023,
Volume 2

123
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies

Volume 384

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Robert J. Howlett, KES International, Shoreham-by-Sea, UK
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João Vidal Carvalho · António Abreu ·
Dália Liberato · José Angel Díaz Rebolledo
Editors

Advances in Tourism,
Technology and Systems
Selected Papers from ICOTTS 2023,
Volume 2
Editors
João Vidal Carvalho António Abreu
Institute of Accounting and Administration Institute of Accounting and Administration
of Porto of Porto
Polytechnic Institute of Porto Polytechnic Institute of Porto
Porto, Portugal Porto, Portugal

Dália Liberato José Angel Díaz Rebolledo

School of Hospitality and Tourism Faculty of Tourism and Gastronomy
Polytechnic Institute of Porto Universidad Anáhuac
Porto, Portugal Cancún Quintana Roo, Mexico

ISSN 2190-3018 ISSN 2190-3026 (electronic)

Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies
ISBN 978-981-99-9882-1 ISBN 978-981-99-9758-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9

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Preface

This book—Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems: Selected Papers from

ICOTTS 2023, Volume 2—from the SIST Series is composed of the best-selected
papers accepted for presentation and discussion at the 2023 International Confer-
ence on Tourism, Technology and Systems (ICOTTS’23). The ICOTTS is a multi-
disciplinary conference with a special focus on new technologies and systems in
the tourism sector and was held between 2 and 4 November 2023. The ICOTTS’23
was supported by the Anáhuac University, Bacalar, Mexico, and by the International
Association for Digital Transformation and Technological Innovation (IADITI).
The International Conference on Tourism, Technologies and Systems is an inter-
national forum for researchers and professionals in the tourism sector, which enables
the discussion of the latest innovations, trends and concerns in several areas, in the
tourism sector, associated with Information Technologies and Systems. It is an event
for professionals in the sector, in search of technology solutions, where academics,
IT experts and business managers meet to discuss new ideas that help them maximize
the potential of tourism business through technology.
The ICOTTS’23 Scientific Committee is composed of a multidisciplinary group of
140 experts who assessed some 298 papers from 24 countries, received for each of the
main topics proposed for the conference: (a) Tourism research in providing innova-
tive solutions to social problems; (b) information and communication technologies in
hospitality and tourism industry; (c) sustainable tourism; (d) tourism trends; (e) health
and wellness tourism; (f) tourism management; (g) marketing strategies in hospi-
tality and tourism industry; (h) hospitality, tourism and foodservice environment;
(i) tourism in the different scientific areas; and (j) eTourism and Tourism 2.0.
The papers accepted for presentation and discussion at the conference are
published by Springer and will be submitted for indexing by ISI, SCOPUS,
EI-Compendex, Google Scholar and Springerlink.

v
vi Preface

We thank all those who contributed to the ICOTTS’23 conference (authors,

committees, workshop organizers and sponsors). We deeply appreciate your involve-
ment and support, which were crucial to the success of the conference.

Porto, Portugal João Vidal Carvalho

November 2023 António Abreu
Dália Liberato
José Angel Díaz Rebolledo
Contents

1 Strategic Management of Cultural Projects—CIM DOURO

Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Ana Branca Carvalho, Susana M. S. R. Fonseca, Ana Guia,
Miguel Mota, and Milene Carvalho
2 Effects of Internet Access on Tourist Consumption in Mexican
Households . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Hazael Cerón Monroy, Carmen Lozano,
and José Ángel Díaz Rebolledo
3 Enhancing Tourist Experiences: Integrating ChatGPT
and 360 VR Videos in Tourism and Tourist Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Hui-Wen Huang, Joseph Anthony Narciso Z. Tiangco, Xuan Du,
Jiahao Tao, and Sumei Wu
4 Residents’ Perceptions of Sustainable Tourism Development
in an Emerging Destination: A Factor-Cluster Approach . . . . . . . . . . 37
Isabel Vieira, Ana Rodrigues, Elisa Alén, and Miguel Mota
5 Data Science in Supporting Hotel Management: Application
of Predictive Models to Booking.com Guest Evaluations . . . . . . . . . . 51
Ana Filipa Martins, Luís M. Silva, and Jorge Marques
6 Organizational Commitment: The Role of Organizational
Happiness and Quiet Quitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Sergio Dominique-Ferreira, Marina Oliveira, and Catherine Prentice
7 Proposal for a Technological Thematic Concept for the Trays
Festival Museum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Rui Miguel Ferreira Carvalho and João Tomaz Simões

vii
viii Contents

8 The Impact of Corporate Governance on Financial

Performance: Study for Portuguese Hotel Companies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Clara Fonseca, Nuno Moutinho, and Jorge Alves
9 The Influence of the Senior Tourist Profile on the Assessment
of the Dimensions of Well-Being and Quality of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Maria Carlos Lopes, Dália Liberato, and Elisa Alén
10 Experiences of Backpackers: An Overview of Publications . . . . . . . . 111
Ana Cristina Silvério and Paula Odete Fernandes
11 Importance–Performance Analysis of Oleotourism Experience . . . . 129
Jessica Ferreira, Ana Cristina Silvério, Elaine Scalabrini,
and Paula Odete Fernandes
12 Present and Future Digital Media Experiences to Support
Travellers’ Decision Process During Online Accommodation
Booking: A Systematic Literature Review and Bibliometric
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Márcia Vaz, Paula Odete Fernandes, and Roberto Vaz
13 Motivating Factors in Choosing a Wine Tourism Destination
and Its Impact on Territorial Marketing Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Adriano Costa, Teresa Felgueira, and Ana Adegra
14 Financial Impact of COVID-19: Perspective
from the Hospitality and Restaurant Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Maria Durães, Alexandrino Ribeiro, and Laurentina Vareiro
15 The Dynamics of Participant Engagement in a Food Festival:
The Soup Congress Case in Tomar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
João Tomaz Simões, Célio Gonçalo Marques,
and Lígia Coutinho Mateus
16 Proposal for the Creation of a MOOC on Military Tourism . . . . . . . 203
Célio Gonçalo Marques, Lígia Mateus, and João Tomaz Simões
17 Cross-Border Tourism: A Residents’ Perspective of the Iberian
Meseta Reserve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Elaine Scalabrini, Márcia Vaz, João Paulo Teixeira,
Carlos Jesus Rivas Rojo, David Alonso, Lucía Mestre,
and Paula Odete Fernandes
18 The Impact of Work-Life Conflict on Employees’ Emotional
Well-Being and the Adoption of Quiet Quitting—A Study
Case Applied to the Portuguese Hospitality Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Helena Carina Ferreira Rocha, Márcia Duarte,
and Sérgio Dominique-Ferreira
Contents ix

19 Reviving the Templar Tale: Proposal for the Creation

of an Immersive Experience Through the Templar Heritage
of Tomar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
João Tomaz Simões, Lígia Coutinho Mateus,
and Célio Gonçalo Marques
20 Business Intelligence Tools to Improve Business Strategy . . . . . . . . . . 251
Maria Inês Campante, Célia Talma Gonçalves,
and Maria José Angélico Gonçalves
21 Technology Towards Luxury Brands: Preliminary Insights
on Fashion Tourism, Metaverse and Non-fungible Token (NFT) . . . 269
Vasco Santos and Bruno Sousa
22 Applying the Importance–Performance Matrix to the Podence
Carnival Festival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Fernanda A. Ferrreira, Cláudia S. Martins, and Paula O. Fernandes
23 Nutrition Software to the Management and Support of Health
and Wellness Tourism: An Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Tiago Veiga, Sandro Carvalho, João Carlos Silva,
and João Vidal Carvalho
24 Backpackers’ Space–time Behaviour in a World Heritage
City—Porto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Márcio Ribeiro Martins, Rui Augusto da Costa,
and Adriana Fumi Chim-Miki
25 Environmental Corporate Social Responsibility (ECSR)
in a Price-Set Competition Between Private and State-Owned
Hotels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Fernanda A. Ferreira, Flávio Ferreira, and Oana R. Bode
26 Tourist Technology Satisfaction: Scale Development
and Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
José Mendes, Inês Boavida-Portugal, and Teresa Borges-Tiago
27 Dialogic Communication and Dialogic Loop Principle
in Official Websites of Tourism—Hospitality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Adriana Oliveira and Ana Pereira
28 A Fuzzy ELECTRE Method to Model the Risk in Credit
Products for Financing Tourism Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Daniel García, Natalia Perez-Muñoz, Alejandro Peña,
João Vidal Carvalho, and Lina Sepulveda
29 How Wine Information Seeking and Event Participation
Impact Knowledge and Determines the Purchasing Behavior? . . . . . 373
Elvira Vieira, Ana Pinto Borges, Paula Rodrigues,
Svitlana Ostapenko, and António Lopes de Almeida
x Contents

30 The Role of Sociodemographic Characteristics on the Journey

from Brand Experience to Brand Love and Loyalty—Porto . . . . . . . 385
Bárbara Santos, Margarida Carvalho, Paula Emer,
Ana Pinto Borges, Bruno Vieira, Amélia Brandão, and Elvira Vieira
31 Perception of Risk and Identification of Security Measures
When Visiting Cultural Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Jorge Marques and Fátima Matos Silva
32 Visiting Porto Through the Eyes of Eugénio de Andrade . . . . . . . . . . 405
Ana Ferreira and Marta Villares
33 The Perception of Tourists Regarding the Importance
of Influencers in Shaping the Image of a Tourist Destination:
The Case of Melgaço (Portugal) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Gysele Xavier, Sónia Nogueira, and Laurentina Vareiro
34 Social Media and the Growth of E-commerce—Multiple Case
Studies: MusaMakeup and CRU Ecoliving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Ana Paula Camarinha, António Abreu, and Rafaela Ferreira
35 Improving Accessibility as a Strategy for Social Sustainability
in Tourism Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Dália Liberato, Pedro Liberato, Ana Vieira, Cristina Rodrigues,
and Teresa Mendes
36 Fashion as an Economic Sustainability Indicator in Tourism
Destinations’ Governance Through Business Participation . . . . . . . . 455
Dália Liberato, Benedita Mendes, Elisa Alén, and Pedro Liberato
37 Technology Applications in the Competitiveness of Tourism
Destinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Pedro Liberato, Diogo Pereira, Dália Liberato,
and Maria Carlos Lopes
38 Events’ Tourism and Hospitality Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Dália Liberato, Elga Costa, Isabel Barradas, Pedro Liberato,
and Joaquim Ribeiro
39 Entrepreneurship and Covid-19: The Entrepreneurial
Challenge in a Global Pandemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Silvia Lorena Llamuca-Pérez, Tania Morales Molina,
and Marcelo Javier Mancheno-Saá
40 Educational Practice: The Domain of Curricular Autonomy
(DCA) at Fontes Pereira de Melo School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Ana Ferreira and Marta Villares
Contents xi

41 Societies, ICT, and Higher Education in the Twenty-First

Century: Reflections and Proposals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
C. M. Santana
42 The Importance of Digital Marketing in Hospitality: The
Case of Hotel Fafense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Catarina Mota, Isabel Borges, José Luís Braga, and Sandra Brás

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545

About the Editors

João Vidal Carvalho is an Adjunct Professor at Porto Accounting and Business

School/ Polytechnic University of Porto (Portugal). Post-Doctorate in Technologies
and Information Systems at the University of Coimbra. PhD in Information Systems
and Technology from the University of Santiago de Compostela, Master in Informa-
tion Technology Management from the University of Minho and Degree in Infor-
matics/Applied Mathematics from the Portucalense University. He was (between
2020 and 2022) Vice-Director and now is Integrated member of the Research Center
for Organizational and Social Studies of the Polytechnic of Porto (CEOS.PP). Effec-
tive member of the Committee for Recognition / Certification of Skills of ISCAP /
Polytechnic University of Porto. Vice-President of IADITI - International Associa-
tion for Digital Transformation and Technological Innovation. General Chair of the
International Conference on Tourism, Technologies and Systems and General Chair
of the International Conference on Information Technologies and Education. Editor-
in-Chief of the Journal of Information Systems Engineering and Management and
Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Information and Communication Technologies.

António Abreu is an associate professor at the Higher Institute of Accounting and

Administration of Porto, Polytechnic University of Porto, and post-doctorate in Infor-
mation Technologies and Systems, at the University of Coimbra, Department of
Computer Engineering of the Faculty of Sciences and Technology of the University
of Coimbra. He has done Ph.D. in Software Engineering based on reusable compo-
nents with human-machine interface applications at the University of Vigo. He is
currently a lecturer in the scientific area of information systems at the Instituto Supe-
rior de Contabilidade e Administração do Porto/Politécnico do Porto, ISCAP/PPorto.
He is an integrated researcher at the Research Centre CEOS.PP—Centre for Orga-
nizational and Social Studies of the Polytechnic of Porto. He is an editor-in-chief of
the Journal of Information Systems Engineering and Management (JISEM).

Dália Liberato has done Ph.D. in Tourism Management and Planning and Master’s
in management and Planning of Inland and Health Tourism from the University of
Vigo (Spain). She is an associate professor at the Tourism and Leisure Department

xiii
xiv About the Editors

of the School of Hospitality and Tourism (Polytechnic University of Porto), where

she teaches several curricular units in tourism at undergraduate and master levels.
Currently, she coordinates the Tourist Activities Management degree in the same
school (ESHT-P.PORTO). She supervised and co-supervised several M.Sc. disser-
tations and Ph.D. theses. She is also involved in applied research and consultancy
projects in Tourism and Leisure and is a member of organizing and scientific commit-
tees of international conferences. She is the author or co-author of more than 50 book
chapters and articles published in international journals and international conference
proceedings, indexed by Scopus and/or Web of Science.

José Angel Díaz Rebolledo has Master’s in Economic Management and Public
Finance from the University of Birmingham, England. He has specialized in two
lines of work: development of the tourism sector and supervision, regulation and
development of financial systems. In his most recent assignment, he has worked in
the academic sector as the director of the Faculty of Tourism and Gastronomy at the
Universidad Anahuac. He was also a general director of destination management at
the Ministry of Tourism where he designed and implemented the reengineering of
the Pueblos Mágicos programme. He also served as the director of the Centre for
Research and Tourism Studies of the Tecnológico de Monterrey, during which time
he implemented and was in charge of the information system “Perfitur” as well as
its publication.
Chapter 1
Strategic Management of Cultural
Projects—CIM DOURO Training

Ana Branca Carvalho , Susana M. S. R. Fonseca , Ana Guia ,

Miguel Mota , and Milene Carvalho

Abstract Considering the implementation of new forms of strategic management in

organizations and the development of competencies, training in the area of cultural
heritage has become a priority in the CIM (Inter-municipal Communities). The
SMART methodologies and Start Up tools allow creating a commitment to the orga-
nization in a holistic vision, which is essential for local development. The 19 munic-
ipalities of the Douro region, part of the territorial structure of Intermunicipalities
Community (CIMDOURO) have invested in the training of their employees with the
aim of equipping them for the new technological realities in the strategic manage-
ment of cultural projects. This training is based on simplification of processes and
improvement of procedures, using digital platforms. The e-learning training took
place from January to June 2023. Through online training, our goal is to identify
the needs of organizations, particularly municipalities, and their territorial identities,
developing strategies for managing cultural projects and creating their own action
plans. Currently, employees of various municipalities have the task of developing
action plans to study or explore new locations or create networks based on the cultural
heritage of these places, promoting sustainability and diversity. This study aims to
identify what strategic management of cultural projects is and the need for various
territories to use different types of action plans to improve their performance. The
case study is limited to the training of employees in the 19 municipalities of the
Douro region. The case study was limited to the training of employees in the 19
municipalities of the Douro region. To achieve this objective, a non-probabilistic

A. B. Carvalho (B)
CISeD, Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, Viseu, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
S. M. S. R. Fonseca
CI&DEI, Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, Viseu, Portugal
A. Guia · M. Mota
CERNAS, Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, Viseu, Portugal
M. Carvalho
CEOS .PP ISCAP Research Centre, Viseu, Portugal

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 1
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_1
2 A. B. Carvalho et al.

convenience sample of 16 employees was directly involved, representing various

municipalities working in the field of heritage and culture.

1.1 Introduction

This article aims to reflect on the importance of strategic management of cultural

projects in local municipalities. Local administrations, especially in municipal
management, increasingly need to develop a period that is more favourable to the
survival of territories and the people living in them, by investing in the training of
their assets for the subsequent application of management strategies.
It is necessary to understand how to use new management strategies in the cultural
heritage field, simplifying processes and procedures through SMART and Start UP
methodologies and tools. With technological advancements and the development of
integrations and APIs (Application Programming Interfaces), it is now possible to
automatically collect different data and present it in visual format, providing support
for strategic decision-making.
Investing in the training of assets, i.e. local administration employees, through
e-learning, or distance learning, was one of the strategies used to implement this
change with new tools and methodologies [2]. Thus, asset training aims to acquire
skills in using tools that allow constant thinking in both short and long term. The goal
is to achieve a greater commitment in terms of efficiency versus effectiveness. The
difference between these two concepts can be summarized as the difference between
“doing things well” (efficiency) and “doing the right things” (effectiveness). Often,
managers/employees focus so much on doing things well that they forget to check
whether they are doing the right things. The strategic perspective helps find a balance
between efficiency and effectiveness.
In this regard, various mechanisms or tools that support action plans, essential
for operationalizing asset training in terms of organizational change in the areas of
culture and heritage, were analysed. Among these action plans, the 5W 2H tool is
used in the SMART and Start UP methodologies, specifically known as Start Where,
which has become the most widely used in the training processes. The 5W 2H tool,
despite its objectivity and simplicity, is very useful for planning.
Due to the difficulty of providing training by physically gathering assets in one
place, distance learning was employed, using both synchronous and asynchronous
classes through platforms such as Zoom and Moodle.
The activities had two distinct moments, one focusing on the conceptual part
and the other on practical application. To understand the purpose of this study, the
article was divided into four parts, starting with the theoretical framework of new
forms of strategic heritage and cultural management, highlighting the relevance of
collaborative and economic platforms. In the second part, we mention the importance
of asset training through e-learning, focusing on the case study of CIMDOURO and
its 19 municipalities. It is crucial to see whether this strategy works, as it involves
synchronous and asynchronous activities and training.
1 Strategic Management of Cultural Projects—CIM DOURO Training 3

Subsequently, the methodology is presented, followed by the presentation and

discussion of the results obtained, concluding with final considerations.

1.2 Strategic Management of Cultural Facilities—Concepts

and Practices

The construction of organizational identity is a key point for successful management,

depending on the alignment between organizational culture (“who we are”), stake-
holders’ perception (“how we are seen”), and strategic vision (“who we want to be
and how we want to be seen”) [10, 15].

1.2.1 Strategic Management of Cultural Facilities

Some research highlights the importance of identity, branding [5], national [13], or
territorial identity context [3, 4].
One of the significant mistakes of local administration organizations is expending
considerable effort on activities that are not relevant to their core business, neglecting
the development of appropriate action plans.
A comprehensive strategic analysis is the foundation of strategy formulation,
which can be subdivided into four levels: functional, business, organizational, and
international. These levels arise from the fact that organizations/companies consist
of businesses that, in turn, consist of functions. The international level exists in
organizations/companies that have businesses in more than one country.
As mentioned earlier, formulating a strategy does not guarantee its realization.
Strategy implementation is the process of transforming intended strategies into real-
ized strategies, composed of integration, organizational structure, control, and lead-
ership [6]. Achieving a complete strategy implementation requires various forms of
integration. One of them is the integration of existing elements within the organiza-
tion necessary for implementing the intended strategy. Another form of integration
is linking functions to businesses, businesses to companies, and international oper-
ations to multinational enterprises. However, the most critical aspect is integrating
short-term objectives with the long-term objectives described in the organization’s
mission and vision. Strategy implementation demands certain prerequisites such as
delegating responsibilities, establishing communication channels, etc. Based on these
requirements, managers establish the necessary organizational structure for imple-
mentation [7]. During this process, control is necessary for two reasons: to maintain
efforts focused on the same objective and to make adjustments whenever necessary
due to unforeseen circumstances.
Strategic management of cultural facilities aims primarily to organize the contribu-
tions that various areas of cultural heritage have to offer to the organization, serving
4 A. B. Carvalho et al.

as a guiding line for integrating the efforts developed by various specialists and
collaborators dispersed throughout the organization.
To achieve this, it is essential to understand what Key Performance Indicators
(KPIs) are. These management tools allow for the verification of the level of perfor-
mance or success of an organization in a specific or overall goal, contributing to
systematic monitoring of objectives so that managers/employees of an organization
can assess whether they are on the right track.
The intended strategies should function as guiding principles for how the orga-
nization works to achieve its purposes. These guiding principles take the form of
policies or plans. Policies are essentially guidelines that indicate limits or restric-
tions on what is desired to be achieved, while plans refer to the means used to reach
certain ends. Due to the critical nature of time, it is often explicitly or implicitly
mentioned.
One methodology for setting goals is called SMART—specific, measurable,
attainable, relevant, and time-bound. SMART methodologies, combined with Start
Up methodologies, promote a change in organizational culture and create more
effective and efficient management strategies, with the sentence Where to Start.
The means used to manage action plans can be rules or even the organization’s
culture, which influences the behaviour of its collaborators (Fig. 1.1).
We can perceive that, increasingly, the management of cultural facilities is an
activity that lies at the heart of practice and research within broader concerns about
organizations, management, and the economy in the cultural and creative context
[11, 14, 16].
These facilities are associated with territories and belong to local administration.
In this sense, the territory represents, based on its material characteristics and rela-
tionships, not an unequivocal identity, but an identity potential that can be taken in
various forms, according to the system of meanings (cultural relations) and the form
of power organization (political relations) adopted by individuals.
The territory can present itself both as a physical environment, without which
the development of social relations cannot be conceived, and as a product of these
same social relations, in an uninterrupted and dynamic interrelationship between the
concrete and the symbolic.
Territorial identity is conceived here as a social construction. It is related
to ethnic, cultural, economic, political attributes, religious preferences, political
choices, aesthetics, and sexuality, rather than being something fixed and defined.
Territorial identity is built in the cultural and political relations that social groups
establish in the territory.
Cultural organizations/structures associated with these territories are leveraging
new information and communication technologies to reposition themselves and
ensure their sustainability in a tourism industry governed by new patterns and scales
of competition. In this context, technology becomes the vehicle that guarantees
efficiency and motivation for people.
The work processes and organization of a given institution involve the systematic
and permanent use of interconnected information systems. By doing so, it becomes
easier to preserve and leverage the “identity” of the institution.
1 Strategic Management of Cultural Projects—CIM DOURO Training 5

Fig. 1.1 Instruments and SMART methodologies associated with Start UP methodologies.
Source In 5S-Work Flow Management on Enterprise Excellence Deployment, Rick Hepp,
BPM Institute.Org. https://www.bpminstitute.org/resources/articles/5s-work-flow-management-
enterprise-excellence-deployment

Thus, managing these organizations represents many territorial and identity chal-
lenges for their managers, as the information system can be the primary platform for
knowledge transmission and performance evaluation, both individual and collective.
Today, there are platforms that utilize technology and open data, adopt more
participatory and even cooperative governance models (“platform cooperativism”),
measure their negative externalities (social, environmental), and are financed with
ethical capital and/or collective participation funding.
Cultural facilities can be defined as “buildings intended for cultural practices”
(theatres, cinemas, libraries, galleries, cultural centres, concert halls, museums, etc.)
that play a relevant social, economic, and cultural role in creative territories.
Digital structures and collaborative platforms in the strategic management of
cultural facilities need to simplify processes and procedures through efficient and
effective management mechanisms and instruments.
6 A. B. Carvalho et al.

1.2.2 The Platform Economy and Collaborative Economy

The objective of this work is to understand, discuss, and propose strategies for
managing cultural facilities that fully consider the territory and its identity charac-
teristics. The most simplified approach will be through the creation of action plans,
that is, instruments and methodologies that allow the execution of these plans.
As mentioned in the previous section, it is relevant to structure information and
communication networks capable of making management strategies work. One of
the possible solutions is the use of platforms.
The common platform economy is an emerging model based on the collabora-
tion of communities of contributors who, using digital platforms, develop common
resources with shared ownership and become accessible as a public good.
The collaborative economy consists of production, consumption, or financing
models based on intermediation between supply and demand generated in relation-
ships between peers (P2P or B2B), or from individuals to professionals, through
digital platforms that do not provide the underlying service, resulting in a better use
of existing but underutilized assets and resources.
In this way, it is possible to do more with fewer resources by using them more
efficiently. The principle that access is better than ownership is promoted, creating
greater abundance in society (absolute when goods are digital and relative when
goods or services are physical).
With these practices, the public administration can also do more with less,
developing its own action plans and structuring networks [1].
Through digital platforms, citizens can generate income by using their assets and/
or their time and skills discontinuously, without contracts, and with a different degree
of subordination on each platform, which raises the question of the need for new
regulatory frameworks to consider these new modes of production and employment.
Objetivo deste trabalho é perceber, discutir e propor estratégias de gestão de
equipamentos culturais que consideram plenamente o território e as suas originali-
dades identitárias. A forma mais simplificada será através da criação de planos de
ação, ou seja, instrumentos e metodologias que permitam a execução desses planos.

1.2.2.1 Action Plans and the 5W 2H Mechanism

An action plan is a mechanism that aims to simplify and expedite the processes of a
project, while ensuring that no step is overlooked.
Action plans are essential for implementing strategies and objectives in an organi-
zation. They are detailed documents that describe specific steps that need to be taken
to achieve goals and solve problems. Action plans typically include information
such as the activities to be performed, the individuals responsible for each activity,
deadlines for completion, required resources, and success indicators.
1 Strategic Management of Cultural Projects—CIM DOURO Training 7

Fig. 1.2 Action plans and the 5W 2H mechanism. Source In 5S-Work Flow Management on Enter-
prise Excellence Deployment, Rick Hepp, BPM Institute.Org. https://www.bpminstitute.org/resour
ces/articles/5s-work-flow-management-enterprise-excellence-deployment

With proper strategic planning, it is possible to know exactly where to start and
which steps to follow. Therefore, it should be designed with a focus or objective that
will guide the entire process.
The use of the 5W 2H helps in the practical definition of actions, and it serves
to discard objectives that do not contribute to the maintenance and growth of the
organization/company (Fig. 1.2).
The 5W 2H mechanism is a useful tool to assist in the creation of clear and
comprehensive action plans. The terms 5W and 2H represent specific questions that
should be answered when developing an action plan:
What (What will be done?): Clearly define the activity or task to be performed.
Why (Why will it be done?): Explain the purpose or reason why the activity is
important and how it contributes to larger objectives.
Who (Who will do it?): Identify the individuals or teams responsible for executing
the activity.
When (When will it be done?): Define the deadlines and sequence of activities to
ensure the plan is implemented in a timely manner.
Where (Where will it be done?): Specify the location or context in which the
activity will be carried out.
How (How will it be done?): Detail the methods or approaches for executing the
activity.
How much (How much will it cost?): Provide information about the financial
resources required to carry out the activity.
These answers provide a clear and comprehensive guide for the successful
implementation of action plans.
8 A. B. Carvalho et al.

1.2.2.2 The Advantages of 5W 2H

The advantages of using the 5W 2H mechanism in creating action plans are numerous:
Clarity: The 5W 2H mechanism provides a clear framework for developing
action plans, ensuring that all essential information is addressed and understood
straightforwardly.
Comprehensiveness: By answering the specific questions of what, why, who,
when, where, how, and how much, the action plan becomes comprehensive,
considering all relevant aspects for activity execution.
Precision: Through these questions, it is possible to detail activities, objectives,
and responsibilities, making the plan more precise and specific.
Guidance: The 5W 2H mechanism guides the team in the right direction, avoiding
deviations or unnecessary activities that do not contribute to the organization’s
larger objectives.
Decision-Making: Considering the necessary financial resources (how much),
managers can make more informed and efficient decisions regarding budget and
resource allocation.
Strategic Planning: Using 5W 2H is aligned with the organization’s strategic
planning, ensuring that action plans are in line with overall goals and objectives.
Effective Communication: The mechanism facilitates communication among
team members, as everyone has clarity on what needs to be done, who is
responsible, and when it should be accomplished.
Monitoring and Control: The answers provide parameters for evaluating progress
and performance, enabling the monitoring and control of the action plan.
Efficiency: The structure provided by 5W 2H increases efficiency in planning and
execution, saving time and resources.
In summary, the 5W 2H mechanism is a valuable tool that helps create action plans
in an organized, comprehensive, and effective manner, contributing to the success
and achievement of the organization’s objectives.
The advantages of using the 5W 2H mechanism in creating action plans are
numerous:
Application in different scenarios and departments of an organization, for
operational, strategic, or tactical purposes
Extensive detailing of goals.
Allows constant adaptation and reinvention.
Optimizes time.
Provides agility, clarity, and guidance to the team involved in the project.
Reduces costs by eliminating excessive trial and error.
Decreases expenses by using company resources effectively.
The 5W 2H is versatile, and it can be combined with other management tools:
SWOT analysis, Ishikawa diagram, etc.
1 Strategic Management of Cultural Projects—CIM DOURO Training 9

1.3 Case Study

The case study was based on a proposal for the Recovery and Resilience Facility
(RRF), followed by a protocol and project developed between CIMDOURO and the
Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, Lamego School of Technology and Management. This
proposal was founded on the phase of Prioritization and Strategic Definition carried
out through a “Collaborative Online Operationalization Journey of the 2020–2023
Strategy”.
This project aims to measure the competitiveness of organizations by evaluating
the value added and delivered to the customer or the target audience to whom
the services or products offered in the CIMDOURO territory are directed. It was
considered that acting on the components and decisive qualities of the intellec-
tual capital ensures this competitiveness, which, in a way, is synonymous with
competence—people, processes, and technologies—and agility.
We can say that the adaptability of organizations to the constantly changing
external environment depends on how the “mix” of people, processes, and tech-
nologies is managed. Managing this “mix” will enable organizations to handle risk,
while simultaneously planning for change, which is highly recommended in such
cases.

1.3.1 Methodology

Analyses were conducted in the 19 municipalities belonging to CIMDOURO. CIM is

an Intermunicipal Community that, according to the Legal Regime of Local Author-
ities and Intermunicipal Entities, coordinates the network of these 19 municipalities.
Almost all projects with European funding go through this associative entity.
After an initial contact, the possibility of providing distance training to their
employees in the areas of tourism, culture, and heritage was offered to the Municipal
Councils. A pre-registration was conducted for the existing modules associated with
a Short Course of 270 h, called “CIMDouro Active Training”. These 270 h included
three modules and submodules (Table 1.1).

1.3.2 Results and Discussion

No Módulo de Gestão de Equipamentos e Projetos Culturais—Submódulo de Gestão

Estratégica de Projetos Culturais, estiveram presentes 32 colaboradores perten-
centes a 12 concelhos (Sabrosa, Alijó, S. João da Pesqueira, Vila Real, Lamego,
Armamar, Santa Marta de Penaguião, Murça, Peso da Régua, Carrazeda de Ansiães,
Sernancelhe, Penedono) (Table 1.2).
10 A. B. Carvalho et al.

Table 1.1 Modules and submodules

Módulos Submódulos Horas Aulas
Informação Turística M1—Planeamento Turístico 20 Online
M2—Técnicas e Tecnologias de 20 Online
Aplicação 20 Online
M3—Itinerários Turísticos 30 Saída de
Campo
Gestão de equipamentos e de M1—Desafios contemporâneos de 20 Online
projetos culturais programação cultural 20 Online
M2—Gestão estratégica de projetos 20 Online
culturais 30 Saída de
M3–Financiamento de equipamentos Campo
e projetos culturais
Técnicas de interpretação do M1—Turismo e Património 20 Online
património cultura M2—Interpretação do Património 20 Online
M3—Técnicas de aplicação na 20 Online
Interpretação do Património 30 Saída de
Campo
In 5S-Work Flow Management on Enterprise Excellence Deployment, Rick Hepp,
BPM Institute.Org. https://www.bpminstitute.org/resources/articles/5s-work-flow-management-
enterprise-excellence-deployment

Table 1.2 Municipalities and

MUNICÍPIOS 18 Moimenta da Beira
inscriptions
1 Lamego 19 Lamego
2 Lamego 30 Sabrosa
3 Lamego 21 Sabrosa
4 Santa Marta de Penaguião 22 Sabrosa
5 Santa Marta de Penaguião 23 Sabrosa
6 Santa Marta de Penaguião 24 Alijó
7 Sabrosa 25 Alijó
8 Sabrosa 26 Alijó
9 Sabrosa 27 Alijó
10 Vila Real 28 Alijó
11 Vila Real 29 Peso da Régua
12 Vila Real 30 Peso da Régua
13 Vila Real 31 Sernancelhe
14 Murça 32 Carrazeda de Ansiães
15 Penedono
16 Penedono
17 Moimenta da Beira
In 5S-Work Flow Management on Enterprise Excellence Deploy-
ment, Rick Hepp, BPM Institute.Org. https://www.bpminstitute.
org/resources/articles/5s-work-flow-management-enterprise-exc
ellence-deployment
1 Strategic Management of Cultural Projects—CIM DOURO Training 11

In this submodule, programmatic contents were worked on, resulting in the

elaboration of action plans.
Five groups were created, associating municipalities, and several works and action
plans were developed based on the implementation of the 5W 2H methodology.
The 5W 2H methodology was applied, using the seven key questions:
What: What needs to be done?
Why: Why does it need to be done?
Who: Who will do it?
Where: Where will it be implemented?
When: When should it be done?
How: How will it be carried out?
How much: How much will this project cost?
Other action plans resulted from the work carried out. As an example of the activity
made by the trainees and developed based on the concepts acquired, methodologies,
and tools of SMART and Start Up.

Municípios Projeto Plano de ação Metodologia

Cultura 4you 4 municípios 5W 2H

Plano de ação

O quê? Criação da Agenda de Eventos entre 4 municípios limítrofes—Cultura 4you

Porquê? Para evitar sobreposições de ações e racionalizar recursos
Onde? Física e Online
Quando? Com início no mês de outubro de 2023
Quem? Municípios de Armamar, Tabuaço, Moimenta da Beira e Tarouca
Como? Criação de um plano de atividades entre os 4 municípios no mês de outubro e
gestão e respetiva gestão por técnicos de cada município
Quanto? 100.000 e

One of these action plans led to the implementation of a project in the municipality
of Armamar called “Interpretative Center of the Women of the Douro”.
Other projects and action plans were implemented, and the creation of an inter-
municipal network is projected. The applications and examples of 5W 2H can be
used to propose action plans in different contexts. By employing this tool, employees
will have more clarity on the necessary steps to achieve an objective, in addition to
easily controlling each action.
12 A. B. Carvalho et al.

1.4 Conclusions

The training of assets in the field of cultural equipment management is essential

for the success and improvement of these institutions. Throughout this study, it
became evident that strategic management is fundamental for the development and
sustainability of these cultural facilities, especially when they are associated with
territories and belong to local authorities.
The use of the 5W 2H methodology proved to be a valuable tool for creating clear,
comprehensive, and effective action plans. By answering specific questions of what,
why, who, when, where, how, and how much, the action plans become more precise
and targeted, guiding the team in the right direction and contributing to effective
communication and progress monitoring.
Moreover, the work carried out and the implemented action plans demonstrated
the importance of applying the concepts acquired and the SMART and Start Up
methodologies. These approaches provided a strategic vision and more efficient and
effective management, enabling cultural organizations to adapt to the constantly
changing external environment.
With the training of assets and the development of appropriate action plans, it
is possible to measure and improve the competitiveness of cultural organizations,
ensuring the delivery of value to customers and enhancing overall performance.
Proper management of the mix of people, processes, and technologies is crucial for
the adaptability and agility of institutions in the face of external challenges.
Looking to the future, the creation of an intermunicipal network for collabora-
tion and cooperation among municipalities is a promising initiative. This network
will allow continuous exchange of knowledge and experience, resource sharing,
and joint implementation of cultural projects. Through this collaboration, cultural
organizations in the region can reach a higher level of success and cultural impact.
In summary, the training of assets in the management of cultural equipment,
combined with methodologies and tools such as 5W 2H, SMART, and Start Up, is
a crucial path for the growth and strengthening of these institutions. The constant
pursuit of excellence in strategic management and collaboration among munici-
palities promises to bring a prosperous future for the culture and heritage of the
region.

Acknowledgements This work is funded by National Funds through the FCT - Foundation for
Science and Technology, I.P., within the scope of the project Ref. UIDB/05583/2020. Furthermore,
we would like to thank the Research Centre in Digital Services (CISeD), Centre for Studies in
Education and Innovation (CI&DEI), and Research Centre for Natural Resources, Environment
and Society and the Polytechnic of Viseu (CERNAS) and the Instituto Politécnico de Viseu for their
support. And also CEOS.PP/ISCAP/P.PORTO.
1 Strategic Management of Cultural Projects—CIM DOURO Training 13

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Chapter 2
Effects of Internet Access on Tourist
Consumption in Mexican Households

Hazael Cerón Monroy, Carmen Lozano, and José Ángel Díaz Rebolledo

Abstract Internet has become a necessary tool for the Mexican tourism sector,
providing travelers the ability to access a wide variety of services and enabling
informed decision-making. This study analyzes the impact of tourism consumption
in terms of internet access in Mexican households. The aim of this work is to evaluate
the influence of internet on the process of tourism decision-making and its relation-
ship with tourism consumption using a semi-logarithmic model with data from the
National Survey of Household Income and Expenditure (ENIGH) carried out by the
National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI). The survey describes the
availability and use of information and communications technologies in households
and their use by individuals aged 6 and above in Mexico. The results indicate that
households with a higher income show a progressive increase in tourism consump-
tion, package tours, and internet expenditure. Thus, 90% of the population account
for 59.1% of tourism consumption 37.5% of tour packages, and 77.9% of internet
expenditure. Although tourism increases due to internet use, this rise is inelastic; that
is, it does not proportionally increase along with internet access in households.

2.1 Introduction

In the past decades, tourism has expanded considerably and developed into one of
the main drivers of global economy. The emergence of an industrial society has
led to a transformation of the nature of tourism, which started as a mere vacation
activity and has become a mass phenomenon. Simultaneously, globalization and

H. C. Monroy (B) · C. Lozano · J. Á. D. Rebolledo

Universidad Anáhuac México, Naucalpan, Mexico
e-mail: [email protected]
C. Lozano
e-mail: [email protected]
J. Á. D. Rebolledo
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 15
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_2
16 H. C. Monroy et al.

post-modernism have contributed to an increase in segmentation, individualization,

and tourism demand in a number of areas.
In this context, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) has underlined the close relationship between globalization and tourism,
emphasizing that international tourism has succeeded thanks to the progress of glob-
alization. The OECD has identified a number of related key elements, among them the
increased income, the appearance of more efficient and cost-effective means of trans-
port, and the intensive use of information and communications technologies (ICT)
[12]. Particularly, internet and e-commerce have been major tools in the tourism area
by allowing for business management improvements and providing businesses in the
sector more effective means to market and distribute products and services [4].
Therefore, the role of internet in the tourism and travel industry has experienced
a significant increase. The development and expansion of internet have been crucial
to the improvement of travelers’ decision-making. As the use of internet has become
increasingly popular, the platform has gradually become an instrumental channel to
access information on tourism, services, and products.
Online tourism offers a wide arrange of services and added-value functions that
are highly attractive to clients, thus creating a rich and diverse network of tourism
services. Through the internet, users can access several options to plan and orga-
nize their trips, and they have the chance to obtain detailed information concerning
destinations, accommodation, transport, and tourism activities.
This digital environment provides tourists with an interactive platform where
they can compare pricing, read travelers’ reviews and opinions, book services, and
carry out transactions safely. Additionally, the internet has promoted the emergence
of specialized services, such as online travel agencies and holiday accommodation
platforms that offer greater flexibility and personalized options for travelers. As it
does for the international market, the internet has become a necessary tool for the
Mexican tourism sector, providing travelers with access to a number of services and
promoting informed decision-making.
This interconnectivity has greatly enriched tourists’ experiences by offering them
a comprehensive platform to satisfy their needs and meet their preferences during
the planning and enjoyment of their trips. Still, there is a significant digital gap
between rural and urban areas in Mexico. Rural areas often face structural limitations
in terms of telecommunications, which hamper access to high-speed and reliable
internet service. The lack of connectivity might negatively impact the rural residents’
capability to search for information on tourism destinations, online booking, and
overall access to tourism services. Then, the following question arises: What is the
relationship between internet usage during tourism decision-making process and
tourism consumption, according to the data compiled in the National Survey of
Household Income and Expenditure (Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos de los
Hogares, ENIGH) [5].
Therefore, the aim of this work is to analyze the influence of internet on the
process of tourism decision-making and its relationship with tourism consumption,
using a semi-logarithmic model based on data from ENIGH. We consider that there is
a significant relationship between the level of internet usage in the process of tourism
2 Effects of Internet Access on Tourist Consumption in Mexican Households 17

decision-making and the behavior of tourism consumption. We also recognize that

this relationship can be adequately modeled by a semi-logarithmic approach using
data from ENIGH.

2.2 Literature Review

The tourism industry has experienced a significant transformation thanks to the

internet, which has become an essential tool that has promoted the innovative inte-
gration of technologies within the sector [10]. The interconnectivity provided by this
technology has enriched tourists’ experience by providing access to a wide array of
services and promoting informed decision-making during the planning and enjoy-
ment of trips. However, there is a marked digital gap between urban and rural areas
in Mexico.
According to the research by Martínez-Domínguez and Mora-Rivera [8], there is
evidence of a digital gap in terms of internet penetration and usage in rural Mexico,
which is in the early stages of internet expansion. It must be noted that internet
access in rural areas of Mexico remains at a disadvantage. According to data from
the National Survey on Availability and Use of Information Technologies in House-
holds (ENDUTIH), internet users in rural areas of Mexico represent 62.3% of the
population against 83.8% in urban areas [5]. These data clearly show the existing
digital connectivity gap in rural areas, partially attributed to low population density
and longer distances. These factors discourage market players from investing in
telecommunications infrastructure [4].
The limited internet access in rural Mexico can affect tourism demand by limiting
contact with tourism information, promotion and visibility of local attractions, and
reducing the development of tourism infrastructure. Overcoming the digital gap
in these areas is likely essential to stimulating tourism and taking advantage of
the potential within rural areas as alternative destinations for visitors. The use of
internet to obtain information mainly depends on the penetration degree of ICT in
areas and the demographic characteristics of the population. According to Martínez-
Domínguez and Mora-Rivera [8], there is a greater probability of using the internet
among people with digital abilities and women. Furthermore, when analyzing internet
usage patterns, it is observed that there are differences regarding age, educational
level, type of employment, and geographical location.
In this context, the use of internet promotes the production of relevant information,
such as tourists’ geographical location, their evaluation of tourism destinations, and
other factors linked to the tourism industry. In consequence, internet usage has led to
tourism research mostly focused on three primary areas: tourists’ movement patterns,
their satisfaction and emotions experienced, and destination management [1, 6]
Xu et al. [14] carried out a study to examine the relationship between tourists’
socioeconomic characteristics and their behavior. Through the data analysis, the
study identified nine indicators of tourism mobility, including factors such as length
of stay in a city, spatial extent of activities, locations visited, and travel patterns. In a
18 H. C. Monroy et al.

related context, Mariani and Baggio [7] proposed a mixed approach to analyze social
networks in the context of hotel and tourism research. Their approach combines the
analysis of quantitative data and qualitative methods to fully understand the dynamic
of social networks within the industry.
Similarly, Aggarwal and Gour [1] propose a model to investigate tourists’ percep-
tions and the underlying reasons to publish relevant content in traveling websites.
Their model aims to find the motivations and influences behind tourists’ online
behavior, shedding light on the factors that drive their participation and information
exchange activities on traveling platforms.
In the same context, Carrera and Falcón [2] found that the influence of internet
on tourists’ decisions can be summarized in four basic points: (a) diversity of avail-
able options to select products and services, (b) convenience provided by online
payment, (c) delivery agility of services acquired, and (d) abundance of detailed and
personalized information on tourism services.
The findings of these research works contribute to the tourism research field by
exploring several aspects of tourists’ behavior, social networks, and online engage-
ment. They underline how internet usage has transformed the way in which tourists
plan and make decisions on their trips. Information availability, easy booking, wide
variety of options, and speed of service confirmation have turned the internet into an
essential tool for modern travelers who look for more satisfactory and personalized
tourism experiences.

2.3 Materials and Method

To evaluate the effect of internet on tourism, we used tourism consumption as depen-

dent variable. According to the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), it includes
goods and services consumed and related to trips, covering a wide range of prod-
ucts from those inherent to the trip and stay to small purchases of durable goods
for personal use and gifts for family and/or friends. As for the independent vari-
able, household expenditure on internet service was selected and controlled by some
household variables [11].
The information on household expenditure and income was obtained from the
National Survey of Household Income and Expenditure (Encuesta Nacional de
Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares, ENIGH) carried out by the National Institute
of Statistics and Geography (Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía, INEGI).
This survey was carried out across the country bimonthly from 1998 to 2012. In
this study, the new ENIGH construction from 2012 to 2020 was used. The sampling
design of ENIGH ensures a representative sampling of Mexico nationwide.
Two measurements can be considered for household expenses regarding tourism.
The first indicator is that related to tour package expenditure, classified with code
N004. The second indicator is built from the sum of expenses related to characteristic
activities of the sector, such as purchase of transport tickets, online stay reservation,
and tourism activities and tour online booking, among others. These indicators were
2 Effects of Internet Access on Tourist Consumption in Mexican Households 19

considered to measure the impact of internet in households and how it prompts users
during decision-making and consumption preferences in the tourism sector. The Gini
index was used to assess the distribution of both types of expenditure.
To measure the effect of internet access in Mexican households on tourism
consumption, we use a semi-logarithmic regression model where some control vari-
ables are included, and basically, the effect of access to tourism of households on
tourism consumption is measured. It is known that a marginal impact in a linear
regression model is usually understood as a change in the expected value of depen-
dent variable Y induced by an additive increase in the explanatory variable of interest
X. According to Morais and Thomas-Agnan [9], in nonlinear or semi-log models, the
natural amount is the partial derivative of E(Y ) with respect to log(X) (if the logarithm
is on the right side of the regression equation) or symmetrically the partial deriva-
tive of E(log(Y )) with respect to X in the other case (if the logarithm is on the left
side of the regression equation); in both cases, it is called semi-elasticity. Given that
log–log and semi-logarithmic models are common in econometry, elasticities and
semi-elasticities are often used to measure the impact of covariates. Regarding their
application, Dardis et al. [3] state that the semi-logarithmic relationship is adequate
to analyze product consumption according to income levels of the population.
The multiple regression analysis was used to estimate the relationship between the
dependent variable (tourism consumption) and the independent variable (household
internet expenditure) as follows:
 

Y = exp βi xi + εi , (2.1)
i=1

where Y represents tourism consumption in households i, X i is the income of

households, βi represents other household variables, and εi is the error term [3].
Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) is a method used to minimize the sum of squared
errors to obtain the best linear approximation of a random variable. The Gauss–
Markov theorem specifies conditions under which the OLS estimator is the best
linear unbiased estimator. These conditions include zero expected error, indepen-
dence of error terms and independent variables, constant error variance (homoscedas-
ticity), and zero correlation between error terms (no autocorrelation). These assump-
tions collectively imply that error terms are uncorrelated samples from a normal
distribution with zero mean and constant variance (σ 2 ). In matrix form, we obtain:

E[ε|X ] = E[ε] = 0

Var[ε|X ] = Var[ε] = σ 2 I.

Testing for normality and homoscedasticity can be done through residual diag-
nostics after estimating a linear regression model. Methods like standardized normal
probability plots and residual versus fitted values scatterplots help assess the
distribution and variance of residuals.
20 H. C. Monroy et al.

To evaluate how well a linear regression model fits observed data, R-squared is a
common measure. It quantifies the proportion of variance in observations explained
by the model, with values ranging from 0 (no explanation) to 1 (perfect fit). Different
formulas for calculating R-squared exist, including one based on the sum of squared
differences between estimated and observed values.
Adjusted R-squared corrects standard R-squared for the number of regressors,
typically resulting in a smaller value. However, it is not limited to the same range
as standard R-squared and can be negative for models with many degrees of
freedom [13].

2.4 Results

Tourism in Mexico remains a luxury good since it has been identified that not all
the population has access to it. Between 2012 and 2018, an average of 24% of
Mexican households presented tourism consumption. In 2020, the situation changed
dramatically due to the effects of the pandemic: There was a 12.8% reduction in
households; however, internet access is more democratic and is rising.
In 2016, there was a reduction in tourism access, which represented 23.4%
of households taking parti in tourism activities. However, internet access kept on
growing and reached 27.7% of households. In 2018, while the number of house-
holds that consumed tourism remained relatively stable at 23.7%, internet avail-
ability continued its significant growth and reached 32.1%. Later, in 2020, there
was a marked reduction, and only 12.8% of households were able to participate in
tourism activities. On the other hand, internet access significantly increased to 45.4%
of households (see Fig. 2.1).

Fig. 2.1 Percentage of households in Mexico having in tourist consumption and internet. Source
National Household Income and Expenditure Survey (ENIGH) 2012–2020
2 Effects of Internet Access on Tourist Consumption in Mexican Households 21

These data show that, along these years, access to tourism presented certain vari-
ability, as a marked reduction in 2020. Meanwhile, access to internet has grown
constantly and significantly, especially between 2012 and 2020. This proves the
increasing relevance of access to internet in Mexican households and its role in
communication, information, and online activities.
A relevant aspect in the analysis is identifying expenditure per decile of household
income. In 2012, when only tour packages were quantified, there was a concentra-
tion of 70.3% in decile X, which increased to 72.3% in 2014 and was reduced to
65.2% in 2016, 62.5% in 2018, and 62.5% in 2020. In addition, when expenditure
in characteristic goods such as transport and entertainment is summed, most of the
distribution is still found in decile X but at a lower percentage. In 2012, it was 53.1%,
54.1% in 2014, 50% in 2016, 52.2% in 2018, and 40.9% in 2020. Finally, internet
expenses were 22.1% in decile X and 17.1% in decile IX. Therefore, the Gini index
for tourism consumption was 0.96 and that of internet expenditure reached 0.64 in
2020 while the same values in 2012 were 0.93 and 0.85, respectively.
Table 2.1 includes only data from 2020 and shows population distribution
according to income as well as the concentration of tourism consumption, tour pack-
ages, and internet expenditure per decile. The first decile represents the lowest 10%
of the population in terms of income where tourism consumption is 2.2%; this shows
that the group accounts for a relatively low total tourism consumption. In addition,
0.3% of expenditure on tour packages and 1.9% of internet expenses are consolidated
in this bracket.
There is a progressive increase in tourism consumption, tour packages, and
internet expenditure as higher deciles are reached. Then, 59.1% of tourism consump-
tion, 37.5% of tour packages, and 77.9% of internet expenditure are concentrated
in 90% of the population. Intermediate brackets show a gradual concentration of
tourism consumption, tour packages, and internet expenditure as income increases.

Table 2.1 Distribution of tourist consumption, tourist packages, and internet expenses by decile
Population Income threshold Tourism Tourist Internet Percentage of
distributed by by decile (Dollar) consumption packages expenses households
income level (%) (%) (%) with internet
access (%)
Decile I 0–141.91 2.2 0.3 1.9 10.6
Decile II 141.95–216.41 2.8 0.4 3.4 18.4
Decile III 216.45–284.82 3.2 0.4 4.9 26.2
Decile IV 284.86–357.68 4.1 0.8 6.5 33.6
Decile V 357.72–442.64 5.3 2.6 8.1 41.0
Decile VI 442.68–543.95 6.4 2.6 9.9 48.4
Decile VII 544–678.82 8.1 6.3 11.9 56.3
Decile VIII 678.86–876.32 10.6 8.9 14.2 63.7
Decile IX 876.36–1248.50 16.4 15.2 17.1 72.7
Decile X > 1248.50 40.9 62.5 22.1 83.5
22 H. C. Monroy et al.

This suggests that income levels can affect the consumer’s behavior related to tourism
and internet.
It is observed that internet expenditure is progressively higher while tourism
expenses keep a more moderate growth. To know whether tourism consumption
has increased in households from their internet access, the results confirm a positive
effect of both variables. Still, the effect is inelastic since, although more households
have internet access, there is not necessarily a proportional increase. Table 2.2 below
highlights the results of the regression. Then, Table 2.2 presents the results of the
regression model where the dependent variable is tourist consumption. The results are
interesting, starting with the effect of having internet at home on tourist consumption.
It was found that the elasticity is 0.0804, indicating a positive effect in the relation-
ship, but it is less than one which indicates an inelastic effect, meaning that while
the number of households with internet access increases, tourist consumption only
increases by 8.04%.
The results obtained from the regression parameters show a significant trend in the
impact of the Internet on tourist consumption over time. In 2012, the parameter was
0.055, indicating a modest but positive effect of the Internet on tourist consumption
at that time. However, as we move forward in time, there is a gradual increase in the
effect of the Internet on tourist consumption.
In 2014, the parameter increased to 0.195, reflecting a higher positive impact of
the Internet on tourist consumption. This pattern continued in 2016, with a parameter

Table 2.2 Results of estimation of semi-logarithmic regression model (2020)

Variable Coefficient p-value Std. Err. 95% Conf. Interval
Internet access 0.080454 0.008 0.0301476 0.0213 0.1395
Education of 0.027781 0.000 0.0054595 0.0170 0.0384
household head
Credit card 0.128978 0.000 0.0336380 0.0630 0.1949
payments
Government −0.156906 0.000 0.0278617 −0.2115 −0.1022
benefits
Decile II 0.088992 0.007 0.0332253 0.0238 0.1541
Decile III 0.109671 0.000 0.0223669 0.0658 0.1535
Decile IV 0.108091 0.000 0.0166959 0.0753 0.1408
Decile V 0.115130 0.000 0.0130668 0.0895 0.1407
Decile VI 0.107780 0.000 0.0108370 0.0865 0.1290
Decile VII 0.107961 0.000 0.0091635 0.0899 0.1259
Decile VIII 0.109122 0.000 0.0079281 0.0935 0.1246
Decile IX 0.111212 0.000 0.0069426 0.0976 0.1248
Decile X 0.138082 0.000 0.0062168 0.1258 0.1502
R2 = 0.1540, adjusted R2 = 0.1529, n = 9694
2 Effects of Internet Access on Tourist Consumption in Mexican Households 23

of 0.218, suggesting that the Internet was significantly contributing to the increase
in tourist consumption in Mexican households.
By 2018, the effect of the Internet on tourist consumption remained considerable
with a parameter of 0.176. However, in 2020, although the parameter decreased to
0.080, there still remains a positive effect of the Internet on tourist consumption,
albeit to a lesser extent compared to previous years.
These results highlight the growing importance of the Internet as a factor influ-
encing tourist consumption decisions in Mexican households. Access to information,
ease of making reservations, and the ability to compare prices and travel options
through the Internet have transformed the way tourist consumers plan and carry
out their trips. Additionally, these findings suggest that the impact of the Internet on
tourist consumption continues to evolve over time and is a crucial aspect to consider in
the development of tourism promotion strategies and decision-making in the tourism
industry in Mexico.

2.5 Conclusions

In summary, there has been a growing effect of internet on tourism consumption along
time. The parameters associated to this influence have shown a progressive increase,
except in 2020 due to extraordinary circumstances. These findings emphasize the
importance of understanding and adapting to the changing dynamics of tourism
consumption in the digital age and the increasingly key role that internet plays in
travelers’ decision-making processes.
The results highlight the importance of understanding how family dynamics
affect the access and usage of Information and Communications Technologies (ICT),
considering internet connectivity a family asset, while its use is perceived as indi-
vidual capital. As related to interest and abilities, cost is the main obstacle for internet
adoption when there are children under the age of 12 in rural and urban households.
It is observed that internet expenditure is constantly increasing while tourism
expenses show a more moderate rise. To determine whether internet usage has led to
an increase in tourism consumption among households, the results confirm a positive
relationship between the two variables. However, the effect is inelastic, meaning that
even though more households have internet access, this does not necessarily result
in a proportional increase in tourism expenditure. Then, although internet usage can
influence tourism consumption, other factors are also involved in the decision and
limit the relationship between both variables.
24 H. C. Monroy et al.

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Chapter 3
Enhancing Tourist Experiences:
Integrating ChatGPT and 360 VR Videos
in Tourism and Tourist Psychology

Hui-Wen Huang, Joseph Anthony Narciso Z. Tiangco, Xuan Du, Jiahao Tao,
and Sumei Wu

Abstract Emerging technologies are driving the Fourth Industrial Revolution,

heralding a transformative paradigm that significantly reshapes people’s daily lives
and social interactions. Within the tourism industry, the integration of artificial intel-
ligence (AI) technology and virtual reality (VR) presents promising opportunities
to enhance tourist experiences. This conceptual article explores the potential of
combining ChatGPT, an AI-powered chatbot, with 360 VR videos to revolutionize
the way tourists engage with destinations and make travel decisions. Through this
seamless fusion of personalized conversational interactions and immersive virtual
experiences, the integration aims to evoke emotions, establish emotional connec-
tions, and ultimately enhance overall user satisfaction in the realm of tourism. By
effectively implementing ChatGPT and VR technologies, the tourism industry can
offer personalized, interactive, and gratifying travel experiences for fostering tourists’
positive psychological engagement with destinations and facilitating more informed
travel decisions.

H.-W. Huang (B) · X. Du · J. Tao

Shaoguan University, Guangdong, China
e-mail: [email protected]
J. A. N. Z. Tiangco
Shu-Te University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Wu
Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 25
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_3
26 H.-W. Huang et al.

3.1 Introduction

The tourism industry has witnessed notable advancements in the realms of artificial
intelligence (AI) and virtual reality (VR) technologies, leading to significant poten-
tial for transforming the way travelers engage with destinations [1, 2]. AI, in partic-
ular, has gained prominence due to its capacity to provide personalized experiences.
Within the tourism sector, AI-powered chatbots, such as ChatGPT (See Fig. 1a), have
emerged as indispensable tools. These chatbots leverage AI algorithms to compre-
hend and respond to user queries, enabling conversational interactions and tailored
recommendations. As travelers increasingly seek customized experiences, the role
of AI-powered chatbots becomes significant in delivering personalized information
and guidance.
In parallel, the immersive nature of 360 VR videos (See Fig. 1b) has captured
the attention of the tourism industry. These videos offer viewers a comprehensive,
360° view of destinations and attractions, thereby providing an experiential journey
that transcends traditional two-dimensional media. By enabling users to explore and
navigate virtual environments, 360 VR videos possess the potential to profoundly
enhance customer engagement and decision-making processes in tourism [3]. This
immersive medium allows travelers to experience the sights and ambience of a desti-
nation virtually, fostering a sense of presence and enhancing their understanding
and connection to the place [4, 5]. Consequently, 360 VR videos play a crucial
role in shaping travelers’ perceptions, influencing their choices, and enriching their
pre-travel experiences.
Considering the dynamic landscape of the tourism industry, the convergence of
AI-powered chatbots and 360 VR videos offers exciting prospects. The integration of
these advanced technologies has the potential to revolutionize customer experiences
by merging personalized assistance with immersive virtual environments. Through
AI-powered chatbots, travelers can engage in natural language conversations, seeking
information, recommendations, real-time assistance, and sharing travel reflections
over the pre-, during, and post-travel stages [6]. Simultaneously, 360 VR videos

[a] ChatGPT official website [b] 360 VR video*

Fig. 3.1 Screenshots of ChatGPT and 360 VR video. Source https://www.bilibili.com/video/BV1

ft4y1Y7MG/?share_source=copy_web
3 Enhancing Tourist Experiences: Integrating ChatGPT and 360 VR … 27

provide a platform for delivering captivating visual experiences that transport users
to diverse destinations and enable them to virtually visit the places of interest. The
combination of ChatGPT and 360 VR videos holds the promise of transforming
the way travelers engage with destinations, enabling them to make more informed
decisions, enhancing their pre-travel experiences, and ultimately contributing to the
overall satisfaction and enjoyment of their trips.
Based on the previous discussion, this paper illustrates how ChatGPT and 360
VR videos can be applied in tourism and tourist psychology. In the following, we
provide readers with theoretical framework to support the implementation of the two
emerging technologies in tourism. We also give some general guidelines in effectively
using ChatGPT and 360 VR videos in the tourist psychology domain. The conclusion
section offers the future research directions in the AI-powerful tourism industry.

3.2 Literature Review

3.2.1 Tourist Psychology in Tourism Education

In the context of tourism education, understanding tourist psychology represents

one of the most important factors in promoting tourism [7]. Tourist psychology
refers to the study of the psychological factors that influence tourists’ behaviors,
experiences, and decision-making processes. It explores the psychological aspects of
tourism, including motivations for travel, tourist satisfaction, destination choice, and
the impact of tourism on individuals and communities. The integration of ChatGPT
and 360 VR videos in tourist psychology education offers potential benefits, including
but not limited to enhanced engagement, increased interactivity, access to diverse
perspectives, and opportunities for real-time feedback and guidance.

3.2.2 Artificial Intelligence (AI) Chatbot

The implementation of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies has become prevalent

in daily lives and learning. The examples of the applications of AI technologies in
daily lives include facial recognition, Internet of Things, big data, robots, and others.
Large language models (LLMs) have led to a significant advancement in machine
learning, specifically in the domain of natural language processing (NLP). NLP
utilizes computational techniques for understanding and generating human language
content, leading to mimicking humans’ learning and thinking styles [8, 9]. In this
regard, chatbots are trained using NLP to recognize humans’ contextual requests and
generate responses to the questions or give solutions to the problems, including the
tourism domain [9–14].
28 H.-W. Huang et al.

One of the highly capable AI chatbots is ChatGPT, a text-based chatbot based

on the GPT-3.5 (Generative Pre-trained Transformer) LLMs [15]. ChatGPT was
developed by a U.S.-based AI company called OpenAI and was publicly launched
in November 2022. It is trained to have text interactions with human beings in
a conversational format, such as responding to questions in a prompted manner.
According to the ChatGPT homepage (https://chat.openai.com), its capabilities
include to “remember what user said earlier in the conversation,” to “allow user
to provide follow-up corrections,” and to “decline inappropriate requests.” Through
these features, ChatGPT has garnered widespread attention from various users in
academia and industry sectors. Users are typically impressed by its powerful text-
generating capabilities, such as writing stories, answering questions, and providing
suggestions [16]. In addition to its robust capabilities, ChatGPT’s user-friendly inter-
face is exceptionally easy to navigate. Users simply type a question or command into
a text box at the following web link (https://chat.openai.com/chat) after logging in.
An answer generated by ChatGPT will appear on the screen within seconds, tailored
to your desired format or style. ChatGPT’s ability to respond to various types of
questions or prompts has quickly positioned it as cutting-edge technology since its
launch [17].
Furthermore, ChatGPT possesses unique capabilities that make it a valuable tool
for tourist psychology education. These capabilities include NLP, context-aware
responses, and the ability to draw from a vast knowledge base. Such features enable
personalized and immersive learning experiences, supporting students in their explo-
ration and understanding of tourist psychology concepts. For instance, Camilleri and
Troise [18] highlighted the significance of personalized experiences in the tourism
industry and emphasized the role of technology, including AI, in delivering tailored
recommendations and services to travelers. They noted that personalized experiences
can lead to increased customer satisfaction, loyalty, and positive word-of-mouth.
Additionally, previous studies indicated that it is necessary to explore the integration
of AI and tourist psychology in a human-centered approach [19, 20].
As discussed in the previous sections, ChatGPT has the potential to leverage indi-
viduals’ work efficiency in a variety of tasks and help them become more productive
[11, 16]. This can not only augment work production, such as generating content and
handling requests in the company but also enhance companies’ competitiveness to
meet customers’ needs. Employees in a tourist company collaborate with ChatGPT
to improve work efficiency in the fields of creativity, decision-making, and market
research, leading to providing better services for customers [6, 18]. Furthermore,
previous researchers have indicated the potentials of using AI in the tourism sector
[11, 21, 22]. For example, Huang et al. [21] reported that students taking tourist
psychology education via ChatGPT have more access to finding solutions, fostering
critical thinking skills, developing AI literacy, and more.
Despite its powerful strengths, ChatGPT also has some limitations. First, ChatGPT
has knowledge datasets until 2021, possibly resulting in outdated or inaccurate infor-
mation in its output. Second, ChatGPT may potentially generate biased answers due
to the training data [15, 23]. The biased answers offered by ChatGPT could result
in the reinforcement of existing societal biases or discrimination. Third, the lack of
3 Enhancing Tourist Experiences: Integrating ChatGPT and 360 VR … 29

understanding human emotions is ChatGPT main limitation. Although ChatGPT is

trained on human data, it can only generate output to simulate human languages.
It lacks the capacity to understand and recognize the nuances of human emotions
[15]. Fourth, ChatGPT sometimes generates false or misleading information, such
as fictitious literature citations [24]. Finally, it is worth noting that ChatGPT lacks a
voice interface for human–computer interactions. Given these considerations, users
are strongly encouraged to cross-verify the information provided by ChatGPT with
other reliable sources for the purpose of fact-checking [25]. Relying on additional
information sources is essential for ensuring the accuracy of ChatGPT’s output. In
the context of tourism, users can explore AI voice assistants as supplementary tools
for customer service [8].

3.2.3 360 VR Videos

VR technology has been implemented to demonstrate its potentials in various educa-

tion and industry settings [2, 4, 26, 27]. The features of VR enable users to create
immersive engagement and simulate presence experiences. In educational contexts,
students’ curiosity and motivation can be fostered through the participation in the
immersive VR learning activities. This activated participation can be an opportu-
nity for igniting students’ interest and involvement in learning and maximizing the
potential of VR learning experiences [28]. Among different immersion levels of VR
technologies, 360 VR videos offer users to have a sense of full immersion with
wearing a head-mounted display (HMD) in a simulated context [29].
360 VR videos, being shot using an omnidirectional camera, are immersive video
content that provides viewers with a 360°, panoramic view of their surroundings.
That is, viewers can see photos or videos from different directions to create a 360°
visual experience. 360 VR videos can be viewed on compatible devices such as
smartphones, tablets, computers, and virtual reality headsets, which further enhance
the immersive experience. While watching 360 VR videos, users feel part of the scene
and experience a sense of immersion, such as feeling like they were walking through
the viewed context [3, 30]. This can be achieved by using a 360 camera that captures
videos in all angles, and viewers can wear a HMD to watch 360 video content for
full immersion. The feeling of immersion or the sensation of “being there” allows
viewers to generate a feeling of natural and realistic sense while watching 360 videos
on a HMD [2].
360 VR videos are increasingly used in various industries, including tourism,
entertainment, journalism, and education. In the tourism sector, 360 VR videos offer
a unique way to showcase destinations, attractions, events, and experiences, enabling
viewers to virtually visit places and feel as if they are physically present. Researchers
have investigated the impact of 360 VR videos on customer engagement, destination
marketing, and information recall [4, 5]. For example, previous studies, including
by Buhalis et al. [3], Tom et al. [2] and Yung et al. [31], examined the effects of 360
VR videos on tourists’ destination evaluation and decision-making processes. They
30 H.-W. Huang et al.

found that the immersive nature of 360 VR videos significantly enhanced tourists’
destination evaluations, leading to increased interest and intention to visit.
In addition, 360 VR videos have emerged as a powerful tool in evoking emotions
and creating emotional connections between tourists and virtual destinations [31, 32].
The immersive and sensory nature of the VR experience allows tourists to engage
with the virtual environment in a way that is more captivating and compelling than
traditional forms of media [4, 5]. As a result, tourists may experience heightened
emotions, such as excitement, awe, or relaxation, which can significantly contribute
to a more memorable travel experience.
Furthermore, the immersive quality of 360 VR videos transports tourists to a
different reality, enabling them to virtually explore and interact with various destina-
tions, landscapes, and attractions. This heightened sense of presence and realism can
evoke a wide range of emotional responses [31, 33]. For instance, while exploring a
breathtaking natural wonder through a 360 VR video, tourists may feel a sense of awe
and wonder as they witness the grandeur and beauty of the virtual environment. This
emotional response can be powerful and leave a lasting impression on the tourists,
shaping their positive perception and good memory of a destination [2, 3, 30].

3.3 Theoretical Framework

The Experiential Learning Theory, developed by David A. Kolb in the 1970s, has
provided valuable insights into the learning process and has been widely applied
in various educational contexts. This literature review explores the existing research
related to the Experiential Learning Theory and its application in the context of using
ChatGPT and 360 VR videos in tourism and tourist psychology.

3.3.1 Experiential Learning Theory and Tourism

The Experiential Learning Theory emphasizes the importance of hands-on experi-

ences and active engagement in the learning process. In the context of tourism, this
theory aligns well with the concept of experiential travel where tourists seek immer-
sive and engaging experiences that can foster deep understanding and meaningful
connections with destinations [5, 33]. Tourist experiences are not merely passive
observations but dynamic interactions that involve both the physical and emotional
aspects of exploration [20, 26]. This makes the integration of ChatGPT and 360 VR
videos in tourism possible to provide a desired platform for applying the principles
of experiential learning that can allow tourists to actively participate, reflect, and
internalize their travel experiences.
3 Enhancing Tourist Experiences: Integrating ChatGPT and 360 VR … 31

3.3.2 360 VR Videos and Experiential Learning

Research on 360 VR videos in tourism has highlighted their potential to evoke

emotions, enhance engagement, and create realistic and immersive experiences [5].
The multisensory nature of 360 VR videos enables tourists to explore virtual environ-
ments as if they were physically present, triggering a sense of presence and spatial
cognition [30]. 360° virtual reality (VR) videos facilitate experiential learning by
immersing tourists in virtual destinations. This immersive approach aligns with the
Experiential Learning Theory, as it provides tourists with tangible and concrete expe-
riences. Tourists actively interact with the virtual environments, making decisions,
and acquiring firsthand insights into the destinations they are exploring.

3.3.3 ChatGPT and Personalized Experiences

The integration of ChatGPT, an AI-powered chatbot, with 360 VR videos can further
enhance the experiential learning process in tourism. ChatGPT can provide person-
alized recommendations, real-time assistance, and customized information based on
tourists’ preferences and needs [11]. The interactive nature of ChatGPT’s conver-
sational interactions encourages reflective observation, as tourists engage in mean-
ingful dialogues, analyze the provided information, and make decisions based on
personalized insights [22]. This personalized assistance complements the immersive
experiences of 360 VR videos, facilitating a holistic and tailored approach to the
learning journey.
To sum it up, the Experiential Learning Theory provides a robust framework
for understanding the learning process and its application in the context of using
ChatGPT and 360 VR videos in tourism and tourist psychology. The literature review
has highlighted the alignment of experiential learning principles with the immersive
and personalized aspects of this integration. We will discuss the implications of using
the two emerging technologies in the tourism sector in the next section.

3.4 Implications of Using ChatGPT and 360 VR Videos

in Tourism and Tourist Psychology Education

As an emerging paradigm, the integration of ChatGPT and 360 VR videos shows great
potential in enhancing tourist experiences and enriching tourist psychology educa-
tion. Below are the implications of this novel integration, focusing on its capacity to
revolutionize the way tourists engage with destinations and make travel decisions.
32 H.-W. Huang et al.

1. Enhanced Personalization and Interactivity in Tourist Experiences: By seam-

lessly integrating ChatGPT with 360 VR videos, the tourism industry can provide
tourists with personalized and interactive travel experiences. ChatGPT’s conver-
sational capabilities enable dynamic interactions, allowing tourists to receive
tailored recommendations, travel tips, and real-time assistance, thereby fostering
a deeper connection with the destination. This heightened level of interactivity
ensures that tourists feel more engaged and actively involved in shaping their
travel experiences, resulting in greater overall satisfaction.
2. Emotional Connections and Positive Psychological Engagement: One of the most
profound implications of this integration lies in its ability to evoke emotions
and create emotional connections between tourists and destinations. The immer-
sive nature of 360 VR videos enables tourists to virtually experience the sights,
sounds, and ambiance of a destination, generating a sense of presence and
emotional engagement. When combined with ChatGPT’s conversational inter-
actions, this immersive experience can elicit positive psychological engagement,
enhancing tourists’ emotional attachment to the destination and fostering lasting
memories.
3. Informed Decision-Making and Empowered Tourists: The integration of
ChatGPT’s AI capabilities with 360 VR videos empowers tourists to make more
informed travel decisions. As tourists virtually explore destinations through
immersive videos, they can seek real-time information and receive personal-
ized recommendations from ChatGPT. This combination of virtual experiences
and AI-driven insights equips tourists with a comprehensive understanding of
their destination, enabling them to plan their itineraries more effectively and
make well-informed decisions, leading to greater satisfaction with their travel
experiences.
4. Enriching Tourist Psychology Education: Integrating ChatGPT and 360 VR
videos holds immense potential for enriching tourist psychology education. In
academic settings, this innovative approach can be used to immerse students
in real-life travel scenarios, exposing them to diverse tourist experiences and
cultural contexts. Through interactive conversations with ChatGPT, students
can explore theoretical concepts, apply critical thinking skills, and engage in
problem-solving exercises. Such educational applications enable a deeper grasp
of tourist psychology, preparing future professionals for the evolving demands
of the tourism industry.
The above implications show that the integration of ChatGPT and 360 VR videos
in tourism and tourist psychology education can open a promising avenue for trans-
forming tourist experiences and enriching educational practices. As the tourism
industry embraces the technological advancements of the Fourth Industrial Revo-
lution, this innovative integration possesses the potential to fundamentally trans-
form how tourists engage with destinations, make travel decisions, and experience
personal growth through meaningful interactions. Additionally, this integration can
also augment the learning process, equipping students with the necessary skills to
navigate the dynamic terrain of the tourism industry and contribute to its sustainable
growth and development in educational contexts.
3 Enhancing Tourist Experiences: Integrating ChatGPT and 360 VR … 33

3.5 Conclusion

By combining the use of ChatGPT and 360 VR videos, we focus on gaining a better
understanding of integrating emerging technologies in the domains of tourism and
psychology. The objective of this paper is to combine the power of AI-driven chat-
bots and immersive virtual reality experiences for creating more personalized and
engaging travel experiences. This integration allows for greater engagement, inter-
activity, and a sense of personalization, which can contribute to increased customer
satisfaction, loyalty, and positive word-of-mouth. Moreover, the two technologies
have the potential to serve as an effective pre-travel tool, allowing tourists to explore
destinations, make informed decisions, and create meaningful connections with their
travel experiences. Through AI chatbots, travelers can receive real-time assistance,
tailored recommendations, and engage in natural language conversations, while
the immersive nature of 360 VR videos allows them to explore and experience
destinations virtually.
In terms of potential avenues for future research, scholars may consider investi-
gating the implementation of prompt strategy instruction to enhance students’ profi-
ciency in formulating appropriate questions. This, in turn, could contribute to the
attainment of accurate and informative output generated by ChatGPT. Such newly
acquired abilities may promote the students’ communication skills and cognitive
development. Additionally, it is expected to see that all students should possess the
skills in properly using AI (AI literacy) for their future jobs, both locally and globally
[34]. Despite the promising outcomes observed in the utilization of ChatGPT and 360
VR videos, it is imperative to address the technical, ethical, and privacy challenges
that could potentially hinder user experiences. Such an approach is essential for
optimizing the potential benefits of this integration within the realms of the tourism
industry and education in tourist psychology. As the technology continues to advance
and adoption increases, the future of ChatGPT and 360 VR videos in the tourism
industry appears promising, reshaping the way travelers explore and experience the
world.

Acknowledgements This study is supported by Shaoguan University, China, with a start-up

research grant (No. 9900064603) and a campus grant (No. Sycxcy2023228).

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Chapter 4
Residents’ Perceptions of Sustainable
Tourism Development in an Emerging
Destination: A Factor-Cluster Approach

Isabel Vieira , Ana Rodrigues , Elisa Alén , and Miguel Mota

Abstract Despite extensive research into the residents’ perceptions of sustainable

tourism development (STD) over the past few decades, there has been little explo-
ration of emerging destinations in low-density regions. This study uses a bidirec-
tional analysis to segment the residents of a historic town in the north of Portugal
(Lamego), which is part of the Douro World Heritage delimitation. This study applies
a factor-cluster analysis to a sample of 250 residents of this historic town on their
perceptions of community involvement, local government management of tourism
(LGMT), perceived risk, community attachment, tourism impacts, economic depen-
dence, and support for STD. Residents were clustered according to their commu-
nity involvement and their perceptions of the effectiveness of LGMT. The findings
reveal that three clusters of residents were identified: ‘Advocates,’ ‘Disinterested,’ and
‘Conditional supporters.’ The findings support that these groups exhibit dissimilar
levels of community attachment, perceived tourism benefits, economic dependence,
and support for STD. The three clusters had no significant differences regarding
perceived costs and perceived risk. Furthermore, there are significant differences
between the three clusters based on almost every socio-demographic variable used.
The results reinforce the importance of analyzing the residents’ perceptions in the

I. Vieira
CIDEI-Centre for Studies in Education and Innovation, Lamego School of Technology and
Management, Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, Viseu, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Rodrigues (B)
CETRAD-Centre for Transdisciplinary Development Studies, University of Trás-Os-Montes and
Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
E. Alén
Faculty of Business Sciences and Tourism, University of Vigo, Vigo, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Mota
CERNAS-Research Center for Natural Resources, Lamego School of Technology and
Management, Environment and Society, Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, Viseu, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 37
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_4
38 I. Vieira et al.

planning and decision-making policies for STD. Contributions of these findings to

the body of knowledge and managerial implications are discussed.

4.1 Introduction

Several studies have been developed on the residents’ perceptions of support for
tourism development, community involvement and attachment, tourism impacts, and
economic dependence based on sustainability principles (economic, socio-cultural,
and environmental). Nevertheless, the studies have been, to some extent, limited
in terms of approaches, namely concerning the contribution and participation of
residents (community involvement) in the creation and implementation of sustainable
tourism. A necessary prerequisite for developing more sustainable approaches to
tourism lies in understanding how resident communities are involved and participate
in implementing tourism programs and practices.
In this context, this study aims to evaluate residents’ perceptions of sustain-
able tourism development (STD) and related concepts in an emerging destination
located in a low-density region (a historic town in northern Portugal located in a
World Heritage Site). This study has two main objectives. First, the study aims to
segment residents based on their involvement in the community and their perception
of the effectiveness of the management of tourism activity by the local government.
Second, it intends to identify the extent to which those resident groups share similar/
different levels of community attachment, perceived risk, perceived tourism impacts,
economic dependence, and support for STD.
In addition to this introduction, the paper includes five additional sections: a brief
literature review, an explanation of the methodological procedures, a presentation of
the main results of the study, a discussion of the results, and a conclusion.

4.2 Literature Review

This section deals with the literature review of the study. It reviews the main constructs
to be analyzed (STD; resident’s support; community involvement; LGMT; perceived
risk) and other variables commonly used in studies on residents’ perceptions
(community attachment; tourism impacts; economic dependence).

4.2.1 STD and Resident’s Support

STD considers economic, social, and environmental impacts, the sector’s needs,
the receiving communities, visitors, and the environment [1]. In today’s time, stake-
holders such as local governments, politicians, and heritage managers, among others,
4 Residents’ Perceptions of Sustainable Tourism Development … 39

tend to view the integration of residents in destination management and planning as

vital, as this group is considered a key pillar for STD [2]. In this sense, the rights
and demands of local communities are increasingly considered. However, there is a
long way to go in using innovative strategies that motivate the involvement of local
people in tourism decisions, planning, and management [3]. Their support becomes
indispensable for STD [4]: it depends significantly on how local people perceive
tourism, their connection to the community, their trust in the various stakeholders,
and mainly on the way local government manages the tourism sector [5].

4.2.2 Community Involvement

Community involvement is vital to building a sustainable tourism model [6]. Thus,

many of the problems linked to management are related to the level of involvement of
residents in the tourism development of a destination [7]. The importance of partici-
patory planning involving all stakeholders, has been presented in several studies over
the past decades [7–9]. The importance of local community involvement in planning
and strategy setting are determining factors [10] and can lead the community to
support STD [7].

4.2.3 Local Government Management of Tourism (LGMT)

Local authorities play a central role in STD as they assume essential functions,
prepare and implement tourism development plans, and apply values and standards
for tourism development according to sustainability prerequisites [11]. Effective
management will allow an improvement in the economic, social, cultural, and envi-
ronmental level of a region, which is why local government plays a leading role,
being able to avoid many of the problems related to carrying capacity, one of the
most significant issues linked to sustainability in destinations. Assante et al. [12]
empirically confirmed the positive association between LGMT and perceived envi-
ronmental impacts of tourism, arguing that when the local government manages
the destination efficiently, residents tend to be more receptive to tourism impacts.
On the other hand, a relationship between LGMT and residents’ support for STD
can also be expected. Assante et al. [12] state that government management and
stakeholder cooperation should agree on managing future tourism developments.
This study concluded that residents have a more positive attitude toward STD when
management is done efficiently.
40 I. Vieira et al.

4.2.4 Perceived Risk (Associated with COVID-19)

Tourism is a very vulnerable activity sector since its activity varies according to
the changes in external factors [13], and, for this reason, whenever some crisis is
experienced, this is one of the activities that feels the impact the most [14]. From
the theoretical point of view, this phenomenon can be analyzed bearing in mind
the changes that occur in demand, where studies are carried out linked to crisis
management and the perception of risk (individual) focused on the vision of tourists
[15]. Much of the body of theory focuses on the tourists’ perspective, concentrating
more on visitors than the receiving communities. Hence, it is essential to carry out
studies that address the local community’s perceptions [15] since it is only with the
contribution of this group that it is possible to create inclusive management plans that
address STD principles. The number of studies exposing host population perceptions
of tourism activities during or after a pandemic has been growing [16]. However, it
is still understated [17].

4.2.5 Other Relevant Variables Used in Studies on Residents’

Perceptions

Community Attachment: According to the literature, community attachment is

related to the personal feelings established between an individual and their envi-
ronment [18]. It is a sound concept that materializes the connection between people
and their community, encompassing several components whose core elements are
associated with: emotion, affection, meaning, the feeling of togetherness, and value
relative to the community [19, 20]. The level of community attachment is funda-
mental in residents’ influence, perception, and attitudes toward tourism development
in their community [21]. The literature confirms the connection between community
attachment, perceptions of tourism impacts, and residents’ support for STD, using
tourism impacts as a mediating variable between community attachment and support
[7, 10]. The results of these studies, depending on various factors (such as life cycle
of destinations, e.g.) show different results.
Tourism Impacts: As tourism demand increases in a territory, the impacts on
the local community become more evident [22], so it is crucial to investigate the
perceived benefits of tourism and the costs associated with tourism [7, 8, 19]. The
perception of tourism impacts (economic, social, cultural, and environmental), both
negative and positive, affects the support of residents to STD [23].
Economic Dependence: This variable assesses the level of economic dependence
of the local community on the tourism sector [24]. According to Chen and Chen
[25], the economic dependence variable has been used to gain insight into residents’
involvement in the tourism sector and whether their income depends on this sector
[26]. This is a crucial variable for understanding residents’ perceptions of tourism
4 Residents’ Perceptions of Sustainable Tourism Development … 41

impacts and their support for STD, as residents’ views may vary according to their
greater or lesser economic dependence on tourism [27].

4.3 Methodology

This study is based on a quantitative approach in the form of a questionnaire applied

to a sample of residents of the historic town of Lamego, Portugal. Due to cost and
time constraints, the sample for the study was based on the convenience sampling
technique. Only Lamego residents who had lived in the town for at least one year
were selected for the survey. The questionnaire was filled out in an online format
between April and August 2021. After eliminating the incomplete questionnaires,
250 valid questionnaires were obtained.
The applied questionnaire addresses the following aspects: community involve-
ment, community attachment, perceived benefits and costs of tourism, economic
dependence, LGMT, perceived risk, and support for STD. The scales used to measure
the concepts were taken from the relevant literature with adaptations for the context.
A five-point Likert scale was used with values ranging from “1” (strongly disagree) to
“5” (strongly agree). The operationalization of the constructs can be seen in Table 4.1.
Statistical analysis was performed using IBM Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS), version 26 for Windows. Descriptive measures were used to charac-
terize the variables under study: minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation
(for quantitative variables) and absolute (n) and relative (%) frequencies for categor-
ical variables. The internal consistency of the scales was assessed through Cronbach’s
Alpha.

Table 4.1 Concepts’ operationalization

Concept/Definition Scale proposed by
Community involvement (CI) [7]. It is composed of 5 items
Community attachment (CA) [7]. It is composed of 11 items
Perceived benefits (PB) [28]. It is composed of 12 items: positive impacts
(one of the items was divided into 2) = 13 items
Perceived costs (PC) [28]. It is composed of 8 items: negative impacts
Economic dependence (ED) [29]. It is composed of 4 items
Local government management of tourism [12]. It is composed of 3 items
(LGMT)
Support for sustainable tourism development [7]. It is composed of 5 items
(STD)
Perceived risk (PR) [15]. It is composed of 4 items
Source Own elaboration
42 I. Vieira et al.

To identify the groups with similarity/dissimilarity regarding the variables “Com-

munity involvement” and “Local government management of tourism,” cluster anal-
ysis was used. The grouping of individuals was initiated with hierarchical cluster
analysis with the nearest neighbor method using the squared Euclidean distance as
a measure of dissimilarity between subjects. Subsequently, the non-hierarchical k-
means procedure was used to classify each subject in the identified clusters [30]. For
the comparison of clusters, ANOVA was used to assess the significance of differences
regarding continuous variables, followed by Tukey HSD multiple comparison tests.
The association between the cluster and categorical variables was assessed using
the Chi-square test of independence. Standardized adjusted residuals were used to
identify cells with higher than expected (> 1.96) and lower than expected (< −1.96)
frequency, with a 5% significance level [31]. A 5% significance level was considered,
i.e., differences and associations were considered statistically significant when the
significance value was less than 0.05 (p < 0.05).

4.4 Results

In this section, the results of the study are presented. First, the profile of the
respondents is shown, followed by the results of the cluster analysis.

4.4.1 Respondents Profile

Table 4.2 summarizes the descriptive statistics of the study participants.

The sample is composed of 250 residents in the town of Lamego for at least one
year, aged between 18 and 68 years (Mean = 38.3, SD = 14.9). The majority is female
(63.6%) and has Higher Education (62.4%). The majority are employees (47.6%),
students (32.0%), and self-employed (14.0%). With regard to the household, it is
composed, on average, of 3.2 elements—24.0% have a family member involved in
the tourism sector. Of the 250 respondents, 18 (7.2%) belong to households with net
monthly income up to 500 Euros, 65 (26.0%) from 501 to 1000 Euros, 56 (22.4%)
from 1001 to 1500 Euros, 58 (23.2%) from 1501 to 2000 Euros and 53 (21.2%) with
more than 2000 Euros. On average, they have lived in the municipality of Lamego
for 27.7 years (SD = 18.7).

4.4.2 Cluster Analysis

Cluster analysis was performed with the variables “Community Involvement” and
“Local government management of tourism” (Table 4.3). The grouping of individ-
uals was initiated with hierarchical cluster analysis with the method of the smallest
4 Residents’ Perceptions of Sustainable Tourism Development … 43

Table 4.2 General characteristics of survey respondents

Variable N (%)
Gender Female (159; 63.6%); Male (91; 36.4%)
Age (years) Min = 18, Max = 68, Mean = 38.3, Standard
deviation (SD) = 14.9
Education Middle school or under (8; 3.2%); Secondary
school (86; 34.4%); University degree (156;
62.4%)
Employment status Employee (119; 47.6%);
Employee–self-employed (35; 14.0%);
Domestic worker (6; 2.4%); Student (80;
32.0%); Retired (10; 4.0%)
Monthly income (in Euros) Up to 500 euros (18; 7.2%); From 501 to 1000
euros (65; 26.0%); From 1001 to 1500 euros
(56; 22.4%); From 1501 to 2000 euros (58;
23.2%); More than 2000 euros (53; 21.2%)
Has a family member involved in the tourism No (190; 76.0%); Yes (60; 24.0%)
sector
Number of persons in the household Min = 1, Max = 6, Mean = 3.2, Standard
deviation (SD) = 1.0
Time in the community (years) Min = 1, Max = 68, Mean = 27.7, Standard
deviation (SD) = 18.7
Source Own elaboration

distance (nearest neighbor) using the square Euclidean distance as a measure of

dissimilarity between subjects. Solutions with two or more clusters were tested.
Solutions with four or more clusters were excluded due to the existence of clusters
with few individuals (n = 5). The 3-cluster solution was chosen because it was more
meaningful and interpretable. The classification of each subject in the three retained
clusters was subsequently defined with the non-hierarchical k-means procedure.
Table 4.3 shows that Cluster 1 includes 91 individuals with high mean scores on
community involvement (Mean = 3.88, SD = 0.63) and on perception of LGMT
(Mean = 3.70, SD = 0.60). These individuals hold a very favorable perception
about the effectiveness of LGMT and engage strongly with their community, hence

Table 4.3 Characterization of the three clusters regarding Community Involvement and LGMT (N
= 250)
Variables Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3 ANOVA
n = 91 n = 94 n = 65
Community involvement 3.88 (0.63)a 2.27 (0.66)b 3.81 (0.63)a p < 0.001
LGMT 3.70 (0.60)a 2.83 (0.71)b 1.79 (0.59)c p < 0.001
Notes Results presented as mean (standard deviation); a, b, c
no significant differences between
clusters with common letter in each variable: p > 0.05 in Tukey HSD multiple comparisons tests
Source Own elaboration
44 I. Vieira et al.

they are called “Advocates.” Cluster 2 includes 94 individuals with low community
involvement (Mean = 2.27, SD = 0.66) and with an intermediate perception of
LGMT (Mean = 2.83, SD = 0.71): higher than individuals in cluster 3, but lower
than those in cluster 1. This second cluster represents 37.6% of the total sample is
termed “Disinterested.” Despite having a moderate value in the perception of the
effectiveness of LGMT, they are not at all involved in the community where they
live. Cluster 3, with 65 individuals, also has high community involvement (Mean =
3.81, SD = 0.63), but scores lowest on the perception of LGMT (Mean = 1.79, SD
= 0.59). The third cluster, labeled “Conditional supporters,” accounts for 26% of the
total sample and holds the least favorable opinion about the effectiveness of LGMT,
but are also strongly involved in the community.

4.4.2.1 Cluster Profiling by Residents’ Other Residents’ Perceptions

For the comparison of clusters with the other scales used, ANOVA was used to
assess the significance of differences in their: degree of community attachment;
perceptions of tourism impacts (benefits and costs); degree of economic dependence
on the tourism sector; level of perceived risk, and level of support for STD (Table 4.4).
The results show that individuals from cluster 2 (Disinterested) have the lowest
mean scores on community attachment, perceived benefits, economic dependence,
and support for STD—significantly lower mean scores than individuals from clusters
1 (Advocates) and 3 (Conditional supporters) (p < 0.05). Support for STD is the only
variable (across scales) that differentiates clusters 1 and 3: this support is higher in
cluster 1 (Mean = 3.71, SD = 0.80) than in cluster 3 (Mean = 3.38, SD = 0.78) (p

Table 4.4 Characterization of the clusters (N = 250)

Advocates Disinterested Conditional supporters P
n = 91 n = 94 n = 65
Scales—Mean (Standard deviation)
Community attachment 3.88 (0.98)a 3.35 (1.07)b 4.03 (0.81)a < 0.001(1)
Perceived benefits 4.50 (0.43)a 4.03 (0.78)b 4.38 (0.63)a < 0.001(1)
Perceived costs 2.76 (1.13) 2.62 (0.97) 2.71 (0.92) 0.641(1)
Economic dependence 2.75 (1.32)a 1.95 (1.06)b 2.39 (1.36)a < 0.001(1)
Perceived risk 3.09 (1.11) 3.00 (1.04) 2.95 (1.24) 0.721(1)
Support for STD 3.71 (0.80)a 2.54 (0.75)c 3.38 (0.78)b < 0.001(1)
(1) (2)
Notes Significance value of ANOVA; significance value of Chi-square test of independence;
a, b, c no significant differences between clusters with common letter in each variable: p > 0.05

in Tukey HSD multiple comparisons tests; (+) cells with significantly higher value than the mean
(standardized adjusted residuals > 1.96); (−) cells with significantly lower value than the mean
(standardized adjusted residuals < 1.96)
Source Own elaboration
4 Residents’ Perceptions of Sustainable Tourism Development … 45

< 0.05). There were no significant differences between the three clusters regarding
perceived costs (p = 0.641) or perceived risk (p = 0.721).

4.4.2.2 Cluster Profiling by Residents’ Socio-demographic

Characteristics

To profile the three-cluster solution, each cluster was cross-tabulated with socio-
demographic variables including gender, age, education, employment status, monthly
income, family member involved in the tourism sector, etc. (Table 4.5).
Regarding the socio-demographic variables, cluster 3 (Conditional supporters)
has a higher percentage of men (49.2%), individuals with higher education (75.4%),
employed (76.9%), individuals with higher incomes (more than 2000 Euros: 33.8%),
live longer in the municipality (Mean = 34.75, SD = 16.57), and are older (Mean
= 44.43, SD = 11.45). In cluster 2 (Disinterested) women predominate (69.1%), it
has a higher percentage of individuals with primary/secondary education (45.7%), of
students (43.6%), with lower incomes (43.6% up to 1000 Euros), and who do not have
family members in the tourism sector (84.0%). Individuals in this cluster are younger
(Mean = 33.09, SD = 14.12) and have lived in the municipality for less time (Mean
= 22.95, SD = 16.84). In cluster 1 (Advocates) women also predominate (67.0%—
similar percentage to cluster 2, but higher than in cluster 3). In general, this cluster
is in an intermediate position between clusters 2 and 3 regarding the percentage of
individuals with higher education (61.5%), employed (61.5%) and students (31.9%),
low (33.0% up to 1000 Euros) and high (25.3% above 2000 Euros) incomes, average
age (Mean = 39.25, SD = 16.10) and time living in the municipality (Mean =
27.60, SD = 20.36). Cluster 1 differs from the other two clusters by having a higher
percentage of individuals with family members in the tourism sector (33.0%).

4.5 Discussion

The findings suggest the existence of three resident groups: Advocates (36.4%; n =
91), Disinterested (37.6%; n = 94), and Conditional supporters (26%; n = 65). Given
that, as it is known, no other segmentation studies have been done to segment residents
based on these two criteria (community involvement and LGMT), the results of the
present study can only be compared to segmentation studies that have been conducted
in the context of tourism development and that use other bases of segmentation: for
example, residents’ place image [32]; or tourism impacts [33, 34].
Firstly, similar to the study of Jani [34], in the present study, the majority of respon-
dents fall into a cluster (Disinterested—n = 94) that has less positive perceptions
instead of more positive ones (Advocates and Conditional supporters).
Secondly, the Advocate cluster corresponds to residents who tend to have favor-
able views regarding the benefits provided by tourism, tend to be more economically
46 I. Vieira et al.

Table 4.5 Socio-demographic characterization of the clusters (N = 250)

Advocates Disinterested Conditional supporters p
n = 91 n = 94 n = 65
Gender
Female 61 (67.0%) 65 (69.1%) 33 (50.8%)(−) 0.042(2)
Male 30 (33.0%) 29 (30.9%) 32 (49.2%)(+)
Age (years)
Mean (SD) 39.25 (16.10)a 33.09 (14.12)b 44.43 (11.45)a < 0.001(1)
Education
Middle school or under/ 35 (38.5%) 43 (45.7%)(+) 16 (24.6%)(−) 0.025(2)
Secondary school
University degree 56 (61.5%) 51 (54.3%)(−) 49 (75.4%)(+)
Employment status
Employee 56 (61.5%) 48 (51.1%)(−) 50 (76.9%)(+) 0.007(2)
Student 29 (31.9%) 41 (43.6%)(+) 10 (15.4%)(−)
Domestic worker + 6 (6.6%) 5 (5.3%) 5 (7.7%)
Retired
Monthly income (in
Euros)
Up to 500 euros 7 (7.7%) 10 (10.6%) 1 (1.5%)(−) 0.003(2)
From 501 to 1000 euros 23 (25.3%) 31 (33.0%)(+) 11 (16.9%)(−)
From 1001 to 1500 22 (24.2%) 21 (22.3%) 13 (20.0%)
euros
From 1501 to 2000 16 (17.6%) 24 (25.5%) 18 (27.7%)
euros
More than 2000 euros 23 (25.3%) 8 (8.5%)(−) 22 (33.8%)(+)
Has a family member
involved in the tourism
sector
No 61 (67.0%)(−) 79 (84.0%)(+) 50 (76.9%) 0.025(2)
Yes 30 (33.0%)(+) 15 (16.0%)(−) 15 (23.1%)
Number of persons in
the household
Mean (SD) 3.24 (0.90) 3.16 (1.05) 3.22 (1.08) 0.876(1)
Time in the community
(years)
Mean (SD) 27.60 (20.36)b 22.95 (16.84)b 34.75 (16.57)a < 0.001(1)
Notes (1) significance value of ANOVA; (2) significance value of Chi-square test of independence;
a, b,c no significant differences between clusters with common letter in each variable: p > 0.05 in

Tukey HSD multiple comparisons tests; (+) cells with significantly higher value than the mean
(standardized adjusted residuals > 1.96); (−) cells with significantly lower value than the mean
(standardized adjusted residuals < 1.96)
Source Own elaboration
4 Residents’ Perceptions of Sustainable Tourism Development … 47

dependent on the sector, and are more supportive of the STD. These characteris-
tics have been previously reported in other studies, even though different labels or
basis for segmentation has been used [33, 35]. Both Advocates and Conditional
supporters show high involvement with the community; however, they differ in the
degree of perception regarding the perception of the effectiveness of the manage-
ment of tourism activities by the local government. Conditional supporters tend to
be critical of the management of local authorities, something that may have to do
with their party position. It is worthy to underline that the Conditional supporters
constitute the smallest group. Even though sceptics concerning the effectiveness of
LGMT, they show a high position on community involvement.
Thirdly, another key finding of this study is that the Advocates and the Conditional
supporters exhibit strong support for STD, whereas the Disinterested do not evidence
this support. This follows the results of past research [32, 35], which also noted that
residents with more favorable perceptions tend to support more STD. As in the study
of Vareiro et al. [35], the emergent nature of this low-density town can justify these
positive opinions.
Fourth, the Disinterested cluster shared similar characteristics to those in other
studies regarding the socio-demographic profile (e.g., the ‘Indifferent’ cluster in the
study of [33]). The fact that they are the ones who present the lowest scores regarding
community attachment, perception of benefits, economic dependence, and support
for STD is something new in relation to other studies; however, it is an expected
result, given the profile of this group of residents.
Finally, unlike previous studies (e.g., [34]), the use of the socio-demographic
variables to describe the different clusters of residents proved to be very useful in the
cluster analysis, as only one of the variables (number of persons in the household)
did not show statistical significance. This was not the case for all the other variables,
which were shown to be important in characterizing the profile of the clusters.

4.6 Conclusions

This study investigated residents’ perceptions based on a cluster analysis that used
two criteria reportedly never previously used in the literature: community involve-
ment and LGMT. The findings suggest the existence of three resident groups (Advo-
cates, Disinterested, and Conditional supporters), providing empirical evidence that
community involvement and LGMT can serve as meaningful criteria for segmenting
the local population of a tourist destination. To our knowledge, no studies have used
these two criteria to segment residents in tourist destinations. In this context, the
present study extends previous research as it reveals that these are relevant criteria
for conducting a cluster analysis that provides a basis for an approach to planning
and managing tourism activity focused on residents and their perceptions. In this
context, the results of this study confirm the critical role community involvement
and LGMT play in formulating residents’ perceptions, especially their support for
48 I. Vieira et al.

STD. Furthermore, to our knowledge, previous studies have never addressed the vari-
able perceived risk to characterize clusters of residents’ perceptions. This constitutes
a significant contribution of the present study compared to previous ones.
These findings have several practical implications for local authorities, place
marketers, and tourism planners. The cluster analysis exposed three clusters of resi-
dents (based on the residents perceptions of the effectiveness of the management of
the tourist activity of the local government and residents involvement in the commu-
nity) with distinct views, which could provide a basis for a more targeted approach by
the local government in planning and promoting this tourism destination as a whole.
The knowledge of the segments allows the elaboration of a Strategic Communica-
tion Plan that meets the different audiences. In this study, an “Advocates” cluster
also allows for elaborating a communication strategy based on advocacy marketing.
This study has some limitations that should be mentioned. The study was
conducted on a single Portuguese tourist destination, namely Lamego; consequently,
caution should be exercised in generalizing the results to other destinations. Also, the
sample type (convenience) may have some under-representation of resident groups
with specific characteristics. The fact that its application took place in the last phase
of the restrictions imposed by the government due to the pandemic may have condi-
tioned residents’ perceptions of the phenomenon under study. In the future, it would
be essential to develop longitudinal studies over at least ten years to monitor resi-
dents’ support for STD in the town. Constant changes in the national and international
conjuncture may lead to abrupt changes in residents’ perception and support for STD.
Applying the same methodological approach to different stakeholder groups, such
as visitors, would also be necessary for understanding other stakeholders’ support
for STD.

Acknowledgements This work was supported by CI&DEI—Centre for Studies in Education

and Innovation and also supported by national funds, through the FCT—Portuguese Founda-
tion for Science and Technology under the project UIDB/05507/2020 and by CETRAD—Centre
for Transdisciplinary Development Studies and also supported by national funds, through the
FCT—Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology under the project UIDB/04011/2020.

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Chapter 5
Data Science in Supporting Hotel
Management: Application of Predictive
Models to Booking.com Guest
Evaluations

Ana Filipa Martins, Luís M. Silva , and Jorge Marques

Abstract Data science is a multidisciplinary area that gathers several branches, such
as statistics, databases, and computer science and whose importance has become
more substantial over the last few years. Using several techniques and algorithms
from machine learning allows us to understand how certain variables are related, as
well as to visualize data and make predictions. This paper aims to use data science
as a strategic instrument for the hospitality industry by proposing a model that can
help to predict which characteristics will be more valued by guests. By better under-
standing which features guests value most when evaluating a stay at a hotel, it will be
easier for hotel managers to make informed decisions about which service operations
management strategies should be used. It can also be helpful in terms of investment
decisions, as it can indicate which aspects will be most important to value in a hotel.
In this research, it was possible to conclude that guests’ ratings are related primarily
to the commodities available at the hotels, followed by cleanliness, staff, location,
price-quality relation, and comfort.

A. F. Martins
Department of Social, Political and Territorial Sciences, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro,
Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
L. M. Silva
CIDMA - Center for Research and Development in Mathematics and Applications, Department of
Mathematics, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
J. Marques (B)
REMIT - Research on Economics, Management and Information Technologies, Department of
Tourism, Heritage and Culture, University Portucalense, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
CEGOT - Centre of Studies in Geography and Spatial Planning, University of Coimbra, 3004-530
Coimbra, Portugal

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 51
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_5
52 A. F. Martins et al.

5.1 Introduction

Data science is an area that brings together several classical disciplines, such as
statistics, mathematics, databases, and computational sciences. The main objective
is to extract relevant information from a data set using machine learning techniques
and algorithms. For this reason, it has gained greater importance over the last few
years, as it can be a valuable tool for different sectors. The hospitality industry is no
exception.
Data science can be beneficial in characterizing the offer of hotels, namely their
characteristics, services, and equipment. Additionally, it enables higher knowledge
about customer preferences and their appreciation for the services. If used in an objec-
tive and targeted manner, this tool allows a better understanding of the offer through
quantitative and qualitative analyses and supports hotel managers in decision-making
and in elaborating their business strategy.
This article seeks to cross data science with the hospitality sector by demonstrating
this area’s usefulness and how it can constitute an essential strategic tool for hotel
planning and management.
This study is based on a set of variables extracted from the Booking.com platform
relating to the evaluation that consumers provide of hotels at the end of their stay,
both at a general level and in specific categories.
Using statistical analysis and machine learning algorithms, we seek to find a
relationship between these variables and understand how they influence the overall
rating given by customers for their stay. In this way, the main objective is to propose a
model that can predict the main characteristics of the hotel service that most influence
the classification assigned on Booking.com.
This analysis seeks to help hotel managers decide, allowing them to understand
better what consumers value most. In this context, hotel managers can identify the
services that need more attention. A better knowledge of the services most valued
by customers will contribute to more informed decision-making by hotel managers.

5.2 Theoretical Background

Nowadays, computational sciences and technology are growing faster and faster,
and, in this way, more and more data is generated and stored, giving rise to the
concept of Big Data [3]. In this context, data science emerges, a multidisciplinary
and comprehensive area that combines classic disciplines such as statistics, mathe-
matics, databases, and computational sciences [9]. This uses various techniques and
algorithms, namely machine learning algorithms, to extract information from a data
set, thus increasing its usefulness. Thus, in recent years, data science has aroused
more interest among professionals from various areas and societies, aiming to support
decision-making.
5 Data Science in Supporting Hotel Management: Application … 53

This area, therefore, has several objectives, such as finding relationships between
the variables under analysis, understanding the behavior of the data, visualizing them
in different ways and making predictions. Data science consists of several stages,
namely the collection and storage of data, their preparation and exploration and,
when necessary, their transformation. Then, when the data set already has all the
required conditions, several learning algorithms are applied to make predictions and
to draw conclusions about the characteristics or distribution of the data [9].
This forecasting tool is applied in several areas, for example, in the business area
to predict the sales values of a specific product or in tourism and hospitality to predict
revenue or occupancy rates.

5.2.1 Some Examples of the Applicability of Data Science

in Hospitality

Although there needs to be more research based on the same data set from
Booking.com, some studies with similar approaches were identified, mainly based
on the analysis of customers’ appreciation of hotel and restaurant services through
online platforms.
Jiang et al. [2] analyzed the reviews of English-speaking tourists on TripAdvisor
about hotels in mainland China. These authors sought to compare the brand image
of different types of hotels and different classifications (stars), concluding that this
varies according to the specific characteristics of the hotel. Additionally, they found
that a hotel with a certain number of stars is not always associated with the same
type of review, so there should be a distinction between the ratings.
Pacheco [6] studied the reviews of Portuguese hotels in four regions (Lisbon,
Algarve, Madeira, and Porto & Norte), grouped into three categories (two/three stars,
four stars, and five stars). This author also took data from TripAdvisor, one of the
largest online travel review platforms. In addition to testing the existence of signifi-
cant differences between regions and between categories, Pacheco also uses various
statistical tests and regression analysis to explore the relationship between overall
satisfaction and six specific attributes—location, quality of sleep, rooms, service,
cost–benefit, and cleanliness. He concluded that the rooms, service, and cost–benefit
ratio indicators presented the highest correlation with overall consumer satisfaction
for any region or category. On the other hand, the variables cleanliness and loca-
tion are significant only in some regions and segments. This author also emphasizes
that the conclusions of this study can help hotel managers allocate resources as
it determines which attributes have a more significant impact on overall customer
satisfaction.
In another study, Pacheco [7] carried out a study for Michelin-starred restaurants
located in Portugal and Spain, in which he intended to explore how four specific
variables (food, service, value for money, and atmosphere) influenced the overall
satisfaction of consumers. These data were also taken from TripAdvisor. In this
54 A. F. Martins et al.

analysis, several statistical tests and regression analyses were also used, which led to
the conclusion that the food and service indicators were the ones that presented the
most significant correlation with general satisfaction. Pacheco highlights the impor-
tance of this study for the catering sector, as it allows for identifying the variables that
most contribute to overall satisfaction and thus improving or investing in attributes
to achieve a competitive advantage. These two studies emphasize the importance of
electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM), which has gained greater importance over time
due to the emergence of new technologies and tools [7]. The author highlights online
reviews, ratings, and consumer opinions as examples of this phenomenon.
Litvin et al. [4] defined eWOM as all informal communications addressed to
consumers through Internet-based technology related to the use or characteristics of
specific goods and services or their sellers. This author highlights the influence of
eWOM in the tourism and hospitality sector since customer reviews are a valuable
source of information for new tourists looking for an independent assessment. There-
fore, this phenomenon can benefit managers since the reviews and ratings make it
possible to increase profitability [6].
The importance of reviews is also highlighted in the work of Lu and Stepchenkova
[5], which concludes that most people when planning their trip, consider online
reviews, given that they contain more up-to-date, detailed, and reliable information.
This context reinforces the pertinence of data science in analyzing data produced
daily in the hospitality sector.
This study constitutes an essential tool for the tourism and hospitality sector,
namely for hotel managers. By using data science applied to Booking.com data, it is
possible to understand better consumers’ preferences and motivations by verifying
which hotel characteristics contribute to their satisfaction, that is, to the attribution
of a higher appreciation.

5.3 Method and Data Collection

All data analysis was performed using the Python programming language, using
specific libraries such as pandas, seaborn, matplotlib, scikit-learn, and pycaret for
data analysis and manipulation, visualization, and training of predictive models.

5.3.1 Data Collection

To respond to the objective of this work, it was necessary to collect data on the
classification that customers attribute to a hotel at the end of their stay. For this
purpose, the online platform Booking.com was used to collect data about Portuguese
hotels. Booking.com is one of the leading hotel search and reservation engines, which
contains information on the classification of consumers, in a range of 1 to 10, for each
hotel. In addition to a general rating, there is information regarding more specific
5 Data Science in Supporting Hotel Management: Application … 55

categories, such as staff, facilities, cleanliness, comfort, location, value for money,
and free Wi-Fi.
This information was collected manually for all hotels, resulting in a database with
1426 hotels and 8 variables referring to consumer satisfaction: general, cleanliness,
location, staff, comfort, value for money, facilities, and free Wi-Fi. Of these, it was
decided to exclude the free Wi-Fi variable from the predictive model since this char-
acteristic is also evaluated in facilities. This variable includes particular and compre-
hensive features, including free Wi-Fi, parking, swimming pools, fitness centers, or
even more specific components such as coffee/tea in the room, and bathrobes, among
many others.

5.3.2 Model Selection and Evaluation

To predict the overall rating from Booking.com specific ratings, different regression
models available in the Python pycaret library were tested (see list in Fig. 5.1). For
this, the original data set was divided into a training set and a test set in the proportion
of 70–30%, respectively, performing a simple random sampling.
With the training set and the tenfold cross-validation strategy, the algorithm with
the best performance was analyzed. The cross-validation method was also used to
adjust existing hyperparameters in some algorithms, such as ridge regression or
gradient boosting regression. The performance of the chosen model is then evaluated
on the test set. In the various moments when this was necessary, different measures
were used to evaluate performance, such as the mean absolute error (MAE), the
mean squared error (MSE), and the root mean squared error (RMSE), focusing our
attention more on this latter by obtaining an error measure on the same scale as the

Fig. 5.1 Results of applying tenfold cross-validation to the training set with 8 regression algorithms
56 A. F. Martins et al.

Fig. 5.2 Performance of the

linear regression model on
the test set

variable being predicted. The R-squared (R2) was also used to analyze the quality
of the fit between the dependent variable and the predictive variables.

5.4 Results

5.4.1 Predictive Model Applied to Booking.com Ratings

This model intends to predict the value of the general classification attributed by
consumers, using indicators related to evaluating six specific categories: staff, facili-
ties, cleanliness, comfort, value for money, and location. Figure 5.1 shows the results
obtained with tenfold cross-validation in 8 regression algorithms. The results are very
similar, with a slight performance loss in the case of more complex algorithms such
as Extra Trees, Gradient Boosting, or Random Forest. The value of R2 close to 1
shows a solid fit between the general classification (about 97% of the variation in the
general classification is explained by the regression model) and the specific classifi-
cations. The RMSE value is relatively low, indicating an error of about 0.1 on ratings
ranging from 0 to 10 (actually, and in most cases, between 6 and 10). The linear
regression model was chosen as the final model, obtaining a performance evaluation
on the test set shown in Fig. 5.2. The RMSE value is slightly higher (less than 0.12),
which indicates that the training process did not suffer from overfitting.
Another point of interest was understanding which variables (specific classifica-
tions) contribute most to predicting the general classification. For this, the feature
importance plot was used, from which the information in Fig. 5.3 was extracted.
Through the analysis of Fig. 5.3, the facilities of the hotels stand out as the specific
feature that weighs most in the general appreciation given by customers. In this
context, facilities include all products or services found in the hotel. In this way, one
can see the importance of structuring a hotel product that is coherent and suitable for
the different market segments. Bearing in mind that hotels with different categories
(stars) have different levels of facilities, differentiation may arise through how hotel
managers exceed expectations regarding the provision of these facilities. On the other
hand, it is also important to note that the higher the legal rating (stars), the greater
and more comprehensive the range of products and services offered.
Following are the variables cleanliness and staff, with lower importance than the
first variable. The fact that these two variables have a significant weight in the general
classification is consistent with the conclusions of the study by Choi and Chu [1],
which showed that these indicators are included in the three factors with the most
significant influence on consumer satisfaction. While previously discussed facilities
5 Data Science in Supporting Hotel Management: Application … 57

Facilities

Cleanliness

Staff

Location

Value for money

Comfort

Variable Importance

Fig. 5.3 Feature importance plot for linear regression model

may be more directly associated with hotels’ budgets (higher budgets mean more
investment and vice versa), hotel managers may more easily control cleanliness and
staff. These two features can be worked on and improved internally, for example,
by closely monitoring the service and identifying possible actions to improve these
services. The fact that, through the predictive model, it was possible to assess that
cleanliness and staff are among the three main features that influence the general
classification of Booking.com reinforces the importance of hotel managers paying
more attention to these specific services.
The location of hotels is of critical importance, and it is usually related to acces-
sibility to points of interest, transport convenience, the surrounding environment,
and market conditions [10]. As stated by Yang and Mao [10], the overall effect of
location advantage is more substantial for urban hotels. However, in our study, we
worked with hotels nationwide, including urban, coastal, mountain, and rural areas.
Therefore, in the predictive model analysis, the location is not one of the most critical
factors for the overall classification. This result may be related to the fact that there
is a great diversity on offer, and the customer can choose the hotel according to the
exact or approximate location they want.
Next comes value for money, which has to do with the perception of the value of the
service the customer receives compared to the price paid. Here, the fact that it is one
of the less important features may be related to the high competitiveness of the hotel
market, which, through online platforms such as Booking.com, presents frequent
fluctuations in prices, influenced by demand and occupancy rates. Considering that
customers can choose the best deal on the online market, it seems logical that other
features such as facilities, cleanliness, and staff have a greater weight in the final
evaluation.
Finally, comfort is the feature with less influence on global evaluation. This
conclusion was not expected, given that Sthapit [8] highlighted this factor as one of
the determinants of guest satisfaction. However, considering that comfort is usually
58 A. F. Martins et al.

related to room temperature, light, and mattress, among other characteristics, hotel
managers pay a lot of attention to these aspects. As such, with the basic standards of
comfort commonly accepted and implemented in the hotel industry, guests’ attention
is directed toward other features, as we have already mentioned.

5.5 Conclusion

This article sought to combine data science with hospitality management through
its application in the Portuguese hotel industry. An attempt was made to build a
predictive model for the general rating variable, using the remaining variables taken
from Booking.com for specific categories as independent variables since it was found
that these ratings were assigned independently. It was noted that facilities, cleanliness,
and staff were the most important factors when consumers attributed their general
appreciation to the hotel. This means that investment in new products and services
is significant in valuing hotels and guest experience. On the other hand, it reinforces
the need to pay great attention to human resources and service operations, namely
cleaning.
As future work, since this study was carried out only for the hotel’s typology and
for the territory of Portugal, this approach could be expanded to different typologies
or regions to draw different conclusions.
This study is a decision support for hotel managers as it informs them of the
features customers value most during their stay. Analyzing the data set made it
possible to understand which factors most influenced consumers in assigning online
ratings. Based on these conclusions, the offer can be adapted to the needs and
preferences of consumers to increase occupancy rates and profitability.
In this way, the work highlights the importance of data science in tourism and
hospitality since data analysis can be a valuable strategic tool with a high potential
to draw different conclusions and help in decision-making.

Acknowledgements This work was supported by REMIT and the FCT—Fundação para a
Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P. [Project UIDB/05105/2020]. Second author was supported by
CIDMA and is funded by the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P. (FCT, Funder ID
= 50110000187) under Grants https://doi.org/10.54499/UIDB/04106/2020 and https://doi.org/10.
54499/UIDP/04106/2020.

References

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1016/S0278-4319(01)00006-8
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2. Jiang, J., Gretzel, U., Law, R.: Influence of star rating and ownership structure on brand image
of Mainland China hotels. J. China Tour. Res. 10(1), 69–94 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1080/
19388160.2013.870506
3. Kambatla, K., Kollias, G., Kumar, V., Grama, A.: Trends in big data analytics. J. Parallel Distrib.
Comput. 74(7), 2561–2573 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JPDC.2014.01.003
4. Litvin, S.W., Goldsmith, R.E., Pan, B.: Electronic word-of-mouth in hospitality and tourism
management. Tour. Manage. 29(3), 458–468 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TOURMAN.
2007.05.011
5. Lu, W., Stepchenkova, S.: Ecotourism experiences reported online: classification of satisfaction
attributes. Tour. Manage. 33(3), 702–712 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TOURMAN.2011.
08.003
6. Pacheco, L.: Customer satisfaction in Portuguese hotels: evidence for different regions and
hotel segments. Tour. Anal. 22(3), 337–347 (2017). https://doi.org/10.3727/108354217X14
955605216087
7. Pacheco, L.: An analysis of online reviews of upscale Iberian restaurants. Dos Algarves: A
Multidisciplinary e-Journal 32, 38–53 (2018)
8. Sthapit, E.: Antecedents of a memorable hotel experience: Finnish hotels perspective. Curr.
Issue Tour.. Issue Tour. 22(20), 2458–2461 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2018.
1518413
9. van der Aalst, W.: Process Mining: Data Science in Action (2nd ed.). Springer Berlin Heidelberg
(2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-49851-4
10. Yang, Y., Mao, Z.: Location advantages of lodging properties: a comparison between hotels
and Airbnb units in an urban environment. Ann. Tour. Res. 81, 102861 (2020). https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.annals.2020.102861
Chapter 6
Organizational Commitment: The Role
of Organizational Happiness and Quiet
Quitting

Sergio Dominique-Ferreira, Marina Oliveira, and Catherine Prentice

Abstract Purpose: This study endeavors to examine the correlation between

Organizational Commitment and Organizational Happiness in the changing labor
market, with a specific emphasis on Quiet Quitting. Its principal objective is to
ascertain whether higher employee happiness levels result in heightened commit-
ment, thereby reducing the prevalence of Quiet Quitting occurrences. Method-
ology: Employing a multi-method quantitative approach, the study will use a
structured questionnaire with closed-end questions on a five-point Likert scale.
Organizational Commitment will be measured using the Allen and Meyer (1990)
scale, Organizational Happiness with Campaniço’s (Campaniço, E. N. (2012). Feli-
cidade organizacional-proposta de escala de medida para as organizações em
Portugal (Master’s thesis). https://1library.org/document/qvv6d2lq-felicidade-org
anizacional-proposta-escala-medida-para-organizacoes-portugal.html) scale, and
Quiet Quitting using the Anand et al. (Anand et al. in Int. J. Organ. Anal., 2023)
scale. Statistical analyses will be performed to interpret the data. Managerial Impli-
cations: This study’s findings can offer valuable insights to organizations, helping
them to create a positive work environment that enhances employee well-being and
mitigates the risk of Quiet Quitting. Strategies to promote employee happiness and
commitment could lead to increased performance, reduced absenteeism, presen-
teeism, and turnover rates, and improved talent attraction and retention. Social Impli-
cations: The study’s results have broader societal implications, particularly in the
post-pandemic labor market. Addressing Quiet Quitting and promoting workplace

S. Dominique-Ferreira (B)
Department of Marketing and Tourism, School of Hospitality and Marketing, Polytechnic Institute
of Cavado and Ave (ESHT-IPCA), Applied Management Research Unit (UNIAG), Barcelos,
Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
M. Oliveira
School of Hospitality and Marketing, Polytechnic Institute of Cavado and Ave (ESHT-IPCA),
Applied Management Research Unit (UNIAG), Barcelos, Portugal
C. Prentice
Department of Marketing, Faculty of Business, Education, Law and Arts, University of Southern
Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 61
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_6
62 S. Dominique-Ferreira et al.

happiness can contribute to improved work–life balance and overall job satisfac-
tion, positively impacting individuals’ mental health and well-being. Originality:
This research addresses a gap in the existing literature by exploring the relationship
between Organizational Commitment, Organizational Happiness, and Quiet Quitting
within the changing labor market. Its multi-method approach and focus on contem-
porary workforce dynamics contribute to its originality and potential to offer fresh
insights for organizations and researchers.

6.1 Introduction

Working-age adults, generally, spend a substantial portion of their waking hours in

the workplace. According to recent data, from the OECD database, people in the USA
spend the equivalent of one-third of their adult life, on their work [36]. This signifi-
cant amount of time underscores the importance of cultivating positive, healthier, and
more fulfilling work environments. Employers prioritizing their employees’ happi-
ness and job satisfaction are more likely to attract and retain talented personnel,
ensuring a stable and efficient workforce. On the contrary, workplaces that neglect
these factors may face challenges such as high rates of absenteeism, presenteeism,
and staff turnover, as well as low morale and decreased efficiency [46].
The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on the labor market,
transforming the way people work. There were many changes in the labor market,
including after the pandemic accute stage. Those changes include remote work,
several digital transformations, automation (such as Artificial Intelligence solutions)
and customer behaviours. These disruptions led to remote work arrangements, shifts
in job responsibilities, and increased stress and burnout, making workers reeval-
uate their priorities and career goals in the wake of the pandemic. Additionally, the
pandemic has highlighted existing workplace issues such as low pay, inadequate
benefits, and limited opportunities for advancement, leading to a “new normal” in
the labor market that requires both, employers and employees, to adapt to changing
demands and acquire new skills to remain competitive [8, 11, 29, 31, 39].
Organizational Commitment, Organizational Happiness, and Quiet Quitting are
all related concepts within the context of employee behavior and motivation. Orga-
nizational Commitment refers to the degree of emotional connection an employee
experiences toward their organization. It signifies the extent to which an employee
demonstrates loyalty, identification, and involvement with their organization [15].
In the current reality, characterized by a high personnel rotational flow, commit-
ment is considered one of the most important attitudes for achieving common objec-
tives [14] and a key factor in the relationship between individuals and organizations
[41]. Organizational Happiness, an emerging “umbrella” construct that unites several
disciplines, refers to the overall well-being and satisfaction of employees within an
organization. It includes factors such as job satisfaction, work–life balance, a posi-
tive work environment, state engagement, task enjoyment, emotion at work, intrinsic
motivation, and others [18, 20, 40]. Quiet Quitting entails employees disengaging
6 Organizational Commitment: The Role of Organizational Happiness … 63

from their work and organization without officially resigning. It involves inten-
tionally restricting work activities within the confines of their job description and
refraining from exceeding established expectations. This can manifest as decreased
effort, increased sick days, and a lack of willingness to take on additional tasks while
maintaining their current employment status, ultimately resulting in a diminished
commitment to their job. The main reasons for it, especially among younger gener-
ations, are loss of purpose, poor extrinsic motivation, unrealistic demands, burnout,
lack of fair recognition and grudges against managers, feelings of injustice, and a
need for a healthier work–life balance [19, 43].
While there is an evident connection between these concepts, further exploration is
needed to fully understand the depth of their relationship. In light of this, the following
research question emerges: “Are employees, who are happy with their job and work
environment, more inclined to demonstrate commitment to their organization and
less likely to quietly quit?” This study aims to understand the relationship between
these variables and identify workplace improvement areas. The GAP covered by this
study can provide valuable insights into workplace dynamics and effective ways to
promote employees’ happiness, by exploring workforce commitment, thus bucking
the Quiet Quitting trend.

6.2 Literature Review

6.2.1 Organizational Commitment

The concept of Organizational Commitment (OC) has emerged during the 1970s and
1980s as a significant factor in the relationship between individuals and organizations
[41]. Various definitions of OC can be found in the literature, but most of them empha-
size this connection (Sivaramakrishan et al. 2008). Among these definitions, the most
relevant one pertains to the extent of employees’ involvement in the organization and
their identification with it [35]. OC often reflects individuals’ involvement, attach-
ment, engagement, devotion, and identification with an organization [10, 15]. From a
global perspective, within any organization, the commitment of employees serves as
a primary indicator of superior performance, increased productivity, and improved
profitability [25]. Employee participation and identification with the organization
demonstrated through acceptance and belief in its goals and values are critical for the
organization’s success. Committed employees possess a willingness to exert signif-
icant effort for the organization’s benefit, driven by a sense of belonging [39]. As
stated by Metin and Marangoz [32], organizations have recognized the importance
of increasing and maintaining employees’ motivation and commitment to achieve
high performance and ensure the continuity of human resources. Consequently, many
organizations face the challenge of fostering loyalty and commitment among their
employees to achieve economic and cultural success [14]. OC has many benefits,
such as: increased productivity and profitability, improved individual effectiveness
64 S. Dominique-Ferreira et al.

and efficiency, enhancements in the work environment, promotion of teamwork, effi-

cient conflict resolution, and reduced rates of absenteeism and tardiness. According
to Allen and Shanock [2], committed employees often demonstrate greater loyalty,
leading to better job performance, work ethics, intelligence sharing, and willingness
to spread positive word-of-mouth about the company among other factors. Fisher
[20] also stated that OC is one of the most commonly measured constructs related
to happiness at work.
Meyer and Allen [33] established three distinct dimensions of OC: affec-
tive commitment, continuance commitment, and normative commitment. Affective
commitment specifically pertains to the emotional bond between an employee and
the organization, representing the emotional attachment that binds the individual to
the organization [38]. This type of commitment develops when employees’ experi-
ences within the organization meet their expectations and fulfill their basic needs.
Employees feel valued and treated like family, considering the organization an inte-
gral part of their lives, and cultivating feelings of belonging, affection, and joy [14].
According to Fisher [20], affective commitment can be regarded as an integral compo-
nent of work happiness, since it closely aligns with happiness, as it signifies an
emotional bond with the organization. Continuance commitment revolves around
the costs and benefits associated with leaving the job and exiting the organization
[38]. It can be defined as the difficulty employees face in altering their relation-
ship with the organization due to limited alternative options available in the market
or the associated costs of change, such as the loss of continuity [14]. Normative
commitment entails a sense of obligation to remain in the organization [38], driven
by moral duties of reciprocity based on the employee’s attachment to the organiza-
tion [7]. Imperative feelings of permanence, retribution, or moral gratitude toward
the organization can arise from having received benefits, opportunities, concessions,
or special advantages from the organization [14].

6.2.2 Organizational Happiness

The significance of experiencing happiness holds great importance for most indi-
viduals, and the pursuit of happiness is highly esteemed in most societies [16]. As
a result, the interest in happiness has expanded to encompass the realm of work-
place experiences [20]. Nevertheless, assessing happiness can be challenging as
existing measurements tend to be one-dimensional and non-academic validated [37].
According to Fisher [20], prior research has tended to underestimate the significance
of happiness at work, as it encompasses not only job satisfaction but extends beyond
it. In today’s labor market, characterized by increasing change and unpredictability,
Organizational Happiness (OH)—as a construct encompassing different concepts
such as job satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, work involvement, engage-
ment, prosperity, vigor, flow, intrinsic motivation, or positive affect at work—has
gained importance in research and organizations from all types of fields [6, 21,
28, 42]. Aspects of happiness have been conceptualized and measured at multiple
6 Organizational Commitment: The Role of Organizational Happiness … 65

levels, encompassing discrete events, the job itself, and the organization as a whole.
Evidence exists at all levels indicating that happiness has significant implications for
both individuals and organizations [20]. Organizational Happiness is emerging as a
multidisciplinary and transdisciplinary field, reflecting the potential new horizons of
human work in the future [4]. It represents a multifaceted and strategic concept within
the realm of human resource management and organizational dynamics [17] and
embodies an attitude that enables each employee to maximize their performance and
realize their potential when working individually or as part of a group (Pryce-Jones,
2010).
Among an organization’s intangible assets, its workforce holds the most signif-
icant potential for distinctive competitive advantages [23]. Neglecting the value
of human capital can lead to missed opportunities for development and dimin-
ished productivity [21]. Consequently, organizations are committed to establishing
enduring relationships with their employees, striking a balance between maximizing
productivity, and creating an organizational culture where individuals genuinely
desire to work [45]. Consequently, it becomes imperative to implement effective
approaches to understanding employees’ needs, facilitated through open communi-
cation channels across all hierarchical levels within the company [26]. According
to Vadkerti [44], happy employees are more engaged, cooperative, innovative, and
committed and are more likely to significantly impact the company’s bottom line.
Furthermore, happy individuals exhibit higher levels of productivity and efficiency
in the workplace compared to their unhappy counterparts, as their happiness tran-
scends the boundaries of work and home life [5]. Achor [1] also posited that happy
individuals tend to achieve more successful careers, finding happiness within their
workplaces.

6.2.3 Quiet Quitting

During the extended period of isolation, mandatory due to the COVID-19 pandemic,
employees had the opportunity to reflect on their work and contemplate a fresh start
once the pandemic era ended. This reflection led to the emergence of the Great
Resignation, which began in the spring of 2021 when employees were called back to
work, but many chose not to return [22]. Consequently, this novel phenomenon called
“quiet quitting”, or “silent resignation” has emerged, with quiet quitters adopting
mottos such as “leaving work at work” and “working to live” instead of “living to
work” [9]. While the term Quiet Quitting was coined by economist Mark Boldger
in 2009, it gained popularity in 2022, a year after the start of the Great Resignation
[22]. The trend attracted media attention through a TikTok video by user zkchillin,
who presented the idea of “going to work, but not giving it your all”, generating
over three million views and half a million likes, presenting QQ as a positive way
to achieve work–life balance [27]. QQ manifests in different forms, such as refusing
projects outside of job descriptions, not responding to work-related communication
outside of working hours, or simply leaving work on time. However, while this trend
66 S. Dominique-Ferreira et al.

promotes work–life balance, it may have negative repercussions, as simply doing

less can lead to increasing frustration rather than genuine happiness [27]. Therefore,
the term refers to the limited commitment of employees to their assigned duties
and the relinquishment of any tasks not explicitly stated in their job descriptions,
implying a low investment in work activities, with quiet quitters being disengaged
and not inclined to “go above and beyond” their prescribed responsibilities [22].
This mindset, while helping workers avoid burnout, can jeopardize their professional
careers [43].
Although QQ is not a new phenomenon, as similar concepts have existed for
decades, there is limited research on this topic from the perspective of human resource
management and organizational behavior [24]. One such concept is “work to rule,”
which has been used by unions worldwide for centuries as a method of industrial
action, involving the disruption of company operations by adhering strictly to the
prescribed rules of work [30]. While “work to rule” is a collective action tactic often
used during trade disputes, QQ is more personal and tied to workers’ individual desire
for mental health and work–life balance. However, both concepts signal a need for
employers to address and solve underlying issues by creating engaging workplaces
[30]. According to Anand et al. [3], QQ typically involves a psychological departure
from the work and the organization via job disengagement (e.g., lack of interest
in finishing the tasks) due to the employee’s desire to prioritize their work–life
balance or well-being. In this regard, it is important to note that while the pandemic
has accelerated the phenomena of the Great Resignation and Quiet Quitting, these
paradigm shifts are not solely a result of COVID-19 restrictions. Dissatisfaction
among employees, as evidenced by high turnover and low engagement, has existed
before the pandemic, which acted as a catalyst highlighting and accelerating long-
standing workforce dissatisfaction that cannot be ignored [22].
QQ, in its contemporary form, resonates particularly with younger employees
who have experienced significant workplace changes due to the pandemic [24].
Generational differences play a significant role, with younger workers valuing flexi-
bility, appreciation, autonomy, and work–life balance. Organizations must be mindful
of these differences and adapt their practices to attract and retain talent, pleasing
a younger and more diverse workforce that demands changes in the workplace
[9]. To address QQ, organizations should focus on improving their culture, priori-
tizing human capital, and offering benefits that support work–life balance. Strategies
may include investing in knowledge sharing, retaining high performers, managing
burnout, promoting fairness between managers and subordinates, and rewarding
employees who “go above and beyond” [43]. By putting human capital at the core of
their strategies, organizations can foster positive attitudes, behaviors, commitment,
and engagement among employees [9].
6 Organizational Commitment: The Role of Organizational Happiness … 67

6.3 Methodological Proposal

To measure the research constructs, the instrument will be designed and structured
through a multi-method quantitative study involving a questionnaire and the observa-
tion of statistical analyses. The questionnaire format will have closed-end questions,
following the five-point Likert Scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly
agree). The questionnaire will consist of the following sections: the section to measure
Organizational Commitment, the section to measure Organizational Happiness, the
section to measure Quiet Quitting, and the section to find out the demographics of
respondents.
Allen and Meyer (1990) scale would be used to measure Organizational Commit-
ment. This scale started from a total of fifty-one items, adapted from other scales
or written by themselves, to build the final 24-item scale used in the present study
[34]. The measurement of Organizational Happiness was developed based on the
Organizational Happiness Measurement Scale constructed by the Happiness Works2
project. This scale was developed for the Portuguese population by Campaniço [12],
whose research was further developed in the works of Campaniço and Dutschke
[13] and Dutschke [17]. The 45-item scale is used annually to verify the levels of
Organizational Happiness of professionals in Portugal and is suitable for the objec-
tives of the present study. Anand et al. [3] scale would be used to measure Quiet
Quitting. This scale measures individual-level work disengagement, low Organiza-
tional Commitment, and not “going above and beyond” in work. The 7-item scale
development process involved item generation through literature search, review, and
interviews with working executives.

6.4 Further Research and Implications

Future research in this area should explore the relationship between Organizational
Commitment, Organizational Happiness, and Quiet Quitting, considering evolving
labor market dynamics and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. A longitudinal
study can offer valuable insights into the long-term effects of Organizational Happi-
ness on employee commitment and Quiet Quitting tendencies. Additionally, quali-
tative research methods, like interviews and focus groups, could provide a deeper
understanding of employees’ perspectives on workplace happiness and commitment.
From a managerial perspective, the study highlights the importance of priori-
tizing employee happiness and well-being to foster a positive work environment and
enhance employee commitment. Managers should focus on creating a supportive and
inclusive workplace culture that values employees, promotes work–life balance, and
offers career development opportunities. Addressing factors contributing to Quiet
Quitting can enhance employee retention and productivity, leading to improved
organizational performance.
68 S. Dominique-Ferreira et al.

The social implications of this research are significant. Organizations prioritizing

employee well-being contribute to a society with a higher quality of life and reduced
stress levels, particularly in terms of mental health. Improved work–life balance and
job satisfaction positively impact overall well-being and health. Creating supportive
work environments can play a crucial role in improving societal mental health and
reducing absenteeism, benefiting employees and the broader community.
In conclusion, understanding the link between these constructs is vital for orga-
nizations to thrive in the changing labor landscape. By implementing strategies to
enhance employee happiness and commitment, an organization can foster a highly
engaged and resilient workforce. This, in turn, plays a pivotal role in contributing
to a healthier and happier society. This research sets the stage for future studies
and offers opportunities to create workplaces that promote employee well-being and
organizational success.

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT,
Portugal) for financial support by national funds FCT/MCTES to UNIAG (UIDB/04752/2020 and
UIDP/04752/2020).

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Chapter 7
Proposal for a Technological Thematic
Concept for the Trays Festival Museum

Rui Miguel Ferreira Carvalho and João Tomaz Simões

Abstract The experience economy has challenged museums to rethink their

mission, as traditional cultural institutions when confronted with new forms of
tourism consumption. As tourists demand more authentic experiences, co-creation
has allowed tourists to engage pragmatically with tangible and intangible heritage
and museum exhibitions reframing how curation, museology-related content, and
technology are present in fourth-generation museums. The Trays Festival (TF) is
an internationally recognized community-based event which attracts more than six
hundred thousand people every four years to the Portuguese city of Tomar. Dating
back to the thirteenth century, this secular and sacred event includes the adorn-
ment of trays, houses and streets, paper flowers, bread and wheat spikes, typical
elements of ancient festivals of crops. As the festival represents a fertile ground for
the use of local creativity, a TF Museum could function as a way to promote sustain-
able development in the city fostering distinction among traditional cultural tourism
destinations. The authors developed a literature review on the variables of the study
and analyzed recent technological and marketing strategies for museums. As part
of ongoing research, this paper has the goal to present a technological and thematic
proposal for the development of a TF community-based museum in the city of Tomar,
embedded in technology, creativity, and authentic tourism experiences. We believe
that such a proposal could help to tackle seasonality in the destination by promoting
a continuous offer around the TF.

R. M. F. Carvalho (B)
GOVCOPP-Governance, Competitiveness and Public Policies, University of Aveiro, ISLA
Santarém, R. Dr. Teixeira Guedes 31, 2000-029 Santarém, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
J. T. Simões
TECHN&ART-Centre of Technology, Restoration and Art Enhancement, ISLA Santarém, R. Dr.
Teixeira Guedes 31, 2000-029 Santarém, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 71
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_7
72 R. M. F. Carvalho and J. T. Simões

7.1 Introduction

Museums have undergone significant changes, especially after the COVID-19

pandemic [34] where these traditional cultural institutions provided essentially an
educational role in the formation of cultural segments [27, 39]. Many of these institu-
tions, formerly seen as the great bastions of culture [39], have improved their online
presence, internet-mediated customer experiences, and cultural digitalisation [17] in
the light of greater availability of online content and online consumers [30]. The very
recent experience and creative economies have highlighted the importance of more
authentic, differentiated, and technologically mediated experiences for museumgoers
[45, 46]. In this relation, technology plays a pivotal role in the development, design,
and supply of such experiences. Over the years, much of the evolution of museums
[9] has arguably been influenced by several internal and external factors such as
changes in public needs, the traditional functions of the museum, the technology
available, local community representations, the search for authentic experiences [2,
17, 25, 35]. In the recent need for a new museum definition [20], fostering inclu-
sivity, community participation, and sustainability, museums are no longer just pious
places where one could mainly have access to important and representative tangible
cultural resources, echoing the passive sentiment of museumgoers as sign collectors
dear to Lash and Lurry [24] or MacCannell [28] tourists as consumers of staged
authentic experiences. According to the latter, “museums have long been converted
from collections of scholarly research to the public places they are today” (MacCan-
nell [28], p. 78), offering educational services, restaurant services and shops, open to
the general public besides the traditional services, such as guided tours, educational
programs, and lectures [9].
The TF has been one of the most important cultural events ever organized in the
city of Tomar, in the central region of Portugal motivating almost 600,000 tourists
to visit this traditional cultural tourism destination every four years. As a strong
link to the local community, this festival would not be possible without their hard
work of several months [49], one of the reasons it does not happen every year. These
traditional decorative trays used in the religious processions of Tomar have been an
integral part of the cultural fabric for centuries, thereby making them an embodiment
of a rich cultural heritage [33]. These cultural assets provide profound insights into
the socio-cultural dynamics of the Tomar community and offer historical narratives
steeped in tradition and local aesthetics [14, 41]. The festival is strongly ruled by
the people, the consummation of the party is determined by their wish, and it´s
also the people that select the mordomo (Master of Ceremony) [10]. The event lasts
for two weeks in the month of July and includes two processions, the more recent
called the Boys Procession (children) and the main Parade (adults) with couples
from all over the cities’ region. In immaculate white dresses, contrasting with the
colourful flowers of the baskets and the golden colour of bread carried on their heads
in the trays [10]. Visitors, 600,000 (2019), 750,000 (2023) in just one day, totalling
more than a million visitors during the event can also see the decorated streets with
paper flowers, concerts, and handicrafts. The festival was inscribed, last May, on the
7 Proposal for a Technological Thematic Concept for the Trays Festival … 73

National Inventory of Intangible Cultural Heritage, initiating the preparation of an

application for the UNESCO Intangible Heritage of Humanity List. In this context,
the preservation of such valuable heritage resources is of utmost importance and a
focused endeavour in this direction is the proposed TF Museum in Tomar. Based on
the literature review and an analysis of recent technological and marketing strategies
for museums, this paper proposes a comprehensive technological thematic concept
for the Museum. The following sections elaborate on the goals, the exhibition design
and layout, and suggest strategies for collection management, educational programs,
marketing and promotion, and sustainability.

7.2 Technologically Mediated Tourism Experiences

in Museums

As technology has invaded almost every social sphere globally, it has influenced
the way we consume culture and cultural goods. Pervious to this reality, museums
have been adapting their role and functions to stay relevant under the ubiquity of the
internet and other technologically intermediated and curated cultural tourism expe-
riences [39]. According to the ICOM [20], a museum is a not-for-profit, permanent
institution in the service of society that researches, collects, conserves, interprets, and
exhibits tangible and intangible heritage. Open to the public, accessible and inclu-
sive, museums foster diversity and sustainability. They operate and communicate
ethically, professionally and with the participation of communities, offering varied
experiences for education, enjoyment, reflection, and knowledge sharing. This new
definition of the museum [20] highlights the postmodern and transmodern concerns
[7] for more democratic, inclusive, representative, transversal, and sustainable roles
in providing tools for the preservation and consumption of tangible and intangible
cultural resources [20].
Carvalho and Duarte [9] envisage the museum´s evolution under four generations.
In the first generation, curiosity cabinets in the seventeenth/eighteenth centuries and
large natural museums strongly connected to universities and scientific knowledge,
provided cultural education, 2º generation museums, from the end of the eighteenth
until the 30 s of the twentieth century, were progressively preoccupied with industry
needs and internationalization while focusing on teaching, collecting, conservation,
and research; 3º generation museums throughout the XX century has started to
include contemporary science and technology providing more interactive and prag-
matic experiences to visitors; and lastly 4º generation museums are seen as science
centres where the visitor represents an active and creative element defining and co-
creating his cultural experience during visits [9]. Hence, fourth-generation museums
have been paying more attention to how their cultural resources and cultural content
have been accessed and consumed via the internet, alongside their media presence
[40]. Such changes influenced the way local traditions, rituals or celebrations are
transmitted, preserved, presented, and consumed by the public not to mention how
74 R. M. F. Carvalho and J. T. Simões

local communities representations in a largely technological intermediated scenery.

Especially when we think of museums and their ever-changing nature, characteristics,
and goals [9], they become repositories of shared histories and identities, reflecting
collective memory, religious practices, and social transformations. The TF Museum
aims to provide a platform for a journey that traverses time and space, unveiling the
richness of cultural traditions and historical narratives underpinning the creation and
use of trays [29]. By curating this immersive experience, the museum will foster a
sense of community ownership, cultural appreciation, and historical understanding
[19] characteristic of the festival [10].

7.3 Trays Festival Museum Goals

The key objectives of the TF Museum are manifold and informed by contemporary
museum theory and practices [48]. Central to these is the goal of safeguarding and
interpreting the heritage of the festival, coupled with an explicit aim to educate and
engage local and global audiences about this unique cultural manifestation [19].
Secondly, the museum will strive to leverage state-of-the-art technologies enhancing
visitor engagement, creating creative and immersive experiences, and developing
narratives around trays accessible to a broad audience spectrum [37]. The incorpora-
tion of technologies like augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR) [11], IA, and
interactive digital exhibits will serve to transform the traditional museum experience
into a dynamic and participatory one [38]. Lastly, in line with [1] “New Museology”,
the museum will operate as a community space, fostering interactions, dialogue, and
shared learning experiences. Collaborations with local artisans, schools, and cultural
organizations will be integral to achieving this aim.

7.4 Exhibition Design and Layout

The overall design of the TF Museum needs an innovative approach, offering spaces
that reflect the multi-dimensional nature of the TF heritage. Moreover, spaces need
to cater to the needs of diverse audiences and incorporate the latest technological
advancements to ensure a rich, immersive, and engaging visitor experience [37]. The
museum can be envisioned as having multiple distinct yet interconnected spaces, each
addressing specific aspects of the TF and their associated heritage: (a) Permanent and
Temporary Galleries: this section could house a physical collection of trays, orga-
nized chronologically or thematically to depict the evolution of designs and styles
over time, the pagan and religious origins of the festival, street decorations, changes
within the festival organization, the role of the community in the development of
decorations and building of the trays. By employing advanced lighting techniques
and display strategies, the intricate details and craftsmanship of the trays can be high-
lighted [13]. (b) Multimedia Interactive Zone: a dedicated area with touch screens,
7 Proposal for a Technological Thematic Concept for the Trays Festival … 75

AR interfaces, and other digital installations could provide detailed information about
the trays on display. It could also showcase the process of their creation, the mean-
ings of their various symbols, and the context of their usage in religious processions
[38]. (c) Virtual Reality Pavilion: this space could provide virtual reality headsets
for visitors to experience a fully immersive, 360-degree journey through a tradi-
tional procession in Tomar, complete with crowds, chants, and the vibrancy of the
festival [12]. (d) Educational Area: interactive educational games and digital work-
shops could be set up for children and students to learn about the cultural significance
of trays but also creative areas where local artisans can be present while teaching
youngsters how to develop paper flowers and the trays themselves echoing the prin-
ciples of creative tourism learning activities [8]. These digital learning tools can be
designed to cater to different age groups and learning styles, creating an engaging
learning environment [48]. Through this innovative layout and design, the museum
aims to offer an immersive and captivating journey that allows visitors to explore,
learn about, and appreciate the TF´s rich heritage.

7.5 Collection Management

The management of a collection is a central aspect of a museum’s operations,

requiring careful planning and strategic thinking [4]. For the TF Museum, the collec-
tion management strategy will be driven by the mission to preserve and promote the
cultural heritage of the festival and trays. The museum will seek to achieve this
by establishing robust procedures for acquiring, cataloguing, and conserving these
artefacts and by fostering collaboration with other institutions or collectors. Acqui-
sition: acquiring trays for the museum collection would necessitate a multipronged
strategy. The museum could commission trays from local artisans, thereby ensuring
that traditional craftsmanship is supported and celebrated. Also, donations from the
local community or the acquisition of pieces from private collectors. Cataloguing:
the museum could adopt a digital management system that records essential details
such as the age, provenance, style, and condition of each item. Such a system could
provide the basis for research and study and facilitate the dissemination of informa-
tion to the public. Here, the work of [50] could be useful in providing guidelines
on the creation of digital catalogues and the sharing of digital cultural heritage.
Conservation: given the fragile nature of the trays, the museum would need to estab-
lish a robust conservation plan. This plan would include regular condition checks,
conservation treatments as required, and optimal storage and display environments
to minimize degradation over time [5]. Collaboration: collaborative initiatives with
other institutions or collectors could prove mutually beneficial. The museum could
consider loan agreements with other museums to display trays, thus expanding their
reach. Likewise, knowledge exchange programs with other institutions could help
in enhancing collection management practices [23]. Through a strong and inclusive
collection management strategy, the TF Museum can effectively preserve and display
these significant cultural artefacts.
76 R. M. F. Carvalho and J. T. Simões

7.6 Educational Programs

The role of museums extends beyond the exhibition of artefacts; they are now recog-
nized as key educational institutions [18]. To fulfil this role, the TF Museum will
offer a diverse range of educational programs that engage different age groups and
cater to various learning styles. Interactive Learning for Children: the museum will
prioritize engaging children in active, hands-on learning creative experience [8].
This could include interactive digital games about the history and cultural signif-
icance of trays, art workshops where children can design their digital trays, and
storytelling sessions narrating the traditions surrounding the festival’s immateriality
[43]. Lectures and Workshops for Adults: adult learning can be facilitated through a
series of lectures by experts in the field, discussing topics such as the craftsmanship
of trays, design evolution, and religious context. Workshops could provide oppor-
tunities for adults to learn the traditional techniques of creating trays improving
local cultural and creative capitals [8]. Guided Tours: these will offer visitors an
overview of the collection, with guides providing information about individual tray´s
symbolism, and the context of their creation. Special tours could be designed for
school groups, families, and tourists, tailored to the interests and needs of the group
[6]. Online Learning: given the increasing trend towards digital learning, the museum
will develop online resources, including educational videos, virtual tours, and down-
loadable learning materials. These resources would allow for self-paced learning and
extend the museum’s reach beyond its physical boundaries [3]. Community-Based
Learning: the museum will collaborate with local schools and community groups to
develop educational programs that reflect and serve the needs of the local community.
This could include art competitions, community exhibitions, and cultural events [48].
Also, the presence of local artisans can be very important in these creative contexts
providing enriching learning experiences.

7.7 Marketing and Promotion

A strategic marketing plan is vital for the TF Museum to attract visitors, raise aware-
ness, and foster engagement. By leveraging traditional marketing techniques and
digital platforms, the museum can ensure that its visibility and impact are optimized
[22]. Integrated Marketing Strategy: the museum could develop a comprehensive
marketing strategy that integrates offline and online marketing activities. This could
include print advertisements in tourism brochures, collaborations with travel agen-
cies, participation in cultural festivals, and special events at the museum [44]. Brand
Identity: the museum needs to build a strong brand identity emphasizing its unique
value proposition—the celebration and preservation of the TF heritage. All marketing
materials should consistently communicate this brand identity. Website and SEO:
the museum’s website should serve as a central hub for information, ticketing, and
online resources. An effective Search Engine Optimization (SEO) strategy can help
7 Proposal for a Technological Thematic Concept for the Trays Festival … 77

to ensure that potential visitors can easily find the museum online when searching for
cultural activities in Tomar or general information about the TF [36]. Social Media:
the museum should maintain active profiles on major social media platforms. Social
Media can be used to share updates, promote upcoming events, and engage with
followers. Creating engaging content such as behind-the-scenes videos, interactive
quizzes, and live Q&A sessions with museum staff can help to build a strong online
community [15]. Email Marketing: collecting email addresses from website visitors,
ticket purchasers, and event attendees allows for direct communication with inter-
ested individuals. Regular newsletters can share updates, offer exclusive content or
discounts, and keep the museum at the top of subscribers’ minds [42]. Partnerships
and Collaborations: collaborations with other cultural institutions, local businesses,
schools, and community groups can help to extend the museum’s reach. These part-
nerships can offer reciprocal promotional benefits and increase the museum’s visi-
bility in different sectors [21]. By combining effective marketing and promotion, the
TF Museum can reach a wider audience, attract visitors, and further its mission of
preserving and promoting its cultural heritage.

7.8 Sustainability

The long-term success of the TF Museum will depend significantly on its financial
sustainability and community continuous involvement. This requires a multi-faceted
strategy that not only generates income but also manages expenses effectively [26].
Revenue Generation: the museum can generate revenue through various sources,
including admission fees, sales in the museum shop, hosting special events, offering
workshops or courses, and renting out spaces for private functions. Additionally,
establishing a membership program can create a steady income stream while building
a loyal base of supporters [16]. Grants and Funding: applying for local, national,
or international grants can provide significant funding. This may include arts and
culture grants, educational grants, or technology grants, which could particularly
support the museum’s focus on integrating technology into its exhibits. Partner-
ships: partnerships with local businesses, educational institutions, and other cultural
organizations can provide mutual benefits. For example, partnering with a local
university might enable the museum to access research and development resources,
while the university could benefit from practical, hands-on experience for its students
[48]. Crowdfunding and Donations: in recent years, crowdfunding has emerged
as a successful method for funding cultural projects. An engaging crowdfunding
campaign can not only raise funds but also generate publicity and build a commu-
nity of supporters. [32]. Cost Management: on the expenditure side, the museum
can adopt various cost management strategies, such as energy-efficient lighting and
heating [47], careful resource management, and volunteer programs to minimize
staffing costs. Sponsorships: seeking sponsorships from corporate entities or philan-
thropic individuals is another avenue to explore. However, it is crucial to ensure that
sponsorship agreements align with the museum’s mission and ethical standards [31].
78 R. M. F. Carvalho and J. T. Simões

Financial sustainability for the TF Museum can be achieved through a combination

of revenue generation, effective cost management, and leveraging various funding
opportunities.

7.9 Conclusion

This paper proposes a comprehensive and innovative thematic concept for the TF
Museum. The concept focuses on preserving and promoting the unique artistic and
cultural heritage of the trays, while simultaneously offering an engaging, creative,
and educational visitor experience. The plan detailed in this paper includes recom-
mendations for creating a dynamic exhibition design and layout that integrates
cutting-edge technology, such as VR and digital displays, with traditional artefacts,
thereby enhancing immersive experiences. Additionally, strategies for acquiring,
cataloguing, and preserving the trays were proposed, serving as a pillar for the
museum’s long-term sustainability. An array of educational initiatives targeted at
various age groups, including interactive learning activities for children, lectures,
and workshops for adults, guided tours, and the development of online learning
resources is suggested. In terms of marketing and promotion, a combination of
traditional and digital strategies, encompassing website optimization, social media
engagement, were recommended to increase visibility, attract visitors, and promote
active community engagement. For financial sustainability, the paper outlined strate-
gies that include various revenue generation methods, grants, partnerships, crowd-
funding, donations, cost management, and sponsorships. By embracing technology
and community engagement, the TF Museum has the potential to become not only
a local treasure but a national symbol of cultural preservation and promotion. In
these rapidly changing times, the importance of such cultural preservation cannot
be overstated, as it helps to maintain our link with the past, provide context for the
present, and offer guidance for the future.

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Chapter 8
The Impact of Corporate Governance
on Financial Performance: Study
for Portuguese Hotel Companies

Clara Fonseca, Nuno Moutinho , and Jorge Alves

Abstract The present work intends to analyze the relationship between the
economic and financial performances of companies and the characteristics of their
corporate governance. Based on Portuguese hotel companies, this study analyzes the
importance on the performance of factors such as the size of the board of directors,
women on the board, managing shareholder and the largest shareholder. Based on a
sample of 3199 observations relating to companies in the hotel sector, a Tobit regres-
sion is used to highlight the impact of characteristics of the company’s governance
in its performance. As far as is known, this is the first study to link economic and
financial performances with the characteristics of Portuguese hotel companies. The
results obtained allow us to conclude that the percentage of the largest shareholder is
negatively related to the financial performance of hotel companies. In this way, the
companies with the largest shareholders are the companies that show a worse finan-
cial performance. It should be noted that both the size and gender of the members on
the board of directors and the fact that the shareholder is simultaneously a director are
not relevant to determine the financial performance of companies in the hotel sector.
The results of this study contribute to a greater understanding of how companies are
governed and how it affects their performance in a specific sector with a great impact
on the national economy and corporate governance which affects companies in the
hotel sector in Portugal.

C. Fonseca · N. Moutinho · J. Alves (B)

UNIAG, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança,
Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
C. Fonseca
e-mail: [email protected]
N. Moutinho
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 81
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_8
82 C. Fonseca et al.

8.1 Introduction

In recent years, Portugal has witnessed a continuous and sustainable growth in inter-
national tourism. This sector is one of the most relevant sectors, impacting the growth
of the Portuguese economy, contributing significantly to the trade balance, to the
emergence of new infrastructures and to the creation of jobs. Thus, it is considered a
fundamental strategic axis for the sustained development of the territory [1]. Within
the tourism sector, hotel symbolizes what most contributes to the sector’s revenue
[2].
Bearing in mind that businesses in this sector are carried out by companies, and
it is to be expected that this increase in the flow of tourists will be reflected in better
economic and financial indicators in these companies. Thus, it becomes important to
analyze the financial performance of companies in this sector, based on financial indi-
cators such as liquidity, leverage, profitability, growth, and activity. The performance
evaluation will allow stakeholders to analyze the company’s financial health, as well
as measure the degree of competitiveness among companies in the hotel sector [3].
In the evaluation of companies in this sector, companies are hierarchized through
the construction of a ranking ordered based on financial performance. This ranking
makes it possible to know the classification of companies against their competitors,
in order to elaborate benchmarking [4].
The financial performance of companies will tend to reflect management and
owner decisions. Companies with better characteristics at corporate governance will
present better decisions and will reveal less problems of information asymmetry
agency, which will be reflected in a better performance. The success of a company’s
financial performance can be justified by the main characteristics of the board of
directors and the owners. Good governance practices can lead to a reduction in costs,
such as borrowing costs, an increase in company value, and an improvement in risk
management, with a positive impact on sustainable growth and improved company
performance [5].
Several empirical studies have shown some of the characteristics of the board of
directors in improving company performance. However, other studies have failed to
observe significant relationships between government and company performances
[5]. In another segment of tourism, [6] shows a positive relationship between the
percentage of ownership by the largest shareholder and company performance, as
well as an inverted-U relationship between the size of the board of directors and
company performance. Thus, this article studies whether the companies with the
best results in the ranking of financial performance are related to some of the char-
acteristics of the board of directors and shareholders. As far as is known, there are
no studies in the literature that analyze the relationship between the performance
rankings with the characteristics of the board and shareholders, in the hotel sector in
Portugal, which represents an innovative contribution to the literature.
The article is organized into four sections. Next, the literature review is presented.
In the second section, we present the methodology. Subsequently, we present the
8 The Impact of Corporate Governance on Financial Performance: Study … 83

empirical study and discussion of the results. Finally, the main conclusions of the
study, limitations, and avenues for investigation are at the end.

8.2 Literature Review

8.2.1 Financial Performance

The evaluation of companies’ financial performance has a huge importance not only
for managers, creditors, financial specialists, and current or potential investors, but
also for competitors in the same sector of activity [7, 8]. The companies’ performance
can be an indicator that estimates how well an organization performs the established
objectives [8].
The performance evaluation can help the company’s management in decision-
making, as through the evaluation of the performance of previous years, they are
challenged and motivated to improve the company’s performance every year [9]. In
addition, it allows companies to compare their performance with that of others so
that they can remain active in their competitiveness in the market [10]. Therefore,
performance evaluation is one of the most efficient tools to assess the economic and
financial situation of each company, allowing one to determine the condition in which
each company is or has already been found [11]. This assessment has proved to be
a crucial technique for deeply competitive industries [12].
The companies’ performance evaluation is usually based on the companies’ finan-
cial reports in order to know their financial and economic performance and the risks,
as well as to foresee future events. This information is of great importance to various
stakeholders, such as financial institutions, investment and commercial organiza-
tions, governments, and management [13]. Thus, performance can be measured
through, for example, return, productivity, production, and economic growth [8,
12], the fulfillment of budgetary objectives [14], or applying the resources at their
disposal to generate revenue [15]. This performance evaluation approach has been
distinguished as the most powerful and relevant to carry out performance evaluation
over a long period of time [9].

8.2.2 Agency Theory

Agency theory discusses the problems that arise in companies due to the sepa-
ration between owner and management [16]. Thus, agency theory concerns an
existing contract between two agents, namely between the principal (owner) and
an agent (management). This relationship arises when the shareholder delegates in
the manager the decision-making. Thus, the business owner expects managers to act
84 C. Fonseca et al.

in his interests and on his behalf, maximizing his well-being. However, the differ-
ence in interests between management and ownership of the company may cause
additional costs, known as agency costs. Agency costs refer to the costs incurred by
shareholders to monitor managers to avoid actions that may cause them harm, the
incentives given to managers to prevent them from taking actions that are against
the interests of the owner, and the residual loss caused by sub-optimization of the
manager with the objective of maximizing his well-being [17].
In the business context, agency costs arise essentially due to the asymmetry of
information between the owner and the managers [18]. Thus, despite management
wanting salary increases, bonuses, and increased job security in the face of the
threat of dismissal [19], managers prefer to prioritize his wealth over maximizing the
welfare of the owner in the presence of asymmetries of information, thus promoting
their own interest at the expense of shareholders [20]. By making the company bigger,
showing faster growth or performing better than expected, the manager’s status will
increase [19]. Therefore, management compensation generates a powerful incentive
to manipulate corporate earnings to improve their financial statements [21].

8.2.3 Dependence Resource Theory

The dependence resource theory states that a company cannot sustain itself due
to limited resources, leading it to relate to the external environment so that it can
grow and develop activity [22]. However, the board of directors emerges as a means
that helps the company, leading to a reduction in dependence on the external envi-
ronment, since the board exploits essential external resources, such as technology,
relevant information, and human and financial capital [23]. These resources are able
to improve the efficiency of the company’s decision-making [23] and reduce the costs
associated with transactions [24]. Thus, reducing the company’s dependence on the
external environment allows the company to improve its performance and ensure its
survival [24].
The dependence resource theory allows to justify the benefits of large boards,
the presence of women, qualified directors, and foreigners with the fact that boards
with these characteristics have more connections with the external environment of
the company [25]. Based on this theory, companies expand their boards of directors
to increase their ability to acquire external resources, to hold a greater diversity of
knowledge and a greater connection with the outside world [26].
In this way, the dependence resource theory sustains that a board assists the
company in the channels of communication with the external environment, advises
the company in specific areas, legitimacy and enables the company to obtain access to
necessary resources in a preferential way [27]. Thus, these resources are fundamental
to the success of innovation, facilitating greater investments in R&D by the company
[28], in which they add value to the company and contribute to performance [29].
Therefore, a larger board is likely to be more effective in securing the interests of
8 The Impact of Corporate Governance on Financial Performance: Study … 85

shareholders [30], more likely to see greater diversity with respect to experience,
skills, gender, and nationality [31].

8.2.4 Corporate Governance

Corporate governance may be relevant within agency theory and resource depen-
dence theory to determine the ranking of financial performance. Thus, several
characteristics must be analyzed.
In companies with concentrated ownership, agency problems are expected
because a majority shareholder may exercise their power to expropriate the gains
of minority shareholders [32]. Large shareholders can affect the company’s behavior
when they engage in ownership control [33], as they have the capacity to acquire
private benefits, transferring company resources out of the company, thus under-
mining the company’s value [34]. The agency problem between the majority share-
holder and minority shareholders [35] may be related to the fact that large share-
holders can manipulate and obtain private profits to maximize their personal wealth
at the expense of other shareholders. If large shareholders obtain financial resources
for themselves, the value of the company will be lower [33]. However, large share-
holders may have an inverse role for the company’s value, if they adequately perform
the role of monitoring and restricting activities that harm their wealth. Thus, the exis-
tence of large shareholders can result in lower agency costs and increased company
performance [33].
Based on [33] conclusion that large shareholders can effectively bring nega-
tive consequences for minority shareholders and board members when seeking new
financing, the following research hypothesis is studied for the accommodation sector:
H1: The financial performance of companies is negatively associated with the
percentage of capital held by the largest shareholder.
The board of directors develops its activity in the best interests of the shareholders,
although they also have their own objectives that may lead to agency problems,
with an impact on improving the financial performance of companies [36]. Given
the need to create balance among all members in defending the interests of the
owners, minimizing agency costs, the size of the board of directors can influence the
decision-making process, as well as the efficiency of the board [37].
There is no consensus in the literature regarding the ideal size of the board of
directors. On the one hand, there are authors who argue that boards of directors
with more members are more inefficient due to being more prone to the emergence
of conflicts of interest and more difficult to reach a consent [38]. Smaller boards
of directors are more cohesive and effective [30] and easier to organize, yet more
difficult for the CEO to control [39]. However, on the other hand, from the perspective
of dependence on resources, larger boards of directors can lead to a better connection
between the company and the external environment [40].
Thus, the empirical results are not homogeneous [24] concluded that an increase
in the size of the board of directors can have a positive association with the financial
86 C. Fonseca et al.

performance of the company, while [41, 42] show an inverse association between
company financial performance and company board of directors [41, 42]. Within the
scope of companies in the hotel sector, we seek to understand whether:
H2: The size of the board of directors is negatively related to the financial
performance of the company.
The division between management and ownership is pointed out as a source of
potential conflicts of interest in companies [43]. However, when the directors of a
company hold shares, there tends to be an alignment of interests between shareholders
and directors because they are the same person [44]. According to the agency theory,
companies should adopt a series of incentives in order to mitigate this problem [17],
so that management assumes values-maximizing behaviors that do not damage the
company’s performance [43]. One of the most common ways to minimize conflicts
of interest is through financial compensation to board members [45].
When shareholders and managers do not have interests aligned with maximizing
wealth, substantial agency costs tend to arise [17]. Based on financial theory, one
of the ways to eliminate or strongly minimize conflicts of interest between manage-
ment and shareholders is related to the fact that the members of the board of directors
are simultaneously shareholders. In this case, the personal interest of the manager
is totally (or tends to be totally) coincident with the personal interest of the share-
holder. Thus, greater internal ownership reduces agency costs and results in better
firm performance [46]. Thus, with the aim of clarifying the importance that the share-
holder being simultaneously a manager can have on the financial performance of the
company, it is analyzed whether:
H3: Companies with directors who are simultaneously shareholders show better
financial performance.
Traditionally, boards of directors have only male members [25]. However, in
recent years, the diversity of members on the board of directors has been attracting
attention, with discussions about the effects of women’s participation in companies.
It should be noted that in developed countries, there has also been an increase in
regulations regarding the increase of the role of the female figure on boards of
directors, in a way that ensures gender equality on the board [47].
According to [48], the diversity of members on the company’s board of directors
can allow the company to improve its performance, as the company’s problems are
seen from different perspectives, leading to the presentation of several solutions to the
same problem. Female board members are considered more independent and more
beneficial to the board, compared to the opposite gender [49], as women are more
dedicated to their tasks. Thus, the diversity of members on the board of directors
is considered an essential element to improve the value and financial performance
of the company, as it provides new points of view, knowledge, and the ability to
concentrate on several things at the same time [48, 49]. As such, it is intended to
understand whether in the hotel sector:
H4: The percentage of women on the companies’ board of directors is positively
related to financial performance.
8 The Impact of Corporate Governance on Financial Performance: Study … 87

8.3 Methodology

In order to analyze the effect of governance characteristics on the financial perfor-

mance of Portuguese hotel companies, it was necessary to collect economic and
financial information about companies, as well as information about their owners
and board of directors. This information was collected from the SABI database,
in the period 2019 and 2020, that was in an “active” situation and with a turnover
higher than e100,000. From here, it was possible to obtain data from 4206 companies
corresponding to a total of 8412 observations. However, because some observations
had missed data and the creation of the dependent variable, the database has 3199
companies.
Considering the objective and the research hypotheses developed, a regression
model is formulated with the following specification:

Scori,t = β0 + β1 % CAPi,t + β2 ADi,t + β3 ADACi,t + β4 WOMi,t

+ β5 DIMi,t + β6 AGEi,t + β7 ATFi,t + εi,t , (8.1)

where Scori,t —scoring of the companyi in yeart , calculated by the combination

of FAHP-TOPSIS methods; %CAPi,t —percentage of capital held by the majority
shareholder on the companyi in yeart ; ADi,t —size of the board of directors in the
companyi in yeart ; ADACi,t —dummy variable that takes the value 1 if the shareholder
is also a manager of the companyi in yeart, and 0 otherwise; WOMi,t —percentage
of women on the board of directors in the companyi in yeart ; DIMi,t —size of the
companyi in yeart , represented by the logarithm of total assets; AGEi,t —age of the
companyi in yeart ; ATFi,t —ratio of tangible fixed assets to total assets in the companyi
in yeart .
The dependent variable in this study is the scoring, which was constructed
according to the study of [50]. This variable uses the results of that study. Thus, an
economic-financial ranking of hotel companies in Portugal in 2020 was calculated
based on a hierarchical model for evaluating financial performance, that was struc-
tured based on criteria and sub-criteria of liquidity, leverage, profitability, growth,
and activity. Each of these criteria and sub-criteria is evaluated and weighted using
the Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (FAHP) model. Then, these weights were used
to classify the companies using the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to
Ideal Solution (TOPSIS), thus obtaining the ranking or scoring.
As the scoring variable presents values within an interval of 0 to 1, which char-
acterizes the dependent variable, the Tobit estimation approach is adopted for the
empirical study.
Tobit models refer to a regression model in which the range of the dependent
variable is limited [51]. This statistical model was proposed by James Tobin in
1958, with the aim of explaining the relationship between a dependent variable and
independent and latent variables [52]. They are also known as censored or bounded
0 to 1 regression models. The standard structure for a Tobit estimation is represented
in Eqs. (8.1) and (8.2).
88 C. Fonseca et al.

∗
yi,t = α0 + β X i,t + εi,t , (8.2)

∗
where yi,t is a latent variable, X i,t is the set of explanatory variables and εi,t ≈
  ∗
i.i.d.N 0, σ 2 and is independent of X i,t . Unlike looking at yi,t , we observe yi,t :

yi,t = yi,t∗ , if yi,t∗ > y; = 0, if yi,t∗ ≤ y, (8.3)

∗
where y is a non-stochastic constant, while the value of yi,t is absent when it is
less than or equal to y. It should be noted that the Tobit model is usually based on
the following assumptions: (i) the presence of an unlimited latent adoption variable
that reflects a linear function of the forecast indicators and (ii) the residuals are
characterized by a normal distribution [53].

8.4 Results and Discussion

This study seeks to understand whether companies in the accommodation sector with
better financial performance are associated with the characteristics of the board of
directors and shareholders. In addition to these corporate governance characteristics,
other business characteristics are also analyzed, namely size, age, and tangibility.
Table 8.1 presents some descriptive statistics of the variables used.
The descriptive statistics in Table 8.1 show that, on average, the financial perfor-
mance of accommodation companies is situated at 34.7% of the ranking, reaching
a maximum of 47.1% and a minimum of 18.5%. The average percentage held by
the majority shareholder in the companies under analysis is 67.0%, with a standard
deviation of 26.3%. The board of directors has, on average, 2912 members, with this
variable being between 1 and 19 members. On average, 32.1% of the companies in

Table 8.1 Descriptive statistics

Variable n Average Standard deviation Minimum Maximum
Scori,t 3199 0.347 0.007 0.185 0.471
%CAPi,t 3199 0.669 0.263 0.000 1
ADi,t 3199 2.912 2.135 1 19
WOMi,t 3199 0.321 0.323 0.000 2
DIMi,t 3199 13.390 1.850 7.112 19.700
AGEi,t 3199 18.060 15.523 3 122
ATFi,t 3199 0.506 0.331 0.000 0.996
Dummy n %
ADACi,t 3199 1 2680 83.6
0 527 16.4
Source Own elaboration
8 The Impact of Corporate Governance on Financial Performance: Study … 89

this study have women on the board of directors. Table 8.1 also evidences that in
83.6% of the observations, the owner also performs functions in the board of direc-
tors or in the management of the company. The companies in the sample exhibit an
average age of 18.06 years. As for the ATF indicator, this presents an average of
50.6%.
Next, Table 8.2 presents the Pearson correlation coefficients estimated for the
variables under analysis. With regard to the analysis of the translated correlation
coefficients, it can be seen that the ranking value (SCOR) is positively correlated with
the variables: women on the board (WOM) and managing shareholder (ADAC). It
is also possible to verify that the ranking value (SCOR) is negatively correlated with
the remaining variables under study. The correlation between the variables board size
and dimension is the strongest correlation in the study (54.3%). The next strongest
correlation is 37.1% between board size and age.
Table 8.3 shows the estimation results of five Tobit regression models, where
governance variables are used one by one individually and the last model uses all
variables together. The estimation of the Tobit regression model shows three statis-
tically significant variables: %CAP, DIM, and ATF. The analysis of the regression
coefficients reveals that, for a significance level of 5%, the percentage of the majority
shareholder is negatively related to the financial performance of companies (SCOR).
Thus, companies in which the majority shareholder has a significant percentage of
participation are those with the worst results in terms of financial performance, thus
confirming H1. Validation of H1 corroborates the results of the study developed by
[33], as companies with large shareholders are those whose company value is lower,
due to the assumed behavior of these shareholders.
As expected, the AD variable has a negative coefficient, but it is not statisti-
cally significant. The ADAC variable, however, does not show the expected sign
(positive sign) nor is it statistically significant. This result shows that these vari-
ables do not contribute to explain the financial performance (SCOR) of companies,
thus not proving H2 and H3. For the variable MULH, as expected, it was possible
to find a positive coefficient; however, it is not statistically significant. That is, the

Table 8.2 Pearson correlation coefficients

Variables SCORi,t % CAPi,t ADi,t ADACi,t WOMi,t DIMi,t AGEi,t ATFi,t
SCORi,t 1 −0.020 −0.079 0.070 0.033 −0.161 −0.067 −0.116
% CAPi,t 1 −0.235 −0.070 −0.077 −0.038 −0.145 −0.166
ADi,t 1 −0.555 −0.152 0.543 0.371 0.108
ADACi,t 1 0.210 −0.535 −0.264 −0.051
WOMi,t 1 −0.209 −0.043 0.008
DIMi,t 1 0.362 0.309
AGEi,t 1 0.101
ATFi,t 1
Source Own elaboration
90 C. Fonseca et al.

Table 8.3 Performance and corporate governance

Variable (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Const 35.558 *** 35.501 *** 35.538 *** 35.475 *** 35.632 ***
ADACi,t −0.022 −0.042
WOMi,t 0.014 0.010
ADi,t 0.003 −0.004
%CAPi,t −0.107 ** −0.118 **
AGEi,t −0.001 −0.001 −0.001 −0.001 −0.001
ATFi,t −0.177 *** −0.166 *** −0.164 *** −0.168 *** −0.175 ***
DIMi,t −0.052 *** −0.055 *** −0.056 *** −0.053 *** −0.054 ***
n 3199 3199 3199 3199 3199
Notes This table presents the results of Tobit estimation for the scoring dependent variable. It is
shown the variable coefficient. ***, **, and * refer to the statistical significance of 1%, 5%, and
10%, respectively.
Source Own elaboration

percentage of women on the board (WOM variable) does not help to explain the
financial performance (SCOR) of companies, thus not validating H4.
About the control variables, only DIM and ATF variables help to explain the
model. The results evidence that there is a relationship between the dimension
(DIM) and the ranking (SCOR), for a p-value < 0.01. The same is true for the
relationship between the indicator that evaluates the business model (ATF) and the
ranking (SCOR). However, the AGE control variable does not contribute to explain
the ranking value, since it is not statistically significant.

8.5 Conclusion

In Portugal, the hotel sector has been growing and gaining an increasingly key role.
Thus, the main objective of this study was to analyze the characteristics of companies,
more specifically, the characteristics of the board and owners, which most contribute
to the financial performance of Portuguese companies in the hotel sector.
Based on data from the years 2019 and 2020 for companies in the hotel sector,
the results obtained by the Tobit regression show that the characteristics that most
contribute to financial performance are %CAP, DIM, and ATF, that is, the value of
ranking is only statically explained by these variables. The majority shareholder of the
company shows a negative and significant relationship with the ranking, according
to the expected trend, that is, the hotel companies where the majority shareholder
has a significant percentage (above average) have a worse financial performance. As
for the remaining research hypotheses, it was not possible to validate them, as they
are not statistically significant, but presented the expected coefficient sign, with the
8 The Impact of Corporate Governance on Financial Performance: Study … 91

exception of the ADAC variable. Finally, the dimension and the AFT/total assets’
indicator showed a significant and negative relationship with the ranking.
This investigation contributes to a better knowledge of the type of characteristics
of the board of directors and ownership present in Portuguese companies from hotel
sector when evaluating their financial performance.
Finally, for future studies, we suggest the analysis of other characteristics of
the board of directors and other characteristics of ownership for Portuguese hotel
companies. Additionally, we recommend applying this study in other Portuguese
industries.

Acknowledgements This work was supported by Applied Management Research Unit (UNIAG),
R&D unit funded by the FCT—Portuguese Foundation for the Development of Science and Tech-
nology, Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education. “Project Code Reference: UIDB/
04752/2020”.

Conflict of Interest The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

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Chapter 9
The Influence of the Senior Tourist
Profile on the Assessment
of the Dimensions of Well-Being
and Quality of Life

Maria Carlos Lopes , Dália Liberato , and Elisa Alén

Abstract Quality of life is a construct that has been much debated and that has
caused persistent challenges in the realization of a definition. Due to its multidimen-
sional character, and because its nature comprises the physical, economic, mental,
social, environmental, among others, and not least, because this construct depends
on the values and perceptions of the individuals involved, a consensual definition has
not yet emerged among the various areas of knowledge that have been concerned
with its study over the last decades, and ranging from psychology, health, soci-
ology, economics, politics, among others. The decision of elderly tourists to travel is
compromised by their perception of well-being and quality of life. In this sense, it is
essential that, in measuring the quality of life of the elderly population, the following
dimensions of well-being are considered: social well-being; physical well-being;
psychological well-being; spiritual well-being; cognitive well-being; and well-being
in the family environment. Considering the assumptions of (Kelley-Gillespie in Appl.
Res. Qual. Life 4:259–282, 2009), a questionnaire was elaborated that was applied
to 917 senior tourists, from the north of Portugal and Galicia, to understand when
their profile influences the dimensions of well-being considered and, therefore, their
perception of quality of life. The results revealed the importance of sociodemographic
variables: qualifications, employment status, income, and country of residence, as
positive constraints in the perception of the quality of life of senior tourists.

M. C. Lopes (B)
Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation-CiTUR, Faro, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
D. Liberato
School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), Vila Do Conde,
Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
E. Alén
Faculty of Business Sciences and Tourism, University of Vigo, Ourense, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 95
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_9
96 M. C. Lopes et al.

9.1 Introduction

The phenomenon of ageing is transversal to most of the countries of the world except
for some countries in Africa, Asia, and some countries of the American continent.1
According to the UN (2019), the number of individuals over the age of 60 will increase
from 962 million in 2017 to 3.1 billion in 2100. This phenomenon triggers several
constraints at the social, economic, political, health, and other dimensions, especially
with regard to the quality of life experienced by this segment of the population.
The concept of quality of life covers the entire spectrum of individuals’ lives and
assumes special importance in the lives of older individuals. This segment of the
population corresponds to the Baby boomer generation—they are the individuals
who were born in the period called the baby boom, which occurred between 1945
and 1964—and are currently between 59 and 78 years old. This group of individuals
presents itself as the first generation with a great appetite for activities related to
leisure, namely tourism [17]. These individuals are characterized by having a lot
of time available, by not having dependents in charge, by having made significant
savings from a lifetime of work, and by being interested in cultural, relaxation, and
socializing activities [21].
Baby boomers are great lovers of thematic travel, of visiting museums, enjoy
contact with local culture and traditions, and have a special interest in discovering
the various cultural differences between countries or peoples [10]. Reference [16]
adds that baby boomers carry out tourist activities in need of change and novelty,
like to have fun, seek moments of relaxation and activities that allow them to relieve
stress. In addition, they like to enjoy landscapes and take care of the physical aspect,
so they tend to look for activities within the scope of tourism that allow them to meet
these needs.
Elderly tourists are a segment of tourism that by the characteristics that are intrinsic
to them tend to travel outside the high season, arousing, therefore, great interest on the
part of tourist companies that tend to adapt their tourist packages to the needs of this
segment, in order to have higher occupancy rates in low seasons and thus decrease
their seasonality rates. It is in the total interest of these companies to understand
the needs of tourists, as well as the aspects that are valued by them within each
dimension of well-being, so that they can provide them with travel packages and
tourist activities that meet their standards of quality of life.

9.2 Concept of Quality of Life, Dimensions, and Evolution

The concept of quality of life first has emerged in the year 1963, a few years after
Maslow introduced us to the pyramid of needs in 1962.
According to [2] currently, there will already be more than 100 definitions of
quality of life; however, no definition has yet raised consensus among scholars of

1 https://www.visualcapitalist.com/cp/charted-the-worlds-aging-population-1950-to-2100/.
9 The Influence of the Senior Tourist Profile on the Assessment … 97

this matter [8]. Reference [20] considers that this multiplicity of supposed definitions
of QoL comes from the fact that it is difficult to distinguish between the terms of
well-being and happiness.
References [6, 9] consider that the concept of quality of life involves the subjec-
tive and objective dimension that integrates seven domains: material well-being,
emotional well-being, health, productivity, intimacy, security, and place in the
community. For these authors, there are also two axes, the objective and the subjec-
tive, and in the first is where the tangible aspects of life are reflected; and in the
second is where individual feelings of satisfaction with life are analyzed.
In an attempt to make a contribution to the concept of quality of life [15] state
that:
Quality of life is an eminently human notion, which has been approximated to the degree
of satisfaction found in family, loving, social and environmental life and to the existential
aesthetic itself. It presupposes the ability to effect a cultural synthesis of all the elements that a
given society considers its standard of comfort and well-being. The term encompasses many
meanings, which reflect knowledge, experiences and values of individuals and collectivities
that refer to it in various different times, spaces and histories, being, therefore, a social
construction with the mark of cultural relativity.

According to [4], the general assessment of human experiences has been termed
‘quality of life’. The authors also consider that the term quality of life, in general, is
used both to determine how much human needs are met and to describe the degree
of perception of satisfaction of the needs of individuals in the various domains of
their lives. In turn, [7] considers that the construction of quality of life refers to
the evaluation of the well-being of individuals and societies in general, with key
indicators of well-being [22].
The studies developed by [1, 3–5, 11, 13, 24, 27] used several approaches in
order to classify and measure the various dimensions of quality of life, from which
the following components have emerged: basic physiological needs; security needs,
belonging needs, and self-esteem needs.
In turn, also with the objective of clarifying and measuring the concept of quality
of life, but from the perspective that it was reflected in the context of the elderly, [11]
was based on the already existing constructs of quality of life existing in the literature,
but adequate so that they could be applied to elderly people. The author preceded
the consolidation of these constructs and obtained six main domains of quality of
life: social well-being, physical well-being, psychological well-being, spiritual well-
being, cognitive well-being, and well-being in the family environment, each of which
integrates a wide set of quality of life indicators. Still, and having the model in ques-
tion the focus on the elderly population, [11, 18] was careful to meet in its construction
the General Theory of Systems that evidences the changes that are happening within
the systems over time, that is, the importance of the relationships between people and
the various systems that influence their behaviours, life circumstances, and quality
of life.
In this continuation, the author elaborated a review of the in-depth literature from
which she removed the concepts and the main aspects of these concepts of quality
of life, conveyed by numerous authors. He then compiled all the important aspects
98 M. C. Lopes et al.

of each concept, synthesized them, and integrated each of them into one of the
six domains of quality of life that corresponded to them. Each of these aspects is
configured in a situation common to people’s lives in general and that, in some way,
influences the satisfaction of the person in this domain of quality of life.
The list of elements that are part of each of the domains of quality of life presented
by the author is quite extensive, so that we too, after an exhaustive review of all
the elements referenced by each of the authors, present those that more authors
considered to be fundamental in the definition of the concept of quality of life.

9.3 Methodology

The research included questionnaires to assess the quality of life perceived by ther-
malists and elderly tourists from other tourism segments other than health and well-
ness tourism, Galicia and Northern Portugal. To the thermal tourists, in the region
of Galicia, 247 questionnaires were applied in the period between September and
December 2019, distributed by several thermal resorts: Balneário de Augas Santas,
Hotel Balneário do Lugo, Hotel Balneário de Lobios, and Hotel Balneário de Laias.
In the same period, in the North of Portugal, 177 questionnaires were applied, also in
several thermal resorts: Termas de Chaves, Termas de Caldelas, Termas de Monção,
and Termas das Caldas da Saúde. In relation to other tourists, in the Galicia region,
281 questionnaires were applied, from November 2019 to February 2020, while in
the north of Portugal, 212 questionnaires were applied, during the period between
August 2019 and February 2020.
The first part of the questionnaire contained six questions related to the individual
profile of the respondents: gender; age; qualifications; employment situation; indi-
vidual gross monthly income, country of origin, and another that differentiated them
in relation to the type of tourism they had experienced on the last trip.
The second part of the questionnaire aimed to assess how much the quality of
life of senior tourists is influenced by day-to-day factors related to social well-being;
physical well-being; psychological well-being; spiritual well-being; cognitive well-
being; and well-being in the family environment.

9.4 Relationships Between the Dimensions of Well-Being

that Measure Quality and the Individual Profile
and Their Results

In this part we will evaluate whether the different sociodemographic variables—

gender, age, level of education, employment status, income, and country of origin—
influence the valuation of the different dimensions proposed to measure quality of life.
The presentation of the analysis will be carried out for the total sample, indicating
9 The Influence of the Senior Tourist Profile on the Assessment … 99

only the cases, in which, depending on the tourist typology analyzed (thermalists
versus other tourists), there are evaluative results to be mentioned.
First, the gender variable is related to the valuation of the different dimensions of
the well-being construct and the inherent measurement of quality of life. It is possible
to observe in Table 9.1 that only statistically significant relationships between men
and women are identified for the dimension spiritual well-being, presenting women
with superior ratings. In the remaining dimensions, women also have higher scores,
although the differences are not statistically significant. The same behaviour was
observed for thermalists. In the case of other tourists, no dimension presents a
significant difference in valuation according to gender.
The relationships between age and quality of life are observed in Table 9.2. Only
statistically significant differences were found in the valuation of the dimension
spiritual well-being. In this case, there is a higher evaluation for respondents over
the age of 70 years (greater than 3.8) compared to the other age groups (less than
3.45) (Tukey’s test: p < 0.01). There are no noticeable differences in behaviour in
valuation, if we take into account the two segments of tourists.
The evaluation of the effects of the level of education in the evaluation of quality of
life evidences a superior effect between these two variables. It is possible to observe
in Table 9.3 that there is a relation to almost all dimensions except the well-being
in the family environment, where not there are differences statistically significant
among qualifications.
When the differences are significant, the behaviour in the different dimensions
is similar because the higher evaluations correspond to higher levels of education,

Table 9.1 Descriptive statistics and t-tests: relationships between dimensions of well-being—
quality of life—and gender, in total tourists
N Average Detour t p
pattern
26. Social well-being Male 336 3.25 0.774 −0.720 0.472
Female 581 3.29 0.743
27. Physical well-being Male 336 3.67 0.811 −1.741 0.082
Female 581 3.77 0.747
28. Psychological Male 336 4.15 0.701 −1.334 0.183
well-being Female 581 4.22 0.700
29. Spiritual well-being Male 336 3.41 0.821 −3.102 ** 0.002
Female 581 3.60 0.888
30. Cognitive well-being Male 336 4.07 0.799 −0.622 0.534
Female 581 4.11 0.808
31. Well-being in the Male 336 4.17 0.699 −1.502 0.133
family atmosphere Female 581 4.24 0.672
** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05
100 M. C. Lopes et al.

Table 9.2 Descriptive statistics and ANOVA tests: relationships between dimensions of well-
being—quality of life—and age, in total tourists
N Average Detour F p Post
pattern hoc
Tukey
26. Social 55–59 years 278 3.22 0.81 0.750 0.558
well-being 60–64 years 199 3.30 0.79
65–69 years 161 3.28 0.68
70–74 years 148 3.26 0.70
75 years or 131 3.35 0.73
older
27. Physical 55–59 years 278 3.72 0.84 0.745 0.561
well-being 60–64 years 199 3.68 0.84
65–69 years 161 3.74 0.69
70–74 years 148 3.74 0.65
75 years or 131 3.82 0.72
older
28. Psychological 55–59 years 278 4.25 0.70 1.784 0.130
well-being 60–64 years 199 4.26 0.77
65–69 years 161 4.13 0.69
70–74 years 148 4.14 0.64
75 years or 131 4.11 0.65
older
29. Spiritual 55–59 years 278 3.34 0.80 12.326 ** 0.000 70–74,
well-being 75 +
60–64 years 199 3.45 0.89 >
65–69 years 161 3.45 0.96 55–59,
60–64,
65–69
70–74 years 148 3.83 0.81
75 years or 131 3.80 0.78
older
30. Cognitive 55–59 years 278 4.09 0.84 1.385 0.237
well-being 60–64 years 199 4.12 0.82
65–69 years 161 3.97 0.79
70–74 years 148 4.12 0.76
75 years or 131 4.18 0.77
older
31. Well-being in 55–59 years 278 4.28 0.70 2.156 0.072
family 60–64 years 199 4.25 0.70
atmosphere
65–69 years 161 4.09 0.67
(continued)
9 The Influence of the Senior Tourist Profile on the Assessment … 101

Table 9.2 (continued)

N Average Detour F p Post
pattern hoc
Tukey
70–74 years 148 4.18 0.64
75 years or 131 4.23 0.65
older
** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05

with the exception of spiritual well-being that decreases with the increase of qualifi-
cations, being significantly higher for basic compared to secondary, university, and
doctorate (Tukey’s test: p < 0.010). Specifically, for social well-being, the valua-
tions are significantly higher for university students compared to secondary students
(Tukey’s test: p = 0.009). In the dimension bin physical being, the values are higher
for basic, secondary, university, and master’s degree compared to doctorate (Tukey’s
test: p < 0.050). Psychological well-being is verified more for master’s degrees and
less for basic and secondary (Tukey’s test: p = 0.003). As far as cognitive well-being
is concerned, it is significantly higher for basic and university compared to secondary
(Tukey’s test: p < 0.050).
With regard to other tourists, no significant differences were found in the valua-
tion of psychological well-being, spiritual well-being, and well-being in the family
environment. The evaluation of the group of thermalists reveals that there are no
differences in evaluation in the case of social well-being and physical well-being.
For both segments, in the dimensions in which these evaluations are significantly
different according to the educational level, the behaviour is similar to that identified
for the total sample. The only exception is pointed out for the spiritual well-being
of the thermalists, since those who have a basic educational level assigned higher
evaluations than the higher educational levels.
Next, the relationship between the work situation and the quality of life evalu-
ations will be evaluated. The results are summarized in Table 9.4. It is possible to
prove that there are differences in valuation for the dimensions spiritual well-being
and cognitive well-being, while for the other dimensions the differences are not
statistically significant.
In the case of spiritual well-being, evaluations are significantly higher for retirees/
pensioners compared to full-time workers (Tukey’s test: p < 0.001). Cognitive well-
being, on the other hand, is more observed for part-time workers, followed by full-
time and retired/pensioner workers and less for the unemployed, with statistically
significant differences (p = 0.031). This assessment may be due to the fact that
the situation of unemployed is the result of an imposition and may thus reduce the
assessment of well-being.
The analysis of the data by tourist segments offers a slightly different view, since,
in the case of other tourists, different evaluations are observed according to the
employment situations, for the dimensions of psychological well-being, spiritual
102 M. C. Lopes et al.

Table 9.3 Descriptive statistics and ANOVA tests: relationships between dimensions of well-
being—quality of life—and qualifications, in the total number of tourists
N Average Detour F p Post hoc
pattern Tukey
26. Social Primary 194 3.27 0.78 3.950 ** Uni. > Sec
well-being education 0.003
Secondary 292 3.18 0.70
education
University 386 3.37 0.78
education
Masters 21 3.04 0.72
Doctorate 24 3.03 0.59
27. Physical Primary 194 3.73 0.74 5.639 ** Bás., Sec.,
well-being education 0.000 Uni., Mest.
Secondary 292 3.68 0.76 >
education
University 386 3.81 0.78 Dout.
education
Masters 21 3.79 0.82
Doctorate 24 3.09 0.75
28.Psychological Primary 194 4.13 0.77 4.296 ** Uni. > Sec
well-being education 0.002
Secondary 292 4.09 0.68
education
University 386 4.29 0.68
education
Masters 21 4.44 0.61
Doctorate 24 4.20 0.58
29. Spiritual Primary 194 3.83 0.88 8.535 ** Bas.
well-being education 0.000
Secondary 292 3.43 0.81 >
education
University 386 3.49 0.90 Sec., Uni.,
education Dout.
Masters 21 3.38 0.69
Doctorate 24 3.13 0.54
30. Cognitive Primary 194 4.10 0.83 7.833 ** Bas., Uni. >
well-being education 0.000 Sec
Secondary 292 3.90 0.78
education
University 386 4.24 0.78
education
Masters 21 4.14 0.74
(continued)
9 The Influence of the Senior Tourist Profile on the Assessment … 103

Table 9.3 (continued)

N Average Detour F p Post hoc
pattern Tukey
Doctorate 24 4.00 0.90
31. Well-being in Primary 194 4.23 0.74 1.659 0.157
familiar education
environment Secondary 292 4.14 0.67
education
University 386 4.27 0.65
education
Masters 21 4.32 0.66
Doctorate 24 4.19 0.76
** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05

well-being, and cognitive well-being. These dimensions have lower evaluations for
spiritual well-being in the case of thermalists.
In the case of the psychological well-being of other tourists, the assessment is
significantly higher for full-time worker compared to retiree/pensioner (Tukey’s test:
p < 0.050). Cognitive well-being is better assessed by full-time workers compared
to retired/pensioners and the unemployed (Tukey’s test: p < 0.050) and for part-time
workers compared to the unemployed (Tukey’s test: p < 0.050). In the case of spiritual
well-being, the behaviour is similar to that of the overall sample.
If we evaluate the spiritual well-being of thermalists, we will see higher values
for retired/pensioner compared to inactive/others and full-time worker (Tukey’s test:
p < 0.050).
Next, income and evaluations related to the different dimensions of quality of
life are related. It is possible to observe in Table 9.5 differences in three of the
dimensions (physical well-being, spiritual well-being, and cognitive well-being).
Concretely, spiritual well-being is higher for people with lower incomes, while in
the case of cognitive well-being, it is significantly higher for values between 2001
and 3000 e compared to incomes up to 1000 e.
In the case of other tourists, all dimensions of quality of life, except for spiritual
well-being, obtain different evaluations depending on the level of income, while in
the case of thermalists, there are only differences in the case of spiritual well-being
and cognitive well-being. There are no results to highlight, observing in general,
higher levels of well-being, for higher incomes as well, except for the values already
commented earlier, and observed in spiritual well-being.
Finally, it is ascertained whether the country of origin exerts any influence on the
evaluations attributed to the quality of life. In Table 9.6 relative to the total number of
tourists, it is possible to see how there are only differences for the case of size cognitive
well-being, to which the Portuguese attributed significantly higher ratings than the
Spaniards. In the case of the country of origin, there are very marked differences
depending on the segment of tourists considered. In the sample of thermalists, the
104 M. C. Lopes et al.

Table 9.4 Descriptive statistics and ANOVA tests: relationships between dimensions of well-
being—quality of life—and the employment situation, of the total number of tourists
N Average Detour F p Post hoc Tukey
pattern
26. Social Retired/ 425 3.28 0.69 1.082 0.364
well-being pensioner
Unemployed 29 3.18 0.94
Inactive/other 39 3.13 0.85
Tr. full-time 386 3.27 0.79
Tr. part-time 38 3.46 0.80
27. Physical Retired/ 425 3.74 0.72 0.515 0.725
well-being pensioner
Unemployed 29 3.66 0.95
Inactive/other 39 3.59 0.80
Tr. full-time 386 3.74 0.82
Tr. part-time 38 3.82 0.67
28. Social Retired/ 425 4.15 0.67 1.188 0.314
well-being pensioner
Unemployed 29 4.13 0.87
Inactive/other 39 4.10 0.78
Tr. full-time 386 4.25 0.71
Tr. part-time 38 4.25 0.70
29. Spiritual Retired/ 425 3.73 0.83 11.571 ** Ref/Pens
well-being pensioner 0.000
Unemployed 29 3.41 1.02 >
Inactive/other 39 3.38 0.96 TTComp
Tr. full-time 386 3.33 0.85
Tr. part-time 38 3.63 0.79
30. Well-being Retired/ 425 4.09 0.79 2.664 * Ref/Pens
cognitive pensioner 0.031
Unemployed 29 3.67 0.90 TTComp
Inactive/other 39 3.97 0.82 TTParc
Tr. full-time 386 4.13 0.81 >
Tr. part-time 38 4.22 0.76 Development
31. Well-being Retired/ 425 4.19 0.65 0.774 0.542
in the pensioner
environment Unemployed 29 4.23 0.73
familiar
Inactive/other 39 4.10 0.85
Tr. full-time 386 4.25 0.70
Tr. part-time 38 4.28 0.69
** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05
9 The Influence of the Senior Tourist Profile on the Assessment … 105

Table 9.5 Descriptive statistics and ANOVA tests: relationships between dimensions of well-
being—quality of life—and income, in total tourists
N Average Detour F p Post hoc
pattern Tukey
26. Wellness Up to 1000 227 3.18 0.68 1.465 0.211
social e
1001–2000 305 3.27 0.73
e
2001–3000 182 3.35 0.80
e
More than 52 3.20 0.67
3000 e
NS/NR 79 3.31 0.77
27. Wellness Up to 1000 227 3.69 0.73 2.720 ** 2001–3000
physical e 0.029 e
1001–2000 305 3.72 0.72 >
e
2001–3000 182 3.86 0.86 NS/NR
e
More than 52 3.65 0.79
3000 e
NS/NR 79 3.56 0.79
28. Wellness Up to 1000 227 4.11 0.72 1.274 0.278
psychological e
1001–2000 305 4.20 0.67
e
2001–3000 182 4.25 0.68
e
More than 52 4.24 0.51
3000 e
NS/NR 79 4.13 0.77
29. Wellness Up to 1000 227 3.72 0.88 5.054 ** Up to 1000
spiritual e 0.000 e
1001–2000 305 3.50 0.84 >
e
2001–3000 182 3.46 0.76 1001–2000
e e
More than 52 3.20 1.00 2001–3000
3000 e e
NS/NR 79 3.52 0.98 More than
3000 e
30. Wellness Up to 1000 227 4.01 0.85 3.771 ** 2001–3000
cognitive e 0.005 e
(continued)
106 M. C. Lopes et al.

Table 9.5 (continued)

N Average Detour F p Post hoc
pattern Tukey
1001–2000 305 4.07 0.75 >
e
2001–3000 182 4.26 0.75 Up to 1000
e e
More than 52 4.04 0.80 NS/NR
3000 e
NS/NR 79 3.92 0.84
31. Wellness in Up to 1000 227 4.15 0.68 1.488 0.204
the e
environment 1001–2000 305 4.24 0.64
familiar e
2001–3000 182 4.25 0.70
e
More than 52 4.22 0.60
3000 e
NS/NR 79 4.08 0.72
** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05

evaluations of the Portuguese were, for all dimensions, significantly higher than
those attributed by the Spaniards. In the case of other tourists, these differences are
not observed for social well-being and psychological well-being. Assessments of
cognitive well-being were significantly higher for the Portuguese. However, with
regard to the other dimensions (physical well-being, spiritual well-being, and well-
being in the family environment), the evaluations of the Spaniards were higher.
In summary, it is possible to affirm that the individual profile influences the percep-
tion of quality of life, which is verified for the dimensions and variables indicated in
Table 9.7.

9.5 Discussion of Results

In the comparative analysis of gender with the dimensions of quality of life, it was
possible to observe that women present a higher evaluation in the dimension of spir-
itual well-being, both in the sample of total tourists and in the sample of thermalists.
It is also concluded that it is in the age group from 70 that there is a higher evaluation
in the dimension of spiritual tourism. The fact that women have attributed higher
ratings to spiritual well-being is in line with the study by [12] who reported that
women constitute the main market for spiritual retreat tourism.
Relating the qualifications of the global sample of tourists with the dimensions
of well-being and, consequently, in the quality of life, we observed that these only
9 The Influence of the Senior Tourist Profile on the Assessment … 107

Table 9.6 Descriptive statistics and t-tests: relationships between dimensions of well-being—
quality of life—and the country of origin, in total tourists
N Average Detour t p
pattern
26. Social welfare Portugal 389 3.33 0.736 1.867 0.062
Spain 528 3.23 0.766
27. Physical well-being Portugal 389 3.76 0.775 1.024 0.306
Spain 528 3.71 0.769
28. Psychological Portugal 389 4.22 0.624 1.191 0.234
well-being Spain 528 4.17 0.752
29. Spiritual well-being Portugal 389 3.58 0.925 1.330 0.184
Spain 528 3.50 0.823
30. Cognitive well-being Portugal 389 4.24 0.721 4.794 ** 0.000
Spain 528 3.99 0.845
31. Well-being in the Portugal 389 4.23 0.614 0.490 0.624
family atmosphere Spain 528 4.21 0.729
** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05

have no interference in the dimension of well-being of the family environment, and

there are, therefore, in the other dimensions, significant differences depending on
the academic degree. Thus, there is more social, physical, and cognitive well-being
for those who have an academic degree and, on the contrary, there is more spiritual
well-being for those who have basic education. For the samples of other tourists and
thermalists, the evaluation trend is the same as that recorded in the total sample. [26]
also considered that the motivations of elderly tourists are much more related to the
needs of personal growth, feelings of self-realization, and nostalgic reminiscence. In
the same perspective, [14, 19, 23] observed that the motivations of elderly tourists
were much more related to aspects of personal growth, relationships with friends and
family, and feelings of nostalgia.
When, in the present investigation, the work situation was related to the dimen-
sions of quality of life, higher evaluations of spiritual well-being were obtained for
those who are retired compared to those who work full-time, and higher evaluations
in cognitive well-being for individuals with part-time work, followed by those who
work full-time. In the sample of other tourists, there was more psychological and
cognitive well-being for those who work full time, and in the sample of thermalists,
there was more spiritual well-being for those who are retired.
Regarding incomes, it was possible to verify that, in general, for both samples,
high incomes correspond to high levels of well-being in all dimensions, with the
exception of what happens with spiritual well-being where there are higher levels of
evaluation of this dimension of well-being for lower incomes.
 108

Table 9.7 Summary of the relationships between the main sociodemographic variables and quality of life
Variables Gender Age Educational level Employment Income Country
Dim. welfare To You You To You You To You You To You You To You You To You You
Social ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Physical ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Psychological ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Spiritual ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Cognitive ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Family ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
atmosphere
To: aggregate sample; Tu: group of other tourists; Te: thermalists
M. C. Lopes et al.
9 The Influence of the Senior Tourist Profile on the Assessment … 109

9.6 Conclusions and Limitations of the Study

All variables of the profile of the senior tourist influence the perception of spiritual
well-being, except for the variables gender, education and income for the sample of
other tourists, and the variable, country, in relation to the overall sample of tourists.
It was also concluded that the variable educational level influences the perception
of well-being in all dimensions, except for the dimension well-being in the family
environment in the global sample of tourists. This variable has a lot of influence on
the dimensions of social, physical, and cognitive well-being in the sample of other
tourists. Still regarding the variable educational level, it is verified that this exerts a
lot of influence on the dimensions of psychological, spiritual, cognitive, and family
environment well-being in the sample of thermalists.
The income variable influences the global sample of tourists in the dimensions
of physical, spiritual, and cognitive well-being. The same variable influences the
sample of other tourists in the dimensions of social, physical, psychological, and
family well-being.
Ultimately, we have the country variable, which influences, especially, the sample
of other tourists, in the dimensions of physical, spiritual, cognitive, and family well-
being, and influences the sample of thermalists in all dimensions of well-being.
The limitations of this study are related, especially, to the methodology used,
because having the intended answers such a personal and subjective character, it
would be very beneficial in terms of quality of information, to opt for the qualitative
methodology. This awareness comes from having felt on the part of the tourists
surveyed a need to respond beyond what was determined in the questionnaire, so
that much relevant information that was related to their needs and motivations, was
no longer included, and analyzed.
This research, from the perspective of health and wellness tourism, was carried
out to senior tourists who experienced the thermal resorts and thermal spas, on the
side of Portugal and on the side of Galicia, respectively, In this context, the results of
the typology of wellness tourism are specific, only, to an activity that comprises the
typology of health and well-being tourism—thermalism—so it is not demonstrative
of the characteristics and behaviours of health tourists and well-being as a whole.

Acknowledgements This paper is financed by National Funds provided by FCT—Foundation for

Science and Technology through project UIDB/04470/2020 CiTUR.

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Chapter 10
Experiences of Backpackers:
An Overview of Publications

Ana Cristina Silvério and Paula Odete Fernandes

Abstract Backpacking tourism has been shown to have considerable economic,

cultural, social, and environmental effects, resulting in numerous benefits for devel-
oping and developed countries. But although the backpacking tourism segment has
evolved, it is recognised that the literature has underestimated the importance of this
subsector, focusing mainly on the identity and authenticity aspects of backpackers
and the positions of local communities. Therefore, this research aims to explore the
theoretical currents of backpackers’ emotional experiences in the face of the devel-
opment of backpacking tourism. Through a search in the Web of Science database,
50 documents were selected, which were systematically analysed and subjected to
bibliometric analysis using two techniques: bibliographic coupling and cluster anal-
ysis. From the results, it was possible to identify and categorise the theoretical trends,
classifying them into four groups: (i) backpacking tourism in the local community,
(ii) antecedents of backpackers’ emotions, (iii), dominant factors of backpackers’
experience (iv) attributes of backpackers. This methodology can help to provide an
overview of the most developed areas of study in the emerging field of backpacking
tourism, helping those who are starting their research to address specific topics and
therefore to establish them. This research aims to make a theoretical contribution to
backpacking tourism, as well as to help tourism managers define strategies to achieve
the economic, social, and environmental benefits associated with backpackers.

A. C. Silvério · P. O. Fernandes (B)

UNIAG—Applied Management Research Unit, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus Santa
Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
A. C. Silvério
e-mail: [email protected]
A. C. Silvério
NECE—Research Unit in Business Sciences, Department of Management and Economics,
Universidade da Beira Interior, Estrada Do Sineiro, 6200-209 Covilhã, Portugal

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 111
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_10
112 A. C. Silvério and P. O. Fernandes

10.1 Introduction

In the previous decade, tourism skyrocketed and was expected to continue to grow in
the near future as a key sector for the progress of developing countries [1]. Recently,
the global growth of the tourism sector is also a driver for developed countries [2].
One of the necessary conditions to ensure that tourism continues to grow is the
participation of local communities and their active promotion by the government [3,
4]. The backpacker categorisation emerged in 1970 as an important tourist group for
developing countries, due to their interest in consuming local products and services,
in an attempt to spend little money on a destination and interact with the local
community [5, 6].
Backpacking tourism represents a recent phenomenon that has attracted the atten-
tion of researchers due to its heterogeneity and complexity, social, and economic rele-
vance as well as its cultural and ethnographic characteristics [7–10]. This tourism, a
subsector of international tourism, has certain characteristics, such as communication
networks, the demand for cheap accommodation and a parallel structure of trans-
portation, restaurants, accommodation, and support services [7]. Backpackers tend
to organise their own trips, meet local people, travel freely without a set itinerary, get
involved in the culture of the host country, and decide to forgo comfort in favour of
a more authentic experience [11]. It is a segment characterised by budget conscious-
ness and a free tourism style, with most participants travelling alone or in small
groups [9]. In contrast, the same authors characterise it as a sloppy, immoral, and
drug-using individual [9]. The literature has distinguished backpackers from other
types of tourists through objective criteria—including trip duration, budget, itinerary
and activity preference—which, for the purposes of this study, we will consider the
concept that defines it as an international traveller who stays in budget accommoda-
tion, with a flexible and extended travel itinerary, and who travels away from home
for at least one month [12].
Backpackers have begun to be seen as a business opportunity for many destinations
that decide to invest in their promotion, as they present higher returns than mass
tourism, as they stay longer, spread their money over a wider geographical area, and
tend to buy locally produced goods and services [5, 8, 13]. Therefore, for backpacking
tourism to remain in the competitive market, managers must provide their visitors
with memorable and authentic experiences [14]. Emotional processes are inherent
to the construction of meaningful experiences where an emotion corresponds to a
feeling state, causing physical and psychological changes that influence a person’s
behaviour [11, 15, 16]. Some authors argue that backpackers have higher levels of
thrill-seeking than organised mass tourists and that they recall both positive and
negative emotions associated with their experiences [11, 14, 16].
Emerging international tourism is often considered by tourism planners as an
engine of economic, environmental, and social growth, but priority is usually given
to mass tourism, ignoring the backpacking tourism subsector. Evidence of this is
the fact that governments in Third World countries are very critical of backpacking
tourism, preferring to develop high-input luxury tourism [9]. Moreover, research
10 Experiences of Backpackers: An Overview of Publications 113

on backpacking tourism developed in the last two decades has mainly focused on
the identity and authenticity of backpackers and the positions of local communities
towards this type of tourism [17]. As a result, two systematic literature reviews (SLR)
were identified as worthy of attention (Table 10.1). Based on this set of findings,
it appears that the domain of backpackers’ emotional experiences in the face of
backpacking tourism development, to the best of our knowledge, has not yet been
systematically explored. This study aims to analyse the main theoretical streams of
the topic, while providing lines of future research supported by the existing literature.
This study extends previous research in several ways. First, it contributes to the
tourism literature in general and backpacking tourism in particular, as it adds knowl-
edge and understanding of how backpackers can contribute to the development of
developing and developed countries. By including elements on the antecedents of
backpackers’ emotions that lead to authentic experiences that can contribute to the
economic, social, and environmental growth of local communities and to a competi-
tive advantage of destinations, this research is contributing to the advancement of the
theoretical field. In fact, except for a handful of studies [7, 9], few academics have
explicitly studied how backpackers contribute to the development of local communi-
ties. This research presents critical evidence for the fields of tourism, entrepreneur-
ship, strategic management, business management, technology development, and
marketing. A literature-based framework for future research is presented. In prac-
tice, it contributes to tourism managers and operators as it provides key information
to deliver authentic experiences that generate positive emotions which in turn lead
to higher levels of satisfaction and loyalty. Destination marketing and management
bodies and service providers should effectively allocate marketing and development
resources by providing management strategies tailored to backpackers, considering
economic, social, and environmental aspects. It is considered that this research will
contribute to advancing the understanding of this field of research by providing prac-
tical implications for backpackers, tourism policymakers, tourism marketers, and
tourism industry professionals.

Table 10.1 Theoretical publications on backpacking tourism

Author(s) Year Source Objective Key findings
Comerio and Strozzi 2019 Tourism economics Analyse the Tourism is essential
relationship between to reduce poverty in
tourism and less developed
economic impact, its countries through
benefits, and appropriate policies
negative effects
Ribeiro and Costa 2017 European journal of Present and discuss Most governments
tourism research the contribution of around the world
backpacker tourism continue to ignore
to poverty reduction backpacking
tourism
114 A. C. Silvério and P. O. Fernandes

The article, after this initial framework, is structured into four groups. The next
section presents the methodology used, followed by the presentation results. Subse-
quently, the results are discussed and questions for future research are presented. It
concludes with the limitations and contributions of the study.

10.2 Methodology and Methods

To answer the research objective, it was decided to apply a hybrid methodology

that combines a systematic literature review with a bibliometric analysis using the
Biblioshiny software [18] of the Bibliometrix R package [19] and the VOSviewer
software [20]. The systematic review seeks to synthesise the state of the art of research
[21], being a replicable, scientific, and transparent method that allows for defining the
field of research. Two bibliometric techniques were used, cluster analysis and bibli-
ographic coupling. Cluster analysis allows the identification of groups with homo-
geneous characteristics among the data under analysis, while bibliographic coupling
allows the classification of two articles whenever they use the same reference article.
The articles were selected in the Web of Science (WoS) database in June 2022
with the keywords “backpacker tourism”, “independent tourism”, “experience”,
and “emotions”, through the search equation: TOPIC (“backpack* tourism” OR
“independent* tourism”) OR (tourism AND backpack*) AND experience* AND
emotion*, which resulted in 94 articles. The inclusion criteria for the selection of
articles were defined based on peer-reviewed articles from the categories of manage-
ment, economics, sociology, sustainable green science, technology and sports and
leisure hotel tourism, published in English language and not limited in time. A total of
72 articles were included in the sample and subsequently submitted to the VOSviewer
software. With the technique of bibliographic coupling by documents and placing
as a minimum two citations, the sample was reduced to 55 articles—this means that
all documents with a few citations lower than two (n = 17) were excluded from the
present study. In addition, two articles were eliminated because the software consid-
ered that they did not fit with the other documents, resulting in a sample of 53 articles.
In the content analysis, three articles were excluded because they did not fit the field
of study and did not fulfil the objective. Thus, 50 scientific studies were analysed
in depth. Figure 10.1 shows the process followed by the authors—according to the
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA)
criteria—to avoid biased analysis [22].

10.3 Results

Here, the bibliometric results are presented and discussed, where the 72 articles
initially identified were considered, since the bibliographic coupling technique was
not considered in the bibliometric analysis.
10 Experiences of Backpackers: An Overview of Publications 115

Fig. 10.1 Development of the research process according to PRISMA criteria

10.3.1 Scientific Production

The distribution of articles over allows us to conclude that the first study to include
the concept “backpacking tourism” associated with “experience” and “emotion”
appeared in 1998 with an increase in contributions from 2010 onwards (Fig. 10.2).
However, since 2019, there has been a decline in publications. Since 2019, there has
been a decrease in publications, but still, articles published in the last decade (2012–
2022) represent 69.44% of the total. Geographically, China (n = 42), Australia (n
= 26), USA (n = 25), and UK (n = 22) were the main stages of publications in
the field of backpacking tourism. This means that one of the factors influencing the
geographical distribution of backpacking studies is that the tendency to do research
is generally in more popular destinations for backpackers, such as Australia. These
patterns reflect theoretical and empirical contributions to this research field.

10.3.2 Main Sources

Table 10.2 presents the five most cited journals, which have as main themes: manage-
ment, tourism, travel, and sustainability. The journal “Annals of Tourism Research”
was the one that published the most in this research field, translating into 22% of
the publications (n = 16) with remarkable evidence of citations (n = 778). The
journal “Tourism Management” appears next, with 238 citations and six articles in
116 A. C. Silvério and P. O. Fernandes

Number of publications (n) 9 8

8 7
7 6 6
6 5
5
5 4 4 4
4 3 3
3 2 2 2 1 3
2 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
0
1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022
Year

Fig. 10.2 Development of the research process

Table 10.2 Top-5 most cited journals from the initial database
Sources Citations Publications Impact factor Ranking (AJG)
(n) (n)
Annals of tourism research 778 16 9.011 4
Tourism management 238 6 10.967 4
Journal of travel research 97 4 10.982 4
Sustainability 70 3 3.659
Journal of sustainable tourism 43 6 7.968 3

the sample. The “Journal of Travel Research”, in third position, obtained 97 citations
(4 publications).

10.3.3 Evolution of the Theme

Figure 10.3 represents the diagram of thematic evolution over four previously
segmented periods. The “nodes” represent a cluster and the edges reproduce the
path of the temporal evolution, resulting from the co-occurrence of the keywords
between the periods. From this analysis, it can be concluded that during 1998–
2009, the research topic focused exclusively on “backpacking tourism”, while during
2010–2013, it centred on the issue of culture in the context of backpacking tourism.
The period 2014–2017 was marked by the study of the construction of the identity
of backpackers. In 2018–2019, it was observed that the theme aroused interest in
the authenticity of backpackers. Backpacker satisfaction is currently a trend among
researchers. Therefore, studying the emotional experiences of backpackers is in line
10 Experiences of Backpackers: An Overview of Publications 117

Fig. 10.3 Evolution of the theme

with the trend, because then is it possible to know and draw strategic lines that
enhance their satisfaction.

10.4 Content Analysis

10.4.1 Cluster Trends

To present the points of view on the subject, it was decided to work on the biblio-
graphic conjunctions of the 50 articles that constitute the final sample. The coupling,
using the VOSviewer software, resulted in four clusters aggregating 1,045 links
(Fig. 10.4).

10.4.2 Description of the Clusters

The articles were analysed to see if they matched the research objective. This anal-
ysis identified points of similarity and divergence, which were then subdivided into
different research categories. The published articles showed that there is no balance
118 A. C. Silvério and P. O. Fernandes

Fig. 10.4 Cluster network

between conceptual and empirical studies, with 98% being empirical (72% quali-
tative) and 2% theoretical. In view of this observation, a systematic review is once
again justified.
Cluster 1: Backpacking Tourism in the Local Community. This group includes
seventeen articles (1998–2021), focusing on the impacts of backpacking tourism on
local communities. Tourism has emerged as a way to boost the economic growth
of countries due to its positive influence on the economy [2]. Backpacking tourism
balances the needs of local economic development with the interest of building inter-
national tourism infrastructure [7]. Pre-tourism economic activities and a successful
entrepreneurial culture are key for local actors to engage profitably in emerging
tourism opportunities [23]. The need for local people to be involved also conveys
confidence that heritage sites can generate economic and social benefits for local host
communities [6, 24]. Therefore, planners and decision-makers should recognise the
legitimate existence of small businesses and the informal sector in the develop-
ment plans of regions, as an appropriate strategy at the local level can contribute
to increasing economic development, distributing tourism revenue throughout the
region, and transforming local communities into tourism stakeholders [1, 24]. In
this sense, there are strategies that can be used to develop tourism in a way that
is more suitable for local communities, such as encouraging the use of local mate-
rials, targeting backpackers, integrating tourism with local agriculture, using tourism
revenues for community development, in addition to government stimuli [3, 4, 6].
Local investments have a positive impact on the local economy as communities can
provide services/products sought by backpackers without the need for large amounts
10 Experiences of Backpackers: An Overview of Publications 119

of initial capital or sophisticated infrastructure [9]. However, the relationship between

tourism and local development should not be limited to economic criteria, but the
existence of social and environmental benefits for the communities that serve back-
packers should also be advocated [13]. In this case, backpackers have the perception
that their activities generate adverse environmental impacts, more intense than those
perceived by the local community [12]. Socially, knowledge, financial, and social
power relations influence the development of tourism in the local community, but
despite being exposed to the gaze of the local community, backpackers’ control
most of their relationships with locals [25, 26]. However, if tourists seek famil-
iarity, the level of risk associated with international tourism is higher than that of
novelty seekers [27]—travel style and tourist activities are linked to the emotion
indicator [11]. Finally, the experience of backpackers can influence future demand
and consumption patterns, such as the choice of destinations to visit in the future
[10, 28].
Cluster 2: Antecedents of Backpackers’ Emotions. This thematic group
consists of fourteen articles (2013–2020), on the factors that determine the emotional
experiences of backpackers [17]. First, destination marketers, to attract international
backpackers, need to modify the vision of the destination (e.g., unique cultures),
as this can influence backpackers’ personal development, including emotions, self-
awareness, and skills [16]. In turn, the dimensions of ability and emotion play a
significant role in behaviour of backpackers, so activities that promote emotional
relationships and improve their abilities should be developed—such as exciting and
challenging sports activities, calming attractions, and volunteering experiences [29].
Geographical knowledge is also an antecedent of backpacker satisfaction, shown to
impact backpackers’ psychological and behavioural outcomes [30, 31]. Moreover,
expected and experienced safety is a key determinant of backpackers’ travel deci-
sions and their authentic experiences, and it is therefore recommended that they be
provided with adequate information on the safety of destinations through various
communication channels [32, 33]. In fact, communication and promotion strategies
help to build the image of a destination by associating consumption with aspects
such as culture and authentic interactions [34]. Focusing on social and sustainability
contributions to local communities can also be one of the advantages to improve
the backpackers’ experience [35, 36]. The importance of the Internet as a source of
information for young backpackers, and for their environmental attitudes and green
beliefs, is emphasised [37]. Travel blogs have opened a new opportunity to assess the
reflective phase of the consumption experience and identify the types and qualities
of experience that are chosen, showing the processes through which backpackers
attribute personality [15]. Backpackers tend to remember more what they experi-
enced and not what they saw [14]. However, for backpackers to make the most of
online travel communities to have successful experiences, they need to be able to use
the tool correctly [38].
Cluster 3: Dominant Factors of Backpackers’ Experiences. This thematic
group includes eleven articles (2010–2019), regarding dominant aspects of the back-
packers’ experience. Mobility is related to the sustainability of tourism, with personal
transportation offering backpackers alternative sensory experiences compared to
120 A. C. Silvério and P. O. Fernandes

public transport, while independent travel is considerably more important than desti-
nations visited [39]. This means that the backpackers’ experience also results from
the use of certain means of transportation, with public transport being considered the
most rigid and inflexible means. Gastronomy and the sensations related to it are one
of those responsible for building the backpackers’ experience, as some of them wish
to consume unknown and authentic food as a stimulating part of the adventure [40].
For accommodation, the authenticity of the backpackers’ experience is associated
with its location and staff, proving to be essential both for a satisfactory level of
experience during the stay and for the promotion of a positive eWOM [41]. Hostels
are identified as places of leisure and recreation chosen by backpackers, but it has
been realised that they are also platforms that trigger experiences of disappointment,
frustration, and boredom [42].
Power relations are initially formed during the online search for travel compan-
ions, where conduct and respect for authority play a crucial role in negotiating group
dynamics to achieve a satisfactory set of experiences [43]. Backpackers’ constant
interaction while travelling creates a situation where experiences are shared with
multiple networks, making them able to portray, construct, and reconstruct their
trips as they experience them [44, 45]. While travelling, backpackers demonstrate
a range of emotions as they build memories of their experiences—often writing
about sacred moments, inspiring people, personal pride, fear, disappointment, upset,
and depression in backpacker blogs [8, 46]. Therefore, knowing the objectives and
characteristics of the backpacking trip can make it safer and more peaceful, helping
backpackers to assess whether they can participate in this type of trip [47].
Cluster 4: Attributes of Backpackers. This group includes eight articles from
1998 to 2021 on the evolution and main characteristics of backpackers. Backpackers
should also be referred to as tourists, as their influence on society proves to be more
prolonged than that of organised and selective tourists [48]. Backpackers consider
themselves the elite of tourists, as they have richer experiences and more valuable
qualities than other tourists [49]. They see their travels as a way to experience a
new sense of self and to achieve autonomy, freedom, and independence [50]. For
example, interest in backpacking tourism usually results from motivations such as
life change, the achievement of personal goals, and/or rebuilding oneself before the
affirmation of a professional career or after the termination of a job contract [51].
With globalisation, backpacking tourism and its forms of relationships will continue
to be an important tourism phenomenon, with roots in different types of economies
and societies [52]. The arrival of backpackers, while having a limited impact on
existing tourism services, plays a significant role in encouraging new and unique
forms of entrepreneurship [53]. From the three-component attitude model—which
considers attitude as a complex relationship between cognition (backpacker moti-
vation and perceived backpacker impacts), actions (sustainable and unsustainable
backpacker behaviour) and affect (backpacker satisfaction)—it was concluded that
while motivations and backpackers’ perceived positive impacts influence sustain-
able behaviours, only their motivation is a predictor of unsustainable behaviours [5].
In this market, there is a potential to create specific tourism products that can also
encourage more sustainable tourism experiences [54].
10 Experiences of Backpackers: An Overview of Publications 121

10.5 Discussion and Future Research Questions

Backpacking tourism has developed significantly in recent times, so understanding

the nature and status of this development is important for creating efficient policy
and market strategies. This rapid development has helped to moderate some of the
excesses of international mass tourism and to mitigate criticism of negative environ-
mental, cultural, and social effects associated with backpacking [7, 54]. However, the
small volume of backpackers compared to the conventional mass tourist cannot be
expected to replace the latter. The literature provides a convincing theoretical expla-
nation that backpacking tourism can lead to economic improvement but offers little
insight into how backpackers’ experiences can be the key to successful progress.
Thus, this research decided to take that path, seeking to identify the themes that
guide backpackers’ experiences as a function of backpacking tourism development.
Through a SLR was classified into four thematic groups: backpacking tourism in
the local community; antecedents of backpackers’ emotions; dominant factors of
backpackers’ experience and backpackers’ attributes.
The literature review revealed that, unlike mass tourists, backpackers seek Third
World destinations, staying longer in each destination, seeking adventure in a
different environment, authenticity, and real encounters with residents [9, 25, 47].
The term backpacker is therefore much more than a category of tourists but also a
social identity with its unique group culture and values [31]. This category of tourists
has developed rapidly and is proving to be a significant economic contributor to local
regions, as backpackers tend to seek locally produced goods/services and accommo-
dation run by local households [9]. Indeed, even if it is smaller-scale tourism, it
contributes to the creation of employment opportunities, including supporting local
restaurants and accommodation facilities, which leads to greater self-fulfilment and
self-determination of small communities which depend on tourism. Its social, polit-
ical, and environmental contribution to local communities was also evident [4, 6, 12,
13, 24]. Regarding environmental impacts, backpackers have been found to control
how they consume resources through a desire to spend less, leading to a lighter
footprint on the environment compared to more consumerist mass tourists [5, 9,
17]. While there are exceptions to this generality, what needs to be underlined is
that backpackers are worth more to the local economy than they are generally given
credit for.
This research also found that backpackers who collect information about local
travel and the environment before travelling to gain more geographical knowledge
tend to achieve higher levels of emotions [30]. Thus, it is suggested that back-
packers, during their trip, seek out local tourist service centres and tourism websites
to improve their geographical knowledge about travel. Another pertinent finding is
that the literature reports that backpackers before the trip tend to remember more
the excitement of experiencing sociocultural differences and travelling in a unique
and meaningful experience, while after the trip they remember more the unexpected
personal experiences than what they planned to do or lived [14].
122 A. C. Silvério and P. O. Fernandes

BACKPACKING What economic, social and environmental

TOURISM IN LOCAL impacts does backpacking tourism have on
COMMUNITIES local communities?

BACKGROUND TO Does the emotional experience of the

EMOTIONAL backpacker have effects on the pre-trip,
EXPERIENCES during-trip and post-trip process?
BACKPACKERS'
EXPERIENCES
DOMINANT FACTORS OF Can information and communication
BACKPACKERS' technologies contribute to higher quality
EXPERIENCES experiences for backpackers?

BACKPACKERS' What kind of young people choose

ATTRIBUTES backpacking over conventional tourism?

Fig. 10.5 Reference framework for analysing the backpacking tourism subsector

Given the growing importance of the backpacker market and its impact on society,
the environment, and the economy, more research is needed in this scientific field.
Thus, it was decided to present in a structured way the main themes identified in
the literature on the experiences of backpackers in relation to the development of
backpacking tourism, suggesting questions for future research by thematic groups
(Fig. 10.5).
Future studies should seek to use an objectivist or theoretical approach, based
on the research questions outlined above, to fill the gaps identified in the literature
and advance the field of research. Researchers in this field should also study back-
packers’ emotions—through qualitative or quantitative methods—by developing a
measurement scale that will help future research to analyse its impacts on back-
packers’ demand, motivations, and satisfaction. The systematic review also found
that the economic, social, and environmental effects of this segment are a little-studied
topic and that quantitative data collected and analysed by statistical bodies on back-
packing tourism are unknown. Therefore, quantitative studies should be carried out,
prioritising the development of an economic, environmental, and social impact esti-
mation model that objectively shows the benefits of this tourism segment on various
indicators, namely (Table 10.3):

10.6 Conclusions and Limitations

Backpacking has become an important trend in modern tourism, starting to gain

popularity among young people in developed and developing countries. Following
this trend, the term “backpacker” has been used in academia, despite the lack of
consensus among researchers on its true meaning. However, despite the relevance
of backpacking tourism for the development of countries and local communities, a
quantitative analysis of the articles published in WoS allowed us to conclude that
10 Experiences of Backpackers: An Overview of Publications 123

Table 10.3 Economic, environmental, and social indicators

Impacts of backpackers Indicators
Economic →Balance of payments;
→State revenues;
→Increase in income;
→Overall profitability;
→Gross value added; among others
Environmental →Corporate social responsibility;
→Amount of water consumed;
→Carbon footprint;
→CO2 emissions during transportation; among others
Social →Community support programs;
→Jobs created;
→Degree of satisfaction of the local community; among others

its scientific production has been decreasing—23 articles were published in 2018–
2022 (Fig. 10.2). Among these publications, it was found that research has not kept
pace with the development of backpacking tourism and that the emotional experi-
ences of backpackers have been ignored by the scientific community. As such, this
research aimed to identify the main themes involving the emotional experiences of
backpackers in the face of the development of backpacking tourism. To this end, a
systematic review was developed that identified four thematic groups and pointed
out timely lines for future research.
In the qualitative analysis through the bibliographic grouping, it was understood
that backpackers seek authentic experiences, travel to remote places, and spend
significant periods on the road, in which they share mental maps of tourist destinations
with other backpackers, between trips. As such, they should have a positive attitude
towards themselves, which is reflected in their perception of their impact on the
destination and subsequently influences their behaviour and emotional evaluation of
the trip. Furthermore, it has been found that, by its very nature, backpacking tourism
results in higher expenditures at the local level, whereas the more structured nature of
package travel is known to limit contacts with the local population. A discussion on
some social and environmental benefits for the communities hosting backpackers was
also identified, realising that these depend on the attitudes, emotions, and behaviours
of the backpackers themselves. Their engagement in sustainable behaviour is an
antecedent of their satisfaction, suggesting that destination management organisa-
tions seek to focus on marketing services and recreational activities that encourage
backpackers to behave sustainably.
From the bibliometric results, it was observed that the research field evolved
in the decade from 2009 to 2019, even if tenuously and with several oscillations,
but in recent years, it has been decreasing more and more. It is concluded that,
despite the path already travelled, the field is still in the construction phase, not
124 A. C. Silvério and P. O. Fernandes

least because a significant segment still adopts only empirical methodologies. The
thematic evolution map provided promising information for researchers in the field
of backpacking tourism, showing what has already been analysed by academics and
the relevance of each of the topics addressed, as well as trends and ways forward.
This analysis allowed to discover that the analysis of backpackers’ satisfaction can
advance the scientific field.
This research presents clear evidence on the potential benefits that backpackers
can bring in terms of promoting local development, presenting relevant findings for
policymakers, researchers, and stakeholders seeking to identify economic, social,
and environmental opportunities resulting from backpacking tourism in developed
and developing countries. Based on the knowledge domains identified and discussed
in this research study, tourism practitioners are expected to be able to formulate and
guide policies for the development and management of backpacker-oriented desti-
nations. Governments and non-governmental or private sector organisations should
avoid the temptation to focus exclusively on luxury tourists and consider strategies to
encourage and support backpacking tourism, for example, by providing information,
investment capital, networking opportunities, and capacity building through training.
This study encountered some limitations, mainly due to its qualitative nature. The
first refers to the data collection process, as it was limited to the WoS database, not
allowing other relevant information to integrate into this study. Another limitation
refers to the selection process, which privileged only full-length articles published
in English to prevent knowledge loss, excluding books and conference papers. The
terms used in the search are inevitably a limitation, as studies related to the topic but
using different keywords were omitted from the research. Even more, studies that are
recent may not have been included because the terms under study are underexplored.
These limitations form a starting point for future research studies.

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the FCT Portugal for financial support by national
funds FCT/MCTES to UNIAG, under Project n. UIDB/04752/2020 and UIDP/04752/2020.

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Chapter 11
Importance–Performance Analysis
of Oleotourism Experience

Jessica Ferreira , Ana Cristina Silvério , Elaine Scalabrini ,

and Paula Odete Fernandes

Abstract The continuous evolution of tourism, driven by societal changes, has given
it a significant role in developing regions, particularly in poor areas. Among the
various tourism segments, oleotourism stands out as it offers diverse and immersive
experiences encompassing gastronomic, rural, industrial, and cultural aspects. Given
its relevance for promoting culture and rural tourism, this study aimed to establish a
correlation between the importance and performance of the oleotourism experience,
specifically focusing on tourism activities in the Terras Trás-os-Montes region. To
achieve this research objective, a comprehensive survey was conducted in English
and Portuguese, targeting a broad audience to identify and segment individuals inter-
ested in and seeking activities related to olive culture. The study’s primary goal was
to analyse the motivating factors influencing tourists’ choices of oleotourism desti-
nations. 116 responses were obtained, with 103 collected in Portuguese and 13 from
English surveys. Understanding the preferences and needs of the target audience
becomes paramount for tourism stakeholders as they seek to create personalised
offerings that enhance overall customer satisfaction. In this context, the Importance-
Satisfaction Analysis (ISA) matrix is a valuable tool, complementing this under-
standing by identifying specific areas in the destination’s offerings that require
improvement and highlighting its existing strengths. By adopting a continuous eval-
uation approach facilitated by the ISA matrix, tourism stakeholders can proactively
respond to evolving trends, maintain a competitive edge, and cultivate a thriving

J. Ferreira (B) · A. C. Silvério · E. Scalabrini · P. O. Fernandes

UNIAG, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança,
Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
A. C. Silvério
e-mail: [email protected]
E. Scalabrini
e-mail: [email protected]
P. O. Fernandes
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 129
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_11
130 J. Ferreira et al.

and appealing oleotourism destination. This research contributes valuable insights

to destination managers and policymakers.

11.1 Introduction

The evolution of tourism, influenced by societal changes, has led to its significant
role in regional development, particularly in poor areas. Rural tourism has seen
increased demand due to tourists seeking authentic experiences connecting with
nature and agricultural activities [1, 2]. Oleotourism, a recent segment combining
tourism and agriculture, has emerged in Mediterranean countries and is gaining
prominence in other regions. This form of tourism related to olive culture contributes
to regional profitability and ensures sustainable development. Oleotourism offers
diverse experiences, encompassing gastronomic, rural, industrial, and cultural
tourism [3, 4].
It engages participants through visits to mills, olive oil tastings, and interactions
with local traditions. Modern tourists seek immersive experiences, and oleotourism
provides a unique tool for profound engagement with cultural heritage and traditions.
It has shown the potential to generate wealth for specific areas. Furthermore, oleo-
tourism offers opportunities for socialisation, purchasing, and acquiring knowledge
about olive oil varieties, making it an experiential and participatory form of tourism
[5, 6].
Based on the relevance of oleotourism for the culture and rural nature of tourism,
this study sought to establish a correlation between the importance and performance
of the oleotourism experience, focusing on the tourism activity in the region of Terras
Trás-os-Montes (TTM).
To achieve this objective, surveys were conducted in English and Portuguese,
targeting the public to identify and segment those interested in and seeking activities
related to olive culture. The primary goal was to analyse the motivating factors
influencing the choice of oleotourism destination. The research obtained a sample
of 116 responses, with 103 coming from the Portuguese and 13 from the English
surveys.
In conclusion, analysing sociodemographic and professional profiles, motivations,
and experiences of oleotourism participants offers valuable insights for destination
managers and policymakers. Understanding the preferences and needs of the target
audience allows stakeholders to create personalised offerings that enhance customer
satisfaction. The ISA matrix complements this understanding by identifying areas
for improvement and strengths in the destination’s offerings. By adopting continuous
evaluation, tourism stakeholders can stay ahead of evolving trends and maintain a
successful and appealing oleotourism destination in the TTM region.
11 Importance–Performance Analysis of Oleotourism Experience 131

11.2 Framework

The concept of tourism has evolved, acquiring characteristics as society faces polit-
ical and social changes [7]. Tourism activity plays a significant role in regional
development, as a positive change agent for regions lacking other economic growth
opportunities [8].
The changes surrounding the tourism concept have not only affected the role of
those engaged in this activity but have also influenced and enhanced tourist desti-
nations. Tourism has developed as a strategic tool to drive sustainable growth in
regions, particularly those considered poor. Rural tourism has witnessed an increase
in demand due to the growing interest of tourists in connecting with nature and
participating in authentic experiences where agricultural activities are perceived as
leisure pursuits [1].
Oleotourism is a relatively recent segment that combines tourism activities with
agricultural practices and is predominantly found in countries along the Mediter-
ranean region, such as Spain, Greece, Turkey, Italy, Morocco, and Portugal. However,
it is also gaining prominence in countries like Australia, the USA, Argentina, and
Japan [3].
Tourism related to the olive culture, with its specific characteristics, not only
contributes to the profitability of a particular region but also ensures sustainable
development. Olive landscapes and their diversity are fundamental to the develop-
ment of oleotourism, and all activities related to these variables contribute to job
creation and population retention, resulting in rural development [4]. Rural develop-
ment encompasses economic growth and social evolution, ensuring the preservation
of territorial identity and associated cultural heritage [2].
Despite being a recent concept, oleotourism has demonstrated its potential to
generate wealth for a specific geographic area. For instance, in 2020, Italy included
oleotourism in its state budget, regulating it as a sector of wine tourism. This regu-
lation encompasses the cultivation of olive trees, the olive oil production process,
commercialisation, and tasting, as well as all activities related to visits to mills and
olive groves, involving recreational and informative actions [9].
The literature has approached oleotourism from various perspectives, examining
demand and supply, revising concepts, studying its potential impact on rural devel-
opment, and categorising this segment within more established tourism typologies,
despite lacking an official framework [10].
Like wine tourism, oleotourism can be associated with several categories, such
as gastronomic tourism, rural tourism, industrial tourism, agrotourism, and even
cultural tourism, as it encompasses all other typologies in which oleotourism can
be classified [2, 4, 10–13]. Some authors also highlight the possibility of analysing
oleotourism in the context of creative tourism, as its essence involves participation
in tourism experiences that generate memories through immersion in local traditions
and culture, making it an interactive, participatory, and experiential form of tourism
[14].
132 J. Ferreira et al.

The product or service is offered in the market and captures consumer attention
due to its inherent potential for satisfaction, arousing the desire to purchase [15]. In
the context of oleotourism, the product revolves around olive oil and the experiences
that can be enhanced through it.
The term “experience” can be used in various contexts. It can describe knowledge
acquired over time that shapes behaviour, or it can refer to something perceived in
the present moment, evoking emotional involvement and the creation of memories,
whether positive or negative [16]. In tourism, experiences are linked to emotions,
preconceived ideas, and the confrontation with perception, influencing consumer
behaviour. Personal experiences, although shared with others, generate memories
[17].
Tourism is a sector that creates experiences, and various disciplines have studied
this phenomenon over time. For example, from the social sciences perspective, it is
interesting to study and understand the behaviour of tourists seeking an escape from
their routine, analysing the intense feeling of happiness, the culminating experience,
and self-realisation. From a marketing perspective, it is important to comprehend the
consumption behaviour of the tourism experience, considering its subjectivity [18].
Indeed, modern tourists are no longer satisfied with merely observing the places
they visit or acquiring superficial knowledge. They desire to go beyond what they
can observe, aiming to become protagonists of their travel experiences [19]. In this
regard, olive and oleotourism can be an extraordinary tool, allowing participants to
obtain memorable experiences through deep engagement with local traditions and
culture.
This engagement can be achieved through various experiences provided by oleo-
tourism, including visits to mills, olive oil tastings, visits to olive oil museums and
interpretive centres, participation in fairs and events related to the theme, and involve-
ment in tours that explore olive groves, offering opportunities to participate in the
olive harvesting process, among others [2, 4, 11, 14].
The most widely accepted definition of an oleo tourist is someone who travels
outside their residential area to learn about and personally experience the olive oil
production process, from olive picking to pressing at the mill and participating in
educational olive oil tastings. The authors highlight similarities between the prac-
titioners of this typology and wine tourists, as they share an obvious interest in
agri-food products. However, the text suggests other similarities, such as the desire
to obtain memorable experiences through immersion in local culture, which adds
value to the practitioners and contributes to the sustainability and development of
the host territory [20].
Tourists in gastronomy-related segments not only seek immersion in local culture
but are also driven by the experience itself, the pleasure of tasting and savouring, and
the awakening of the senses. They are motivated by enjoying the rural environment,
the need for socialisation, the opportunity to make purchases, and the knowledge
acquired regarding olive oil varieties [6].
11 Importance–Performance Analysis of Oleotourism Experience 133

11.3 Methodology and Methods

In science, a methodological procedure is an entire process aimed at understanding

and interpreting reality, intervening in it, and guided by formulated problems
supported by appropriate rules and actions for knowledge construction. As a starting
point, all investigations involve a problem, whether formally explicit or not [21].
From this perspective, this study aimed to analyse the motivating factors that lead
to the choice of oleotourism destinations in the TTM region, through the relationship
between importance and performance of the oleotourism experience.
Surveys are extensively employed instruments in research and data gathering,
particularly in studies of a quantitative nature. They are purposefully crafted to
acquire information and opinions from participants through standardised inquiries.
The survey methodologies may diverge based on the research objectives, the nature
of the questions, and the target audience [22]. Surveys encompass various ques-
tions, including closed-ended questions (featuring predetermined response options)
and open-ended questions (allowing participants to express their responses freely).
Closed-ended questions serve as valuable tools for quantitative analysis, whereas
open-ended questions offer more comprehensive and qualitative insights [23].
In this perspective, surveys were conducted among the general population to
gather information on the factors influencing the choice of oleotourism destinations
in the region. Survey research is a type of investigation conducted to obtain data
or information about the characteristics or opinions of a group of people who are
selected, in statistical terms, as representative of a population [24].
In research, a sample refers to a subset of individuals or elements selected from a
larger population. Selecting a sample is crucial as it determines the representativeness
and generalizability of the study’s findings to the entire population [25]. The study
sample sought to reach a broad population segment by disseminating the question-
naire among groups associated with olive culture on various social media platforms,
such as Facebook, Instagram, and LinkedIn, and sharing it with relevant groups and
associations in the field. There are various sampling techniques, and researchers
choose the most appropriate one based on their research objectives, resources, and
population characteristics [26]. Specifically aiming to gather a substantial number of
answers, an inquiry consisting of four thematic analysis dimensions was developed
in Portuguese and English. The aim was to study the motivating factors influencing
the choice of oleotourism destination. 116 responses were obtained for the surveys,
with 103 for the Portuguese and 13 for the English surveys.
The survey consists of 4 dimensions and 21 questions. Specifically, the first dimen-
sion sought to analyse the sociodemographic and professional profiles of the respon-
dents. Next, the second dimension aimed to examine the practice of oleotourism and
the motivations of the practitioners. The third dimension analysed the image of oleo-
tourism as a differentiating product by evaluating the importance and agreement of
a set of variables associated with the components of the tourist destination. Using a
Likert scale of 5 points (1 = unfavourable; 5 = favourable), respondents were asked
134 J. Ferreira et al.

to indicate the degree of importance and agreement assigned to each situation related
to the practice of oleotourism experiences in the TTM region.
Finally, the last dimension sought to assess the respondents’ importance, satisfac-
tion, perceived value, and behavioural attitude, studying the degree of importance
and satisfaction attributed to each statement, using a Likert scale of 5 points (1 =
unfavourable; 5 = favourable). The structuring of the statements and the variables
under analysis were based on the adaptation of some surveys previously used in
studies of the field [27–30].
The construction of a questionnaire plays a pivotal role in surveys involving data
collection through standardised questions. This process entails several meticulous
steps to ensure the effectiveness of the questionnaire and the acquisition of perti-
nent and accurate information [31]. The research methodology employed encom-
passed distinct yet complementary dimensions. The questionnaire’s various dimen-
sions aimed to ascertain the participants’ sociodemographic and professional profiles,
the frequency of engagement in oleotourism activities, the motivations driving their
involvement in oleotourism, and their perception of oleotourism as a distinct product,
with a comparison of importance and satisfaction scales. The dimensions of analysis
resorted to the use of Likert-type scales to analyse the statements [32].
The Importance-Performance Analysis (IPA) is a widely used technique in
marketing and research to assess the relative importance of different attributes or
factors and their corresponding performance levels. The main objective of IPA is
to identify areas that require improvement or prioritisation based on respondents’
perceived importance and satisfaction levels. In an IPA, respondents are typically
asked to rate the importance of various attributes or factors and their satisfaction with
each attribute’s current performance. The results are then plotted on a graph, with
the importance of each attribute represented on the vertical axis and the satisfaction
level on the horizontal axis [33–35].
Subsequently, a qualitative analysis was conducted, encouraged by descriptive
and quantitative analyses employing specific statistical tests, such as IPA. In this
case, the IPA will be transformed into an Importance-Satisfaction Analysis (ISA),
where respondents are asked to rank the importance of different attributes or factors
and their level of satisfaction with each attribute. The results are then presented in a
graph, with the importance of each attribute represented on the vertical axis and the
level of satisfaction on the horizontal axis [34, 35].
The Importance-Satisfaction Matrix (ISM) is a strategic management tool utilised
to guide performance improvement actions based on opinions [34]. This matrix
enables a straightforward evaluation of participant satisfaction and importance in
oleotourism activities by analysing specific variables.
The ISM facilitates the identification of attributes positioned in different quad-
rants, directing attention and priority toward specific characteristics and strategies.
Specifically, in Quadrant I, areas of concern are highlighted where attributes are
considered highly important but fall below average regarding satisfaction. Quadrant
II encompasses strong points, representing attributes of high importance with which
customers are fully satisfied. Quadrant III includes weak points with low importance
and satisfaction levels. Quadrant IV includes attributes with low importance but
11 Importance–Performance Analysis of Oleotourism Experience 135

high satisfaction levels, suggesting that resources are misallocated and indicating
the need for effective reallocation. Interpreting the results allows for identifying
aspects requiring more attention and those currently in a satisfactory state.
This instrument proves highly advantageous and straightforward in applica-
tion, providing essential information for public and private organisations managing
services and products. The ISM empowers decision-makers to reflect on and delineate
effective strategies tailored to each service or product offering.

11.4 Results

11.4.1 Oleotourism Sociodemographic and Professional

Profiles

Regarding the sociodemographic and professional profile of the analysed sample,

it was observed that out of the 116 respondents, 63% fell within the age group of
30–59 years, 33% were between 18 and 29 years old, and 4% were age range of
70–79 years. As for gender, most respondents were female, constituting 65% of the
sample. Regarding nationality and residence, the sample consisted of 76% Portuguese
respondents, predominantly from the regions of TTM and Minho. The remaining
24% represented diverse nationalities, with 14% being Brazilian, 5% British, and 2%
each representing French and Croatian, while Vietnamese and Spanish constituted
1% each.
Considering educational qualifications, a significant majority of 97% indicated
having obtained higher education, with 66% employed by others. Notably, 30% of
the respondents identified themselves as students, and 5% as self-employed.
Finally, concerning monthly income, it was observed that over half (56%) reported
earning a gross monthly income ranging between e706–1410, while 16% fell in the
income range of e1411–2115, and 13% fell within the bracket of e2821–3525.

11.4.2 Oleotourism Experience and the Motivations Driving

Their Involvement

In analysing the practice of oleotourism activities, the aim was to understand whether
the respondents had previously engaged in such activities and, if not, the reasons
behind their non-participation and whether they would be motivated to participate.
Specifically, a filter was introduced in the initial phase to ascertain whether the
respondents had participated in oleotourism experiences. In the affirmative case, they
answered the subsequent questions justifying their non-participation if the answer
was negative. The findings revealed that 67% of the respondents had already taken
part in activities associated with olive culture.
136 J. Ferreira et al.

Considering that the questionnaire was disseminated among individuals associ-

ated with olive culture, the study sought to comprehend the justifications for the
non-participation in such activities. Notably, among the 33% of respondents who
stated that they had never engaged in activities related to olive culture, 43% claimed
a lack of awareness about such activities. Another perspective indicated that 24%
expressed a lack of interest, while 32% sought alternative activities.
When asked about their interest in pursuing such activities in the future, respon-
dents were requested to rate on a scale of 0 to 10, with 0 representing “never” and
10 representing “always”. The average response was 5.7 points (±3.15).
The following dimensions of analysis were conducted with the 78 respondents
(67%) who reported having participated in oleotourism experiences. Regarding the
motivation for engaging in oleotourism, it was found that 62% participate in these
activities occasionally, 25% participate every week, and 13% annually. The promi-
nent reasons for seeking these activities were driven by the desire to learn about olive
culture (4.3 points ± 0.5), visit olive groves (4.3 points ± 0.5), explore the region
(4.3 points ± 0.6), experience regional gastronomy (4.4 points ± 0.5), engage in
olive oil tasting (4.6 points ± 0.5), purchase olive oil (4.3 points ± 0.5), and seek
creative experiences (4.2 points ± 0.4).
The aspects that garnered the most interest in their oleotourism experiences were
related to heritage concerns (3.8 points ± 0.7), a sense of immersion in the daily life
of the culture (3.6 points ± 0.6), the desire and willingness to visit places associated
with olive culture (3.7 points ± 0.5), curiosity to learn about the world of olive oil
(3.8 points ± 0.4), interest in the region’s culture and history (3.8 points ± 0.4), the
physical nature of the location (3.7 points ± 0.5), the quality of products (3.8 points
± 0.8), and finally, the interest in experiencing oleotourism to have a new, different,
and unique experience (3.8 points ± 0.4).
Finally, within this dimension of analysis, an examination was conducted to under-
stand whether these types of activities had been experienced in the TTM region.
Specifically, it was ascertained that 82% of respondents acknowledged that their
experiences thus far had taken place in this region. In comparison, the remaining
17% responded that although their experiences were not in TTM, they expressed
interest in trying these activities in this region.

11.4.3 Importance-Satisfaction Descriptive Analysis

The Importance-Satisfaction Analysis (ISA) matrix is a valuable tool for continuous

evaluation and enhancement. Analysing various time intervals or among diverse
customer segments can offer valuable insights into evolving preferences and priorities
[38]. Like the Importance-Satisfaction Matrix, the ISA matrix evaluates customer
satisfaction concerning various attributes or factors associated with a product or
service.
11 Importance–Performance Analysis of Oleotourism Experience 137

Within these parameters, this study analyses an ISA matrix, which examines
the importance and satisfaction levels of 12 study variables related to the destina-
tions of TTM in association with oleotourism (Fig. 11.1). Specifically, the variables
analysed are: accessibility; mobility; infrastructures; cleaning; quality of service;
diversity; quality vs price; new culture; rural experience; landscape; gastronomy;
and endogenous products.
Based on Fig. 11.1, it is possible to note that all quadrants contain variables,
with some exhibiting more positive assessments while others displaying negative
ones. Notably, the variables of diversity, mobility, and accessibility were identified
as having lower satisfaction and importance levels. This may indicate the lack of
accessibility to olive oil mills and groves.
On the other hand, the rural experience component showed higher satisfaction but
lower importance. The variables of quality vs price and quality of service exhibited
high importance levels but were associated with lower satisfaction, suggesting that
improvements and developments in these areas are needed.
Many of the variables fall into the quadrant where both importance and satisfaction
levels are high. Specifically, the new culture, gastronomy, endogenous products,

Fig. 11.1 ISA matrix

138 J. Ferreira et al.

cleaning, landscape, and infrastructures are classified as variables that generate higher
satisfaction and demonstrate greater importance for the oleotourism destination.
This analysis provides valuable insights into the aspects that require attention
and improvement to enhance the overall oleotourism experience in the TTM region.
By understanding the interplay between the importance and satisfaction levels of
different variables, tourism stakeholders can focus on strategic development and
optimisation of the destination’s offerings.

11.5 Main Findings

The findings regarding the sociodemographic and professional profiles of the sample
revealed interesting insights about the participants engaged in oleotourism. Most
respondents were 30–59 years old, indicating a middle-aged demographic interested
in this tourism activity. Additionally, the significant presence of female respon-
dents suggests that oleotourism appeals more to women. Notably, a considerable
percentage of the sample consisted of Portuguese respondents, primarily from the
regions of TTM and Minho, indicating a local interest in the destination.
The high level of educational qualifications among the respondents, with 97%
having obtained higher education, implies a well-educated and informed group of
participants engaging in oleotourism. The fact that many of the respondents were
employed by others reflects a working population with disposable income, which
could contribute to their interest in leisure activities like oleotourism.
Regarding the oleotourism experience and motivations driving involvement, it
was encouraging to see that a significant portion of respondents (67%) had already
participated in activities related to olive culture. This suggests a positive reception of
oleotourism in the region. However, 33% of respondents who had not engaged in such
activities cited a lack of awareness and interest. This highlights the importance of
promoting and raising awareness about oleotourism experiences to attract a broader
audience.
The motivations driving involvement in oleotourism revealed a diverse range of
interests. Participants were driven to learn about olive culture, explore the region,
experience regional gastronomy, and engage in creative experiences. These moti-
vations align with the unique offerings of oleotourism, such as the opportunity to
immerse in local culture and heritage. Stakeholders need to emphasise and promote
these aspects to attract more participants.
The Importance-Satisfaction Analysis (ISA) matrix provided valuable insights
into the perceived importance and satisfaction levels of various attributes related to
oleotourism in the TTM region. The analysis revealed that while some attributes
received high importance ratings, their satisfaction levels were comparatively lower.
This discrepancy signals areas for improvement and development, such as enhancing
the quality of service and the value for price. By addressing these issues, tourism
stakeholders can increase overall customer satisfaction and retain a loyal customer
base.
11 Importance–Performance Analysis of Oleotourism Experience 139

On the other hand, several attributes received high ratings in importance and
satisfaction levels, indicating areas of strength in the oleotourism experience. The new
culture, gastronomy, endogenous products, cleaning, landscape, and infrastructures
were recognised as key strengths of the destination. Leveraging these attributes can
enhance the destination’s appeal and reputation among potential visitors.
It is worth mentioning that the ISA matrix offers a continuous evaluation and
enhancement tool. By periodically revaluating the importance and satisfaction
levels of the analysed attributes, tourism stakeholders can identify changing pref-
erences and evolving priorities among tourists. This dynamic approach allows for
targeted improvements and strategic developments, ensuring the destination remains
attractive and competitive in the evolving tourism market.

11.6 Conclusions

The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the motivating factors behind
the choice of oleotourism destinations in the TTM region. By understanding the
preferences and needs of the target audience, tourism stakeholders can enhance the
overall oleotourism experience and develop strategic offerings tailored to diverse
interests. The ISA matrix is a valuable tool for continuous evaluation and improve-
ment, guiding destination managers in making informed decisions to optimise the
tourist experience.
In conclusion, the sociodemographic and professional profiles of the oleotourism
participants and their motivations and experiences provide valuable insights for desti-
nation managers and policymakers. By understanding the preferences and needs of
the target audience, stakeholders can create tailored offerings that cater to diverse
interests and maximise overall customer satisfaction. The ISA matrix complements
this understanding by pinpointing areas of improvement and strengths in the desti-
nation’s offerings. By employing a continuous evaluation approach, tourism stake-
holders can stay ahead of evolving trends and maintain a successful and appealing
oleotourism destination in the TTM region.
The development of the oleotourism offer as a new form of tourism of the TTM
destination should be achieved by involving more stakeholders, creating a sense of
shared participation to spread knowledge about oleotourism, and sensitising to the
relevance of this business in the local context. Future work should be exercised in
this direction. As a limitation, this study shows the need to increase the structured
database and to establish more contacts with tourist organisations to obtain results
closer to reality and to obtain as accurate a version as possible of the tourism offer
of TTM.

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the UNIAG, R&D unit funded by the FCT—
Portuguese Foundation for the Development of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science, Tech-
nology, and Higher Education under Project no. UIDB/04752/2020; and to the project “OleaChain:
140 J. Ferreira et al.

Competências para a sustentabilidade e inovação da cadeia de valor do olival tradicional no Norte

Interior de Portugal” (NORTE-06-3559-FSE-000188).

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Chapter 12
Present and Future Digital Media
Experiences to Support Travellers’
Decision Process During Online
Accommodation Booking: A Systematic
Literature Review and Bibliometric
Analysis

Márcia Vaz , Paula Odete Fernandes , and Roberto Vaz

Abstract One of the key driving forces in tourism concerns the accommodation
provided to travellers. When planning a trip, it is common for voyagers to search for
relevant information about accommodation options through websites to decide which
one to book. Despite these allowing the evaluation of decisive factors, new avenues
of future research in the field are linked to immersive, interactive, and sensory-filled
experiences to support travellers in making their choice, provided by emerging digital
media such as virtual reality. This paper offers a comprehensive understanding of this
field’s development, highlights existing gaps, and proposes paths for future research
by systematizing different contributions of digital media to support travellers’ deci-
sion process during online accommodation booking. This article provides theoretical
and practical contributions to outline novel approaches to empower a new era of smart
tourism that enhances travellers’ experiences when searching for accommodations
and increases trusting intentions. From the analysis carried out, it was concluded that
academic research has only started to gain momentum since 2019 and that topics
related to new media are highly relevant to the field but still on a scarce scientific
development level. It was also concluded that accommodations preferentially use
three technological platforms to advertise their accommodations to users, including
traditional websites, mobile websites and virtual reality.

M. Vaz · P. O. Fernandes (B)

UNIAG—Applied Management Research Unit, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus Santa
Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Vaz
e-mail: [email protected]
R. Vaz
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 143
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_12
144 M. Vaz et al.

12.1 Introduction

The tourism industry is currently among the fastest-growing economic sectors [1],
expected to more than double the 2.7% estimated annual growth for the global
economy between 2022 and 2032, i.e. grow at an average annual rate of 5.8%.
During the planning of a trip, travellers look for services that can fulfil their desired
experiences, and one of the main challenges is finding accommodation that better
suits their needs [2]. Thus, having access to as much information as possible is crucial
to support their decision-making process, helping reduce doubts and uncertainties
[3].
Digital media have increasingly influenced this process, and their transforma-
tive power in the tourism industry over the last few decades is well known [4].
Online booking platforms (such as Booking, Expedia, Airbnb, Trivago, or Agoda)
are considered the most popular means to help tourists choose which accommodation
to book [2]. However, despite these conventional media allowing users to evaluate
several decisive factors, immersive, interactive, and sensory-filled experiences are
advocated to support travellers’ choices further [5]. Technologies such as virtual,
augmented, and mixed reality are identified as having the potential to become an
integral part of the communication strategy of many hotel providers, facilitating that
prospective clients can live immersive, interactive, and sensory experiences in estab-
lishments before their stay, allowing them enhanced perception of these spaces and
constructing more informed decisions before booking an accommodation [6].
Several authors argue that the fact that customers can access virtual experiences in
ways more proximate to reality can have positive implications in managing travellers’
expectations and in the satisfaction felt regarding the accommodation spaces [2–7].
Examples of potential combinations of multisensory stimuli applied in particular
cases of tourism industry services include vision, hearing, touch, movement, gusta-
tory, and olfactory suggestions, enabling the development of rich mental images [7,
8]. Although these technologies’ contributions have raised a growing interest, the
work carried out in this area is mainly conceptual so far [7].
This research aims to deepen the understanding of the state of the art in this
field by answering the following research question: “in what ways can digital
media support travellers’ decision process during online accommodation booking?”
Notably, it seeks to organize the scientific knowledge produced to understand new
media’s multiple contributions in supporting travellers’ decision process during
online accommodation booking concerning: (i) technologies used to communi-
cate the accommodations; (ii) information provided; (iii) immersive, interactive,
and sensory experiences offered; and (iv) factors supporting the travellers’ decision
process. The next section provides a brief theoretical background of the impacts of
different digital media on the sector, followed by detailing the methodology, data
gathering, and data analysis for conducting the research. It proceeds with the presen-
tation and discussion of the results. The last section regards the presentation of
the main conclusions and contributions introduced by this study to the field, some
limitations, and suggestions for new research directions.
12 Present and Future Digital Media Experiences to Support Travellers’ … 145

12.2 Theoretical Background

Innovations in the digital sphere are primarily linked to the Internet and mobile
communications advancements, the emergence of robust computer systems, and the
massive use of smart devices, which have led to more effective operational processes,
cost reduction, improved services, and new customer experience possibilities [9].
Due to the ease of access to information, price comparison, and time convenience of
online platforms, websites became preferred engines that promote clients’ purchasing
intentions [10]. However, although consumers look for key information during the
online booking process, such as facilities, contact, and availability [11], they lack
physical contact with places, sellers, and their products. Therefore, customers tend to
be more suspicious in these environments and, consequently, more demanding [12].
Online trust (e-trust) is an essential issue for the sector since the accommodation
industry is entirely based on the excellence of customer service to generate satis-
faction and trust, which allows for sustaining long-term relationships. That said, it
shows imperative why advances concerning new media have been moving towards
reducing the feeling of distance between the consumer and the service provider,
intending to increase trust and effective recognition [13]. Consumers have been
increasingly looking for innovative digital experiences, products, and services that
offer integrated and immersive environments capable of delivering real scenarios
and sensations through digital means [14], allowing them to virtually experience
intangible elements linked to touristic places and several related aspects [6]. As a
result, virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) technologies can contribute
to leveraging future directions at commercial and economic levels [6], with positive
effects expected, particularly for the tourism industry. These offer new possibili-
ties to transform the presentation and communication of hotel-related information,
providing the consumer with experiences similar to reality through immersive and
interactive environments in some cases [15].
Given that VR can provide a complete pictorial representation of accommoda-
tion facilities, it is expected to reduce consumers’ fears inherent to their reservation
processes since they can familiarize themselves with the unknown before making a
final reservation decision [16]. Additionally, AR technology differentiates from VR
by enabling access to additional layers of information induced by digital systems,
such as images or other stimulating sensory cues, into the real-world environment
[17]. In other words, AR allows users to access new information contextualized with
the physical environments where they are and virtually experience and interact with
them, as it creates a sense of alternative presence [15].
The metaverse, another crucial technological advancement, consists of a collec-
tive and interactive parallel reality to construct a digital universe of options, having
the potential to take advantage of new perspectives capable of adapting to an ever-
evolving travel environment [5]. In this way, the hospitality and tourism industry
can create new scenarios for increasing and supporting the customers’ travel expe-
rience, as there appears to be immense potential and a hype moment related to this
implementation [14].
146 M. Vaz et al.

Through new digital media, users can interact with the environment in ways
that the dividing line between the real and virtual worlds becomes invisible [15].
In contrast to traditional web platforms, the user has not only an external point of
view in these virtual worlds but also becomes the centre of the presentation where
the entertainment takes place. Consumers can have opportunities to make informed
decisions based on sensory experiences, visual effects, innovation, and emotional
appeal, allowing them enhanced access to perceived accommodation spaces before
completing a final reservation [18].

12.3 Methodology

A hybrid methodology was followed to achieve the study’s aims while offering
an unbiased overview of existing information, combining a systematic literature
review and bibliometric analysis. Firstly, an initial exploratory literature search was
performed to gain a broad overview of the most common terminology linked to the
issue under research. Then, the PRISMA guidelines were followed to perform the
systematic literature review [19]. The analysis of the bibliometric data was performed
using the Biblioshiny application from Bibliometrix R-tool [20], complemented with
the VOSviewer tool [21] to construct and visualize the bibliometric networks during
the screening stage of the gathered records.
The records identification took place in March of 2023 by querying the Web of
Science (WoS) database using the search string: TOPIC (“technolog*” OR “online”
OR “virtual”) AND (“accomodat*” OR “hotel”) AND (“booking” OR “purchase”)
AND (“decis*” OR “intent*”). The number of records resulting from this iden-
tification process was 484, and none were duplicated, so no records were removed
during this stage. Next, the following inclusion criteria were applied for screening the
records: (i) peer-reviewed articles; (ii) published in English; (iii) from the categories
of economics, hospitality leisure sport tourism, management, business, computer
science information systems, computer science interdisciplinary applications, soci-
ology, operations research management science, social sciences interdisciplinary, and
computer science artificial intelligence. No time limitation was applied for screening
the records. The resulting sample comprised 319 records submitted to the VOSviewer
tool for creating bibliometric networks based on the bibliographic coupling by docu-
ments technique, without a minimum number of citations, which coupled 315 records
into 4 clusters and excluded 4 records. Given that the network results obtained with
the analytical process allowed concluding that the topic under research is relatively
new and understudied, it was decided to proceed with the manual selection of the
records based on their titles and abstracts. During this screening stage, 245 records
were excluded, resulting in 70 reports sought for retrieval. Since it was not possible to
retrieve 13 reports, 57 reports were assessed for eligibility, which encompassed their
complete reading. During their reading, 45 reports were excluded for not meeting the
research objectives and not responding to the research question. Finally, the study
12 Present and Future Digital Media Experiences to Support Travellers’ … 147

screening included 12 reports (concerning 12 studies) as the final sample, which

were analysed in depth.

12.4 Results

12.4.1 Bibliometric Analysis

During the bibliometric analysis, it was considered the 319 screened records as the
sample. Descriptive statistics were produced to understand the scientific production
performance over time and the primary sources associated. Additionally, the thematic
evolution on the subject was studied based on the records’ keywords, and the thematic
map with the respective clusters was analysed.
Scientific Production. Figure 12.1 presents the yearly distribution of scientific
production of the sample. The first publication on this subject was in 2004, and
scientific productivity was essentially non-existent until the end of 2014 (6.3% of
total contributions). The publication performance improved by 21.6% between 2015
and 2018, but it was from 2019 onwards that the volume of scientific publications
started to increase on the WoS, i.e. 71.5%. Concerning 2023, it is stressed that the
number of publications (n = 11) encompasses only records published until March.
The growing interest in this scientific subject in the last four years is clearly evidenced
by the gathered data, meaning that the annual growth rate of publications was 13.5%,
with an average record citation of 26.
Moreover, the screened scientific production regards 831 authors from 52 coun-
tries. Its analysis revealed that China (n = 184) and the USA (n = 183) are the two
countries with higher scientific production in this field, representing almost half of
the global performance, i.e. 48.9%, followed by India (n = 39), the UK (n = 36),
South Korea (n = 31), Spain (n = 29), and Portugal (n = 24). Despite the highlighted
country’s scientific production, it is essential to mention that the USA (n = 2244),

Fig. 12.1 Yearly evolution of the scientific production on digital media use during online
accommodation booking
148 M. Vaz et al.

China (n = 2074), Australia (n = 982), Korea (n = 543), and Spain (n = 406) occupy
the top 5 nations with most cited records at the time of this study.
Main Sources of the Screened Scientific Records. Table 12.1 organizes the ten
sources with more publications in the field under analysis, the corresponding number
of citations and the impact factor. Concerning the three most influential sources, The
International Journal of Hospitality Management (impact factor of 11.7) is the one
with both more publications (n = 40) and cited articles (n = 1306). The second most
cited source is Tourism Management, with 1199 citations, although only 13 articles
were published on this subject, and also the journal with the higher impact factor
(12.7). The third most cited source is the International Journal of Contemporary
Hospitality Management (n = 573), with 18 articles published in this area and an
impact factor of 11.1.
Thematic Evolution. Figure 12.2 presents the thematic evolution of the field for
the three timeframes previously concluded as most representatives of the distribu-
tion of scientific production. From its analysis, the four clusters in the first period
inform it focused mainly on hospitality, e-complaints, hotels, and advanced booking
topics. The period 2015–2018 represents a significant milestone for evolving into
twelve thematic clusters linked to ewom, tourism, online travel agency, hospitality,
online booking, booking intention, purchase intentions, e-trust, hotel booking, hotel,
consumer behaviour, and price. During the last time period considered, a lower
number of clusters can be concluded (n = 9), where online reviews represent about
half of the research conducted, followed by Airbnb, online booking, service quality,
and hotel booking. Moreover, four residual clusters linked to hotels, experimental
design, machine learning, and virtual reality emerged during this period, highlighting
the need for research focused on these themes.

Table 12.1 Top 10 of the sources with the most impact concerning the screened records
Source Publications (n) Citations (n) Impact factor
Int. Journal of Hospitality Management 40 1306 11.7
Int. Journal of Contemporary Hospitality 18 573 11.1
Management
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism 14 8 4.7
Technology
Tourism Management 13 1199 12.7
Sustainability 13 78 3.9
Journal of Hospitality Marketing and 9 7 9.8
Management
Cornell Hospitality Quarterly 7 227 3.5
Journal of Travel Research 7 321 8.9
Information Technology and Tourism 6 32 9.3
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism 6 28 4.2
Research
12 Present and Future Digital Media Experiences to Support Travellers’ … 149

Fig. 12.2 Diagram of the thematic evolution of the screened records between 2004 and 2023

Thematic Map. The thematic map plotted using the authors’ keywords from
the screened documents is presented in Fig. 12.3. This strategic diagram allows
the visualization of the network’s architecture in terms of centrality and density
of the existing research, presenting 14 clusters organized in four quadrants: motor
themes, basic themes, niche themes, and emerging or declining themes. Through its
analysis, it is possible to conclude that one cluster, including themes related to risk,
loyalty, and mobile booking, represents the motor themes that have been central to this
research field’s progress. On the other hand, the five clusters in the upper-left quadrant
present well-developed themes but with marginal relevance to the field under study.
These relate, respectively, to consumer behaviour, business travellers, and intention;
advertising, expertise, and gender; ewom, experience and travel vlogs; hotel revenue
management and decision support systems; and hotel performance. Additionally, two
clusters located in the lower-left quadrant of the figure indicate both low development
and low relevance of themes, which can convey declining themes or potentially ones
to turn into emerging themes for the development of this field of research. These
clusters relate to machine learning and online travel agents. Finally, the lower-right
quadrant of the thematic map presents six clusters with high relevance degrees to
the field but which present low development, concerning essentially themes linked
to: TripAdvisor, Booking, and nationality; satisfaction, Airbnb, and attitude; online
reviews, social media, and hospitality; online booking, website quality, and e-trust;
virtual reality and mental imagery; and Covid-19.
150 M. Vaz et al.

Fig. 12.3 Thematic map with the characterization of the 14 clusters resulting from the screened
records

12.4.2 Systematic Literature Review Based on Content

Analysis

Aiming to support the systematization of the results, Table 12.2 presents the main
findings about the technologies used to communicate the accommodations, the
primary information linked to the accommodations, and the experiences provided.
Concerning the technologies used to communicate the accommodations, 58.3%
of the studies focused on websites (n = 4), mobile websites (n = 2), and both mobile
and traditional websites (n = 1). In these cases, it was addressed the diverse effects
on the customers’ booking intention when providing them information through text
and pictures (n = 5) and solely through pictures [29]. The remaining study does not
provide any information about this subject. On the other hand, five studies (41.7%)
used virtual reality during the accommodation booking process to provide immersive
experiences in hotel rooms, hotel lobbies, restaurant rooms, and spa treatment rooms,
among other facilities [3, 7, 18]. Additionally, one work [27] explored the use of VR
commercials, and [28] researched the influence of providing short VR clips with
tours of the accommodation.
Among the experiences enabled through using the different technologies, it is
concluded that all studies focused mainly on providing visual information linked
to accommodation facilities, i.e. in the form of texts, images or videos. However,
research has regarded textual and pictorial visual information with haptic cues to
cause haptic sensations in end users [26]. Furthermore, booking experiences on
mobile and traditional websites were highlighted as interactive, and several authors
studied the influence of usability, graphic design, and user experience design on
12 Present and Future Digital Media Experiences to Support Travellers’ … 151

Table 12.2 Systematization of the main features of studies included in the systematic review
Authors | Technologies Accommodations’ information Experiences
Data used provided
source
(country/
region)
Li et al. Website Text; pictures Interaction with
[13] | website; visual
China information
Tao et al. Mobile website Text; pictures Interaction with
[22] | mobile apps; visual
China; information
Pakistan
Israel et al. Virtual reality 360° panoramic images (e.g. lobby, Immersive and
[3] | (VR) restaurant, room, beach of the hotel); interactive
Germany Hot-spot navigation interface to access experiences; visual
points of interest information
Wong et al. Mobile website Text; pictures Interaction with the
[23] | mobile website;
China; visual information
Taiwan
Essawy Website Text; pictures Interaction with
[24] | website; visual
Egypt information
Sulistyo Website No data (n/d) Interaction with
and websites; visual
Pranata information
[25] |
Indonesia
Lv et al. Website Text with haptic cues; pictorial haptic Visual information
[26] | cures to cause haptic
China; sensations
USA
Leung Virtual reality VR commercials; traditional Immersive
et al. [27] | (VR) commercials (video) experiences; visual
USA; information
China
Yoon et al. Virtual reality VR short clips (e.g. room tour, spa Immersive
[28] | USA (VR) treatment rooms, outdoor and scenic experiences; visual
views, golf courses, and beachfront) information
Joe et al. Website; Mobile Pictures Visual information
[29] | USA; websites
Republic
of Korea
(continued)
152 M. Vaz et al.

Table 12.2 (continued)

Authors | Technologies Accommodations’ information Experiences
Data used provided
source
(country/
region)
McLean Virtual reality 360º VR tour Immersive
and (VR) experiences; visual
Barhorst information
[7] | UK;
USA
Surovaya Virtual reality 360° panoramic images of hotel rooms Immersive
et al. [18] | (VR) experiences; visual
New information
Zeland;
Australia

customers’ perceptions when using these digital platforms. Lastly, research devel-
oped on virtual reality technologies suggests it enables immersive experiences for
travellers while making reservation decisions. Although most of the analysed articles
did not provide users’ interaction with the virtual world, the interface presented in
some research allowed some interactivity by enabling the virtual navigation to some
pre-programmed hot spots [3].
Regarding the factors influencing the consumers’ decision process when using
traditional websites, usability and ease of use play vital roles in impacting signif-
icantly e-trust and online booking intentions of consumers [25]. Moreover, the
appealing design of information has been shown to impact customers’ emotional
states positively, fostering positive booking intentions [24], and the entertainment
provided and visual effects presented in dynamic web interfaces seem to demand
higher levels of customers’ attention than static contents [13, 24]. For designing
the information to present to the target audiences of accommodation places, it is
suggested that using vivid haptic cues such as text descriptions, high-definition
images, or more immersive settings plays an important role in mental imagery,
helping deliver sensations related to haptic experiences. In this sense, situations
with positive and negative haptic cues increased and decreased participants’ willing-
ness to book accommodations, respectively [26]. Furthermore, [29] concluded that
including photographs of persons in the images promoted by hotels enriches poten-
tial clients’ imagination of interacting with other guests upon arrival at the hotel,
ultimately contributing to engaging customers more successfully and fostering their
booking intentions.
Concerning the influence of digital media on the accommodation booking decision
process, mobile apps’ interfaces designed to be intuitive, responsive, practical, and
present simple visual information can facilitate hotel booking and foster customer
loyalty, given their convenience [22, 23]. Virtual reality interfaces, on the other hand,
enable the sense of immersion and telepresence among users, influencing their hotel
12 Present and Future Digital Media Experiences to Support Travellers’ … 153

selection process through emotional, memorable, and vivid mental imagery related
to hotel environments. These media induce consumers to a more comprehensive
pictorial representation of the accommodation spaces, which contributes to devel-
oping “realistic expectations that are met following a stay at the hotel” [7] (p. 1245).
Additionally, the sense of telepresence and the emotional connections created posi-
tively affect the perceptions of hotel service quality, increasing the booking intention
of customers [3, 28]. Moreover, the architectural and interior design arrangement
of VR rooms influence customers’ emotional responses and whether they perceived
the hotel as luxurious and stylish, offering quality food and having clean premises
[18]. On a cognitive level, users can remember hotel features longer than ones who
only watch pictures or videos, revealing its potential to stimulate mental imagery and
more vivid experiences [7]. Furthermore, accommodation managers should consider
making use of VR commercials to catch potential clients’ attention close to the time
when they are making their reservations, given its efficiency in influencing customers’
immediate decisions, and it is crucial to strategically embed the hotel brand name in
every detail to catch customers’ attention, increase their brand recall in the long turn
and allow potential clients little cognitive effort to elaborate on the communicated
information [27].

12.5 Concluding Remarks, Limitations, and Future Work

This research sets out to conduct a bibliometric and systematic literature review
about the contributions of using digital media to support travellers’ decision process
during online accommodation booking.
From the conducted bibliometric analysis, it was concluded that academic research
only started to gain traction from 2019 onwards, and recent research started to focus
on online reviews, online booking platforms, and service quality, while only a small
fraction of studies related to immersive technologies, machine learning, and experi-
mental design. Themes linked to virtual reality, mental imagery, online booking, e-
trust, website quality, satisfaction, attitudes, online reviews, social media, and hospi-
tality showed high relevance to the field but presented low development degrees.
These results stress the pertinence of the conducted study, especially concerning
understanding the diverse effects that different media induce on users’ effective
perceptions of accommodations, how they affect e-trust, their booking intentions,
and, ultimately, the booking decision.
Three types of technology platforms to communicate accommodations to users
were concluded from the systematic literature review: traditional websites, mobile
websites, and virtual reality. In the case of websites, the information presented to
travellers mainly regards pictures of the establishments and text to convey important
information. However, it was concluded that clients’ e-trust, booking intentions,
and, consequently, the overall decision process are influenced by factors linked
to usability, ease of use, high-quality information, entertainment, visual effects,
and haptic cues they can access when interacting with websites of accommodation
154 M. Vaz et al.

providers. On the other hand, intuitive, responsive, easy-to-use, and well-designed

user interfaces were concluded to benefit the user experience during mobile hotel
booking and, thus, contribute to fostering customer loyalty. Despite the identified
lack of research concerning the impacts of VR on the customers’ booking intention,
this technology enables experiencing immersive and interactive scenarios, stimu-
lating the sense of telepresence and vivid mental imagery. It offers customers new
ways of developing realistic expectations than other digital media while being more
emotionally appealing and increasing their booking intentions.
Based on these results, it is suggested that future research should focus on deep-
ening the practical understanding of the multiple impacts introduced by the adoption
of immersive media to support travellers’ decision process during online accom-
modation booking. Furthermore, providing sensory cues to enhance customers’
virtual experiences related to accommodation places is also a critical subject for
future research, especially concerning the implications of augmenting the experience
through multisensory information (i.e. sound, smell, touch, and gustatory, apart from
vision). Additionally, although the metaverse is stressed as expected to be the next
technological hype for the hospitality and tourism industry, the conducted research
did not find any work developed in this field to support customers’ decision process
during online accommodation booking. Given this reason, it is also crucial that future
research focus on this particular technological field to understand how it is perceived
and accepted by end users aiming to book accommodations. Equally important would
be to comprehend how hospitality providers can position themselves through these
new digital market opportunities and how cultural venues surrounding these places
can contribute to dialoguing with travellers and foster their intentions to visit them
during their stays.
Several limitations of this research should also be acknowledged. Despite the
reduction in the unconscious bias deriving from a systematic review, compared
to non-systematic reviews, this methodology presents several limitations. The
screening process was limited to the records found exclusively in one database (Web
of Science). Although recognized as one of the most comprehensive in tourism
economics science-related topics, it is not exhaustive, meaning that some rele-
vant publications covered by other databases were not included in this research.
Additionally, the carefully discussed and selected search terms can also introduce
bias to the data collection process and, therefore, to the systematic review, so the
followed methodology cannot be understood as covering the field of study analysis
exhaustively. Future research studies could follow the same methodology but use
other databases and broader inclusion criteria during the records screening to draw
state-of-the-art conclusions in this particular field.
Nevertheless, this study’s findings can be used as a starting point for further
researchers and are believed to offer new insights and practical knowledge that can
benefit managers, travel agencies, digital transformation agencies, other academics,
and policymakers. Hopefully, this article will contribute to the emergence of new
studies in this field and serve as a reference for future research.
12 Present and Future Digital Media Experiences to Support Travellers’ … 155

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the FCT Portugal for financial support by national
funds FCT/MCTES to UNIAG, under Project n. UIDB/04752/2020 and UIDP/04752/2020.

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Chapter 13
Motivating Factors in Choosing a Wine
Tourism Destination and Its Impact
on Territorial Marketing Policies

Adriano Costa, Teresa Felgueira, and Ana Adegra

Abstract Assessing the level of tourist satisfaction is essential to understand which

policies to adopt by the territory to attract and retain tourists. Thus, the present inves-
tigation has as its main objective to identify which factors are considered impor-
tant by wine tourists and which characterise a certain territory and which may lead
to satisfaction and, consequently, to the loyalty of this type of tourist. The study
was based on the theory of push and pull motivations, but specifically pull moti-
vations. The methodology was based on the application of a survey to a sample of
185 tourists/visitors who visited the Municipality of S. João da Pesqueira—Douro
Region, Portugal. The results show that the factors that most contribute to the satis-
faction of the wine tourist are the Reputation of the Region and the Offer of Wine
Tourism Activities. Satisfaction, in turn, is a variable that influences loyalty, which
can be demonstrated in different ways, that is, through repeating the destination or
recommending it.

13.1 Introduction

The decision-making process that leads to the choice of a tourist destination is a

pressing issue that many researchers consider as a relevant subject of study. But the
success of a tourist destination necessarily relies on the knowledge of tourists’ moti-
vations and on the understanding of how these motivations can influence satisfaction
and thus lead to loyalty to the destination [1–3]. Therefore, it is important for the
development of tourism and, in particular, wine tourism, to know how this choice

A. Costa (B) · T. Felgueira

Instituto Politécnico da Guarda/CITUR/UDI, Guarda, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
T. Felgueira
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Adegra
Instituto Politécnico da Guarda/UDI, Guarda, Portugal

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 157
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_13
158 A. Costa et al.

process develops. As we know, changes in behaviour can be related to motivations.

Hence, it is essential to know them.
Traveller motivations are also influenced by the rules that guide the consumption
habits of the time in which they live. Because of this, many studies are focused on
understanding the motivations of tourists in specific niches, such as golfers [4], cruise
travellers [5], adventure tourists [6], wellness tourists [7], divers [8] and wine tourists
[9].
These different behaviours can be related to motivation, which is an altered state
that leads to behaviour directed towards a specific goal, i.e. it is the starting point of
the consumer decision-making process and an important construct for understanding
tourist behaviour [10].
For Klenosky [11] the motivation underlying tourism behaviour is understood
by the Push and Pull theory, which provides a simple and intuitive approach to this
matter. This theory was investigated by Dann [12, 13] and has been studied and
developed by several authors over the past decades.
Dann [13] considers as push factors the motives or forces that guide the decision
to make a trip, while pull factors are forces generated by the destination and the
knowledge that tourists hold about a destination and that lead them to choose one
destination over the other, once the decision to travel has been made. Thus, these
factors are considered more decisive in explaining tourist motivation.
Push is associated with the tourist’s need to get out of their natural environment,
to get out of the routine, to relax in a holiday destination. Its “pushes” the tourist
out of the house. Pull factors, on the other hand, are characteristics, attractions and
attributes of the tourist destination, which attract the tourist to travel, such as, for
example, beach, culture, history, facilities for families, that is, what “pulls” him [13].
These two factors are interlinked by the concept of emotion, since they are more
related to personal issues or desires of travellers.
In this sense, it can be seen that the Push and Pull theory presents determining
factors for tourism, since tourist motivation is essential for understanding tourist
behaviour. It is therefore essential to know what drives people to a particular desti-
nation and, in this case, we are talking about internal motivations, also called push
motivations and, on the other hand, what the destination offers to attract people
to it, and in this case, we are talking about external motivations, also called pull
motivations. The latter are the focus of this study.
As tourism is a constantly evolving and increasingly common activity, there is
an interest in the study of the theme combined with the Douro region, recognised
as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, with the aim of identifying which factors are
considered important by tourists/tourists, which characterise a particular territory
and which may lead to satisfaction and consequently loyalty to that destination.
The identification of these factors will be fundamental to outline the best territorial
marketing strategies to apply to the territory, Municipality of São João da Pesqueira,
in order to create and structure the anchor tourism product for this region located in
the Alto Douro Vi-nhateiro (Wine Tourism).
13 Motivating Factors in Choosing a Wine Tourism Destination and Its … 159

13.2 Literature Review

In this research the literature review will focus predominantly on the concepts of
Territorial Marketing, Wine Tourism, Motivations, Satisfaction and Loyalty.

13.2.1 Territorial Marketing and Its Application to Wine

Tourism

Territorial marketing is an approach that aims to promote and strengthen the identity
and attributes of a particular region in order to attract visitors, investors and enhance
local socio-economic development [14, 15].
Territorial marketing emerges as a response to the challenges faced by regions
seeking to stand out in a global competitive landscape [16]. It is based on the valori-
sation of the natural, cultural, historical and gastronomic resources of a territory, as
well as on the construction of a positive image that arouses the interest and curiosity
of different audiences [17]. The main objective is to create an attractive perception of
the region, whether for potential tourists, investors or for the establishment of compa-
nies and talents [16–18]. The territorial marketing strategy is essential to improve
the attractiveness of the place, position it and promote it in a global scenario of a
competitive economy, and therefore an inseparable tool of the identity of a territory
[19]. For this, it is important to look for differentiating elements that will reflect the
identity character of the territory.
To implement territorial marketing effectively, strategic planning is needed that
involves the collaboration of various local actors, including government authorities,
entrepreneurs, associations and communities [20, 21]. The synergy between these
agents is essential to develop an authentic and consistent value proposition that
highlights the particularities of the region and makes it unique in the context of wine
tourism.
One of the most successful aspects of territorial marketing is its application to
wine tourism, a form of tourism based on visiting wine-producing regions, providing
a unique experience to visitors, who can appreciate the wine-growing environment,
get to know the local culture, taste wines and engage in activities related to the sector
[22].
Wine tourism has stood out as one of the fastest growing tourism activities in
several regions of the world. In addition to promoting the local economy by increasing
the flow of tourists, it also generates positive impacts in other areas, such as the
valorisation of wine production, the strengthening of local culture and traditions,
the creation of direct and indirect jobs and the promotion of tourism infrastructure
[23, 24].
Wine regions, in addition to being wine production spaces, become real tourist
attractions, offering visitors the opportunity to learn about the entire production
160 A. Costa et al.

process, from the cultivation of grapes to the elaboration of wine, followed by tast-
ings that enrich the experience. At the same time, wine tourism contributes to the
promotion of environmental awareness, as many wineries have adopted sustainable
practices in their production [25].
The application of territorial marketing to wine tourism is thus a powerful strategy
to position a region in the tourism market, highlighting its qualities and differentials
in the wine sector [26], hence it can be concluded that territorial marketing and wine
tourism are closely related concepts. Some marketing actions and tools are especially
relevant in this context and pointed out by several authors [22–25]:
i. Identity of the region: It is essential to develop a unique and authentic identity
for the region, emphasising its cultural, historical and natural values. This can be
achieved through careful territorial brand management, which encompasses the
creation of a logo, slogans and other visual elements that represent the essence
of the destination;
ii. Tourist itineraries: The elaboration of tourist itineraries that encompass various
wine farms and other points of interest in the region is fundamental to offer
visitors complete and enriching experiences;
iii. Events and festivals: The promotion of wine-related events and festivals, such
as wine fairs, harvest festivals, oenological competitions, among others, can
attract a diverse audience and strengthen the image of the region as a wine
tourism destination;
iv. Digital marketing and social media: The efficient use of digital platforms and
social media is indispensable to reach a wider and more segmented audience,
promoting the region and wine tourism experiences;
v. Partnerships and co-operation: The union between the different local agents,
such as wineries, hotels, restaurants and tourism agencies, is crucial to create
attractive tourist packages and offer an integrated experience to visitors.
Wine tourism can be seen as a component of territorial marketing as it contributes
to the promotion and development of wine-producing regions. By highlighting the
wine-related assets of the region, wine tourism can attract tourists and generate
economic benefits for local communities, as well as increase the international
reputation and visibility of the region [22, 23, 25, 26].
Thus, by incorporating wine tourism into territorial marketing strategies, wine
regions can create a unique competitive advantage that differentiates them from
other destinations, increases their attractiveness and promotes the sustainable devel-
opment of a wine region’s tourism. By promoting the identity and unique attributes
of the destination, wine tourism attracts visitors seeking enriching and authentic
experiences, strengthening the local economy and enhancing regional culture and
traditions. Collaboration between the various local actors and the efficient use of
marketing tools, both traditional and digital, are key to the success of this initiative.
13 Motivating Factors in Choosing a Wine Tourism Destination and Its … 161

13.2.2 Motivations

Tourist motivation is a topic that has been explored by both academia and the tourism
industry, as its knowledge allows answering important questions, such as: what do
tourists want and why? [27].
However, the study of motivation is quite complex, as each person has different
reasons to consume products and services. Experience, lifestyle, personality and the
image an individual wants to project can lead to different consumer motivations.
Thus, many of the studies presented seek to conceptualise tourist motivation based
on the social and psychological factors that motivate or create the desire to travel
[10, 12, 28–35]. Thus, it appears that the study of this theme has focused on a set
of basic theories, namely the Travel Needs Model, which includes the Travel Career
Ladder (TCL) and Travel Career Patterns (TCP), the Socio-Psychological Model of
Tourist Motivations, Plog’s Psychocentrism and Allocentrism Model, the Functional
Theory of Attitudes and the Push and Pull Theory.
In this context, Dann [12, 13] and Crompton [36] understand that tourist motiva-
tion can be broken down into two motivational factors: push factors and pull factors.
He considers as push factors the motives or forces that guide the decision to make
a trip, while pull factors are forces generated by the destination and the knowledge
that tourists have about the destination and that lead them to choose one destination
over the other, after the decision to travel has been made.
Thus, the present study focused on the study of pull factors, which are associ-
ated with the destination itself, that is, what attracts the tourist to travel to it [13,
36]. Authors such as Kim et al. [37] present pull factors as forces that influence
tourists/enotourists to choose the destination based on its characteristics and partic-
ularities. These factors are largely conditioned by people’s perception of their needs
and whether they will be met [38].

13.2.3 Satisfaction

The quality of tourism products/services offered in a tourist destination has a great

influence on the overall satisfaction of tourists [39]. Thus, tourist destinations must
provide customers with a high level of satisfaction, which is only possible through
the sale of quality services [40].
According to Lestari and Likumahua [41], customer satisfaction is defined as the
level of happiness or regret obtained by a person when comparing the expectations
of the purchased product with the original product. Therefore, customer satisfaction
is one of the fundamental aspects in the management of any business, as it compares
the evaluation of the consumer’s expectations of a particular product or brand, with
the actual quality of the product or brand [42]. Thus, satisfaction is a fundamental
variable for attracting and maintaining customers.
162 A. Costa et al.

13.2.4 Loyalty

In many investigations, different terminologies have been used for the concept of
loyalty. Thus, in some of these investigations the word loyalty appears, in others
loyalty. As stated by Rivas et al. [3], loyalty and fidelity are two sides of the same
coin, which safely provides good results for both parties, such as increased consumer
satisfaction and increased profitability of organisations, and it is therefore desirable
to establish exchanges between the parties involved.
To create loyalty to a destination, service or brand is to get our customers to realise
that it is the best or only acceptable alternative [3].
Thus, the concept of loyalty should be considered as a multidimensional concept
that includes aspects related to behaviour (repeat purchase) as well as elements
related to attitude (customer referral and positive word of mouth). Therefore, the use
of a composite measure increases the predictive power of the construct, since each
cross-variable validates the nature of a true loyalty relationship [43].

13.3 Methodology

The methodology used was based on a literature review on the concepts of Territorial
Marketing, Wine Tourism, Motivations, Satisfaction and Loyalty.
The sampling process was non-probabilistic or directed. The target population
consisted of all visitors/tourists in the region under study, who were asked to respond
to an online survey, which was made available via social networks, namely Facebook,
WhatsApp and visitors’ e-mail addresses. The surveys were collected from March to
November 2022. The construction of the questionnaire was based on scales resulting
from a review of the literature on pull motives [9, 44, 45], satisfaction [9, 46] and
loyalty [9, 46]. The data was processed using SPSS, version 27.0.
The questionnaire was divided into three parts: a first part related to the respon-
dents’ holidays, a second part on their motivations, level of satisfaction and loyalty to
the destination and a third part on the classification of socio-demographic variables.
A total of 185 surveys were carried out and analysed in terms of their different
questions.

13.4 Results

The analysis of results begins with a description of the sample in terms of socio-
demographic variables. In terms of gender, there is a predominance of females with
64% of respondents. Regarding age, the largest age group is between 35 and 34
years old with 37%. Regarding educational qualifications, about 80% have a post-
secondary education. With regard to the country of residence, it appears that most of
13 Motivating Factors in Choosing a Wine Tourism Destination and Its … 163

the respondents reside in Portugal, namely 88%. It is also noteworthy that of these
residents in Portugal most of them come from the districts of Viseu (33.5%), Porto
(18.9%) and Lisbon (13.5%) (Table 13.1).
Taking into account that the psychographic characteristics of the tourist can influ-
ence the level of satisfaction and consequently the level of loyalty to a particular
destination or to products of that destination, we chose to make a brief character-
isation of this tourist. Thus, the following variables were identified: frequency of
holidays (weekends), number of repeat visits, type of accommodation, length of
stay, period of anticipation of booking and with whom they are spending holidays.
From the data analysis we can conclude that 97.8% of the respondents’ holiday
4 or more days. In addition, about 42% say they take four or more short breaks
(weekends). It is also noteworthy that most people do not book their holidays in
advance (42.2%). Regarding the length of stay in the region, on average people think
they will stay 5.90 days. The average spending per person in the region is e284.98.
These expenses are related to accommodation, food, transport and souvenirs and

Table 13.1 Demographic characterisation of the sample

Variable N %
Gender Male 67 36
Female 118 64
Total 185 100
Age groups 18–24 years old 28 15
25–34 years old 68 37
35–44 years old 36 19
45–54 years olds 29 16
55–64 years old 18 10
≥65 years old 6 3
Total 185 100
Academic qualifications Basic education 2 1
Secondary education 36 19
Post-secondary education 147 80
Total 185 100
Country of residency Portugal 163 88
Outros 22 12
Total 185 100
District of residence Viseu 62 34
Porto 35 19
Lisboa 25 13
Outros 63 34
Total 185 100,0
164 A. Costa et al.

other expenses. It should also be noted that respondents generally travel with their
partner.
It should also be noted that about 92% of respondents have already visited the
Douro wine region.
Next, we sought to know the importance attributed to the different items taken
into account to assess the pull motivations of this type of tourist.
From the analysis of Table 13.2 we can conclude that the items most valued by
this type of tourists are: Beautiful landscape, Good value for money and Calm and
Quiet Region, being also among those with the least variability.
In the opposite direction, i.e. the least valued, we can indicate the items Offer
of wine courses and Region with lively nightlife, which also present the greatest
variability.
Taking into account that the psychographic characteristics of the tourist can influ-
ence the level of satisfaction and consequently the level of loyalty to a particular
destination or to products of that destination, we chose to make a brief character-
isation of this tourist. Thus, the following variables were identified: frequency of
holidays (weekends), number of repeat visits, type of accommodation, length of
stay, period of anticipation of booking and with whom they are spending holidays.
From the data analysis we can conclude that 97.8% of the respondents do a
principal component factor analysis of this set of items in order to find combinations
of variables (factors) that explain the correlations between all pairs of variables.
For the application and validation of this technique, it is necessary to evaluate the
correlations between the variables to know if it is legitimate to perform a factor
analysis.
The value of Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO = 0.937), which presents the value of
the measure of adequacy, considers the analysis to be of a very good level. Bartlett’s
test, which tests the null hypothesis that the correlation matrix is an identity matrix,
shows a value of 6178.598 and an associated probability of 0.000, which rejects the
null hypothesis that the correlation matrix is an identity matrix.
Using the Kaiser criterion (eigenvalue greater than 1), four factors were found
that explained 76.817% of the total variance in the set of 29 variables analysed. To
better interpret the factors, the axes were rotated using the varimax method. The
proportion of variance explained by the components remains constant, but is only
distributed differently in order to maximise the differences between the combinations
of variables: increasing those that contribute most to the formation of the factor and
decreasing the weights of those that contribute least.
The internal consistency of each factor was then analysed using Cronbach’s Alpha
(α). The α values range from 0 to 1 and the closer to 1, the greater the reliability
between the indicators. In this case, the first three factors present a strong internal
consistency (higher than 0.90) and the fourth factor presents a good level of internal
consistency (0.856).
Table 13.3 shows the weights of the variables in each factor. Thus, factor 1, which
we call “Offer of Wine Tourism Activities” (OWTA), is composed of 9 variables
and is the factor that contributes most to explaining the total variance (27.237%).
Factor 2 is related to the “Diversity of Entertainment and Accommodation” (DEA),
13 Motivating Factors in Choosing a Wine Tourism Destination and Its … 165

Table 13.2 Average and standard deviation of pull motivations

Items Average Standard
deviation
Reputation of wineries 3.80 1.219
Famous wine region 4.08 1.066
Great popularity of the region 4.09 1.107
Destination safety 4.38 0.965
Pleasant climate 4.35 0.879
Good value for money 4.40 0.855
Quiet region 4.40 0.898
Hospitality of the local population 4.31 0.902
Cultural and recreational activities on offer 4.07 0.995
Wine festivals on offer 3.84 1.138
Gastronomy festivals on offer 3.91 1.102
Unique accommodation, such as guesthouses or rural tourism 3.94 1.157
Rich historical and cultural heritage 4.29 0.896
Region with lively nightlife 3.57 1.271
Great diversity of things to do 3.93 1.156
Wide range of attractions 3.86 1.141
Possibility to acquire new and rare wines 3.68 1.243
Offer of wine courses 3.45 1.310
Wine tastings 3.70 1.240
Guided tours of cellars/wineries 3.95 1.164
Wide range of accommodation 3.78 1.202
Possibility to participate in rural activities (grape harvesting/treading/ 3.74 1.201
pig slaughter)
Existence of wine interpretation centres 3.64 1.287
Winery staff with wine knowledge 3.86 1.160
Good support infrastructure (hospitals/banks/etc.) 3.83 1.238
Good walking trails 4.06 1.056
Beautiful landscape 4.43 0.867
Suitable places for picnics 4.09 1.124
Possibility to interact with winemakers 3.75 1.288
Good signposting to explore the destination 4.04 1.153

contributes 22.057% of the total variance, factor 3, called “Reputation of the Region”
(RR), explains 19.989% of the total variance and factor 4 “Natural Conditions of the
Destination” (NCD), which contributes 7.533% of the total variance. Only weights
greater than 0.5 were considered for easier interpretation and so that each variable
only presented weights in a single factor.
166 A. Costa et al.

Table 13.3 Matrix of components after varimax rotation

Items Factor
1 2 3 4
Factor 1—Offer of wine tourism activities (OWTA)
Wine festivals on offer 0.680
Possibility to buy new and rare wines 0.842
Wine courses on offer 0.815
Wine tastings 0.841
Guided visits to cellars/wineries 0.753
Possibility to participate in rural activities (grape harvesting/ 0.754
treading/pig slaughter)
Existence of wine interpretation centres 0.780
Staff at wineries with knowledge about wines 0.816
Possibility to interact with winemakers 0.777
Factor 2—Diversity of entertainment & accommodation (DEA)
Cultural and recreational activities on offer 0.703
Unique accommodation such as guesthouses or rural tourism 0.626
Lively nightlife region 0.769
Great diversity of things to do 0.841
Wide range of attractions 0.808
Wide range of accommodation 0.692
Good supporting infrastructure (hospitals/banks/etc.) 0.672
Good signposting to explore the destination 0.642
Factor 3—Reputation of the Region (RR)
Reputation of wineries 0.594
Famous wine region 0.705
Great popularity of the region 0.661
Destination safety 0.826
Pleasant climate 0.828
Good value for money 0.751
Quiet and peaceful region 0.652
Hospitality of the local population 0.560
Rich historical and cultural heritage 0.561
Factor 4—Natural conditions of the destination (NCD)
Good walking trails 0.537
Beautiful landscape 0.578
Suitable places for picnics 0.558
Eigenvalue 7.899 6.396 5.797 2.185
(continued)
13 Motivating Factors in Choosing a Wine Tourism Destination and Its … 167

Table 13.3 (continued)

Items Factor
1 2 3 4
Variance explained (%) 27.237 22.057 19.989 7.533
Alpha de Cronbach 0.969 0.940 0.925 0.853
Rotation method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalisation. Rotation converged in 10 iterations

The analysis of these factors can support the strategic decisions of decision-
makers. The factor “Offer of Wine Tourism Activities” is the most important, so
there is a need to allocate and channel efforts to develop a whole set of activities
related to the theme of Wine Tourism, such as holding more fairs/festivals, which
allow producers and consumers to face each other.
The questionnaire also contained a set of questions related to wine tourists’
satisfaction and loyalty towards the destination and the destination’s products.
Regarding the satisfaction construct, there is a high satisfaction of respondents
with the destination. As we can see in the following table, the averages vary between
4.66 and 4.56 (on a Likert scale from 1—strongly disagree to 5—strongly agree).
Regarding the Loyalty items, the values are also quite positive, between 4.74 and
4.49 (Table 13.4).
We then performed a factor analysis of both constructs. The results obtained
point to the unidimensionality of both scales, based on the KMO value, Bartlett’s
test and item weights. The Cronbach’s alpha values are also excellent and very good,
respectively (Table 13.5).
We sought to know which factors influenced satisfaction and how. For this, we
will use the linear regression model and we will consider the satisfaction factor as
the dependent variable and the factors related to pull motivations and that influence

Table 13.4 Descriptive statistics of satisfaction and loyalty

Items Average Standard
deviation
Satisfaction
This visit was worth it, worth my time and the effort spent 4.63 0.638
My choice for this region was very right 4.66 0.641
Coming to this region exceeded my expectations 4.56 0.674
This visit was worth it, worth my time and the effort spent 4.63 0.638
Loyalty
Intended to return to this region 4.68 0.668
I will recommend my friends and family to come to this region 4.74 0.599
I will start consuming products from this region 4.38 0.859
I will recommend the consumption of products such as wine to my 4.49 0.788
friends and family
168 A. Costa et al.

Table 13.5 Factor analysis values and Cronbach alpha

Constructs KMO T. Bartlett Nº factors Explained variance Cronbach alpha
Satisfaction 0.718 426.333 1 85.013 0.890
Loyalty 0.705 637.881 1 77.998 0.898

satisfaction as independent variables. The coefficient of determination (R2) has a

value of 0.324 which represents an acceptable measure of fit of the model to the
data. Also, the analysis of variance to the model through the Snedecor F test presents
satisfactory values (F = 21.613 with an associated significance level of less than
0.000). The coefficients of the factors OWTA, DEA, RR and NCD present a positive
value of 0.270, 0.188, 0.395 and 0.245, respectively. These values are statistically
significant, since the t-test shows significances below 0.005 for all of them.
Considering that from the literature review satisfaction influences loyalty, we will
also use the linear regression model in which we consider the loyalty factor as the
dependent variable and the satisfaction factor as the independent variable. The coef-
ficient of determination (R2) has a value of 0.535 which represents a good measure
of data adjustments. Also, the analysis of variance to the model, through Snedecor’s
F test presents satisfactory values (F = 212.323 with an associated significance level
of 0.000). The linear regression coefficient is positive and high (Beta = 0.733). This
value is statistically significant (t = 14.571 and sig = 0.000).
Based on the results obtained and the literature review, we present below the model
(see Fig. 13.1) that identifies the different pull factors that influence satisfaction,
as well as the relationship between satisfaction and loyalty to the destination and
destination products.
From the analysis of the model, we can conclude that the factor Reputation of
the Region is the factor that has the most weight in the satisfaction of wine tourists,
followed by the factor Offer of Wine Tourism Activities. In addition, and following
the example of other studies, the weight of satisfaction in destination loyalty is high.

13.5 Conclusions

The results show that the external motivations of this type of tourist, the wine tourist,
are closely associated with the competitive advantages that the region has, namely, the
great offer of wine tourism activities, diversity of entertainment and accommodation,
reputation of the region and the natural conditions of the destination itself.
On the other hand, we can also conclude that wine tourist satisfaction is a deter-
mining factor for building customer loyalty in the wine tourism industry. When visi-
tors have a positive experience, with great wine tasting, welcoming service, charming
scenery and enriching activities, they tend to develop an emotional connection and
an attachment to the wine region visited. Specifically in wine tourism, satisfaction is
a key element for loyalty, as wine tourists seek not only the quality of the wine but
13 Motivating Factors in Choosing a Wine Tourism Destination and Its … 169

OWTA

0.270

DEA
0.198
0.733
Satisfation Loyalty
0.395

RR

0.245

NCD

Fig. 13.1 Model of the antecedents of wine tourist satisfaction and loyalty

also a complete and memorable experience. If satisfaction is consistently achieved,

wine tourists become brand advocates, recommend the region to friends and family,
return for new visits, start consuming and recommending the region’s products, thus
strengthening the relationship with the wine tourism destination.
This should be the focus of territorial marketing in the context of wine tourism
with strategies to boost the socio-economic development of a wine region. In order
to strengthen the loyalty of wine tourists through loyalty programmes, the region
must continue to invest in the development of activities to promote and publicise
the territory, since knowledge of these activities can be a form of attraction to the
destination. Thus, messages that appeal to and demonstrate the offer of wine tourism
activities, diversity of entertainment and accommodation, the reputation of the region
and the natural conditions that the destination has to offer, special events for loyal
customers, personalised communication and targeted marketing strategies to create
emotional connections and ensure that wine tourists return and recommend the region
to others should be included in the territory’s dissemination media. And as mentioned
in the literature, for the success of these actions the collaboration of the various
local actors and the efficient use of marketing tools, both traditional and digital, are
fundamental.
Although the conclusions are very relevant, this study presents some limitations,
namely regarding the sample, since most of them are female, young, with post-
secondary academic qualifications and that may be related to the way the surveys were
collected. Thus, further studies are suggested, with more diverse samples and that
may also contain other types of motivations, namely the so-called push motivations
that may contribute to explain the effects on the intention to visit tourist destinations.
170 A. Costa et al.

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Chapter 14
Financial Impact of COVID-19:
Perspective from the Hospitality
and Restaurant Industry

Maria Durães, Alexandrino Ribeiro, and Laurentina Vareiro

Abstract This study aims to analyze the financial impact that COVID-19 has had on
the tourism sector, specifically in the municipality of Braga. In order to understand
the economic and financial impact of COVID-19 on businesses in the municipality,
particularly in the areas of catering and accommodation, a survey was carried out
by means of questionnaires to 120 businesses. Through this study, it was possible to
perceive the perspective of financial managers and executives regarding the finan-
cial impact of COVID-19 on their companies. In this sample, 55.8% of the compa-
nies belonged to the catering sector and 44.2% to the accommodation sector. A
profile of the financial manager was identified for both the accommodation and
restaurant sectors, with accommodation financial managers being younger and more
highly educated. Most companies were in a growth phase and had good liquidity and
solvency indicators. With the emergence of COVID-19, there was a disruption in the
operations of the enterprises, as most of them were forced to temporarily suspend
their activities. As a result of this suspension, there was a significant decrease in the
companies revenues, which led to short, medium and long-term financial problems,
with a greater emphasis on the accommodation sector. These problems led some
enterprises to go into debt, a factor justified by the fall in turnover and the emergence
of new loans and debts. In this context, companies had to adapt and create alternatives
in order to reposition themselves in the market and avoid bankruptcy.

M. Durães · A. Ribeiro
Instituto Politécnico do Cávado e Ave (IPCA), Barcelos, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
L. Vareiro (B)
Instituto Politécnico do Cávado e Ave (IPCA) and UNIAG, Barcelos, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 173
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_14
174 M. Durães et al.

14.1 Introduction

The tourism sector plays a significant role in the economic and financial growth
of companies and organizations worldwide. Its remarkable potential for expansion
enriches both direct and indirect segments linked to the industry, as well as other
market sectors. Tourism is an activity with specific characteristics in terms of the
range of products and services offered to meet the needs of tourists. This diversity of
activities makes the sector highly vulnerable to changes in the external environment.
As a result, it is an industry that is highly vulnerable to crises and significant changes.
The COVID-19 pandemic was global in scope, affecting all continents and coun-
tries. Consequently, the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the tourism sector has
been devastating. COVID-19 has had many negative economic and financial effects.
Most businesses, with a particular focus on micro and small enterprises, have had
to temporarily suspend their services, and many have closed permanently, unable
to meet their short-term expenses, thus affecting the liquidity of the business. The
participation of micro-enterprises in the economy is of paramount importance as
they generate employment for society and drive the development and growth of the
destination.
In this study, we first developed a theoretical analysis of the influence of tourism
on the development of economies, particularly in Portugal, as well as the impact
that COVID-19 has had on this development and how it has constrained it. We then
moved on to the main objective of this study: to understand the financial impact
of COVID-19 on the tourism sector, particularly from the perspective of the hotel
and restaurant industry. To address this issue, a quantitative methodology was used,
collecting data through a questionnaire survey conducted in person in Braga during
the months of July and August 2022, completed by managers or financial directors
of accommodation establishments and restaurants.

14.2 Theoretical Background

The first case of COVID-19 was reported in December 2019 in Wuhan, China, and
since then various restrictions have been implemented worldwide. These restrictions
have had a profound impact on the tourism sector and its development. The imple-
mentation of international travel bans has had a significant impact on international
travel, affecting more than 90% of the world’s population, from widespread restric-
tions on public gatherings to social mobility. As a result, tourism came to a standstill
in most parts of the world in March 2020 [1].
According to [2], all events, whether expected or unexpected, have a direct or
indirect impact on tourism. This sector affects the economy of the host country,
including investments made, as well as the hotel and restaurant industry, commerce
and entertainment. Another example is the impact on commercial aviation, which is
linked to hundreds of jobs and expenditures.
14 Financial Impact of COVID-19: Perspective from the Hospitality … 175

In recent years, tourism has become one of the largest contributors to GDP and
employment in many countries around the world. This development has been driven
by a number of factors, including advances in communication and transport technolo-
gies, changing lifestyles and the emergence of low-cost airlines making international
travel more accessible. UNWTO data for 2018 shows that global tourism gener-
ated revenues of $1462 trillion. Of this, about 39% was accounted for by Europe,
which received about 51% of the world’s total tourists [3]. However, the COVID-19
pandemic has caused significant declines in the tourism sector [4].
In a matter of weeks, some destinations went from being overcrowded to having
no tourists, with international tourist arrivals falling massively [5]. According to the
UN specialized agency (cited in [5]), the crisis could lead to an annual decline of
60–80% compared to 2019 figures. Tourism has been severely affected, with millions
of jobs at risk, as it is one of the largest job creators in the economy [5]. In March
2020, following restrictions imposed by many countries, including travel restrictions
and the closure of airports and borders, arrivals plummeted by 57%, resulting in
approximately 67 million fewer international arrivals and a loss of US$80 billion
in tourism receipts. The impact was felt most strongly in Asia and the Pacific (−33
million arrivals), with Europe experiencing a slightly smaller decline (−22 million).
Outbreaks and uncertainties led to repeated revisions of annual forecasts throughout
the year [5].
Before the global coronavirus pandemic, tourism was one of the world’s most
important economic activities and one of the world’s most important industries [6].
The closure of borders and the confinement of people to their homes, considered
essential measures to combat the spread of COVID-19, led to a reduction in interna-
tional tourism revenues (exports) in 2020. According to the author, these reductions
were more significant than those recorded during the economic crisis of 2009. As a
result of this health crisis, the European Commission estimated a reduction in global
GDP of around −3.5% in 2020, −7.4% in the European Union, and around −6.8%
in the case of Portugal (GEE, 2020, cited in [4]).
At present, the sector and the world are going through a period of great difficulty,
with all the restrictions that have been imposed having a significant impact on the
tourism sector and its development. This is an unfavorable reality for all countries that
depend on tourism, such as Portugal. These countries are becoming more vulnerable,
with all the consequences that this entails for the national and global economy [6].
The emergence of the new pandemic has had numerous negative health, economic,
and financial consequences. The severity of the disease has led to countless deaths,
and measures have been taken to combat the effects of this virus, such as isolation and
social distancing. Most businesses, especially micro and small enterprises, have had
to temporarily suspend operations, while others have had to close permanently, unable
to meet their day-to-day financial needs. The contribution of small and medium-sized
enterprises to a country’s economy is of paramount importance, as they create jobs
and generate income for society [7].
According to [4], the short and medium term economic outlook for the country,
Europe and the rest of the world is highly uncertain. The prevailing uncertainty affects
all individual and collective projects and strategies, including those of companies,
176 M. Durães et al.

families and the State. It is therefore a time of challenge, of searching for solutions
and opportunities to rethink social and economic organizational models and market
positioning (including the tourism market).

14.3 Hospitality and Restaurants in Braga

14.3.1 Research Problem and Objectives

This study aims to analyze the financial impact that COVID-19 has had on the
tourism sector in the municipality of Braga. In this regard, the objective of this study
is to understand the perspective of business owners in various tourism-dependent
establishments, including hotels, other accommodation facilities and restaurants in
Braga, regarding the financial impact of COVID-19 on their businesses.
In order to gain insight into the perspective of business owners and local
institutions, the following research questions were posed:
(1) What is the financial impact of COVID-19 on businesses in Braga?
(2) What are the main financial management challenges faced by businesses during
the COVID-19 pandemic?
(3) What changes have occurred in the financial management of companies during
the COVID-19 pandemic?
By addressing these research questions, the study aims to shed light on the specific
financial challenges and changes experienced by businesses in the tourism sector
in Braga due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The perspectives of business owners and
companies will provide valuable information on the financial impact of the pandemic
on local businesses and help to understand the extent of the impact of the pandemic
on the tourism industry in the region.

14.3.2 Methodology

This study will begin with a brief review of the literature on the subject, in order
to gather information and knowledge from previously published materials. Then,
after this theoretical analysis, we will move on to the main objective of the study: to
understand the economic and financial impact that COVID-19 has had on the tourism
sector, specifically in the municipality of Braga.
In order to understand the perspective of the different companies in the region’s
hotel and restaurant sector regarding the impact of COVID-19 on their businesses,
we carried out questionnaire surveys, considering them the most appropriate data
collection instrument for this study. The questionnaires were carried out between July
and August 2022, and a total of 120 surveys were obtained from financial managers
14 Financial Impact of COVID-19: Perspective from the Hospitality … 177

or directors. This information was collected face-to-face using Google Forms, as

this was considered the best way to effectively obtain the responses required for this
study. In order to select the respondents, a survey was carried out on the number
of restaurants and accommodation establishments in the city of Braga. This was
followed by a route through the city to reach as many respondents as possible. The
SPSS tool was used to process the data, allowing a more in-depth interpretation of
the results.
The questionnaire is divided into four parts. The first part concerns the charac-
terization of the company and the profile of the financial manager. This is followed
by questions about the company’s financial behavior before the pandemic and the
financial instruments used during the pandemic. To establish a comparison period,
the same questions were asked for the period of the pandemic in order to measure
the impact of COVID-19 on the company. Finally, they were asked about the reasons
that led to the need for debt financing and the main challenges they faced.

14.3.3 Results

14.3.3.1 Company Identification and Profile of the Financial Manager

The study, conducted by means of questionnaires, obtained a sample of 120 compa-

nies, with most respondents coming from the restaurant sector (55.8%) and the rest
from the accommodation sector (44.2%). We found it relevant to break down the
results by market sector in order to provide a more individualized analysis. However,
comparable components were considered together. Table 14.1 shows the length of
time enterprises have been in business, and we can observe a statistically significant
difference in the answers to this question. Most enterprises in the accommodation
sector have been on the market for between 5 and 10 years (56.6%).
It is noticeable that no company in the accommodation sector has been in business
for less than two years, a factor that can be attributed to the emergence of COVID-19,
which has hindered the creation of new companies in this sector due to the restrictions
imposed. In the restaurant sector, 38.8% of enterprises have been in the market for
between 5 and 10 years. Some 35.8% of respondents in the restaurant sector have
been in business for more than 15 years, while this percentage is much lower in the
accommodation sector (5.7%).
Table 14.1 also provides a summary of the socio-demographic profile of the finan-
cial managers of these enterprises. Most respondents in both the accommodation and
the restaurant sector are male, accounting for around 58.5 and 65.7%, respectively,
although there is a better gender balance in the accommodation sector.
Most of the respondents are in the 36–45 age group, but in the restaurant sector
there is also a significant presence of financial managers in the over 65 age group,
which may be due to the fact that restaurant businesses are often run within a
family context. Most managers reside in Braga (64.2% in the accommodation sector
178 M. Durães et al.

Table 14.1 Company identification and profile of the financial manager

Lodging Restaurant Total X2 Sig.
n (53) % n (67) % n (120) %
(44.2%) (55.8%) (100)
Time of 19.370 0.001*
operation in the
market:
Less than 2 years 0 0.0 3 4.5 3 2.5
Between 2 and 12 22.6 9 13.4 21 17.5
5 years
Between 5 and 30 56.6 26 38.8 56 46.7
10 years
Between 10 and 8 15.1 5 7.5 13 10.8
15 years
More than 3 5.7 24 35.8 27 22.5
15 years
Gender of the 0.651 0.420
financial
manager:
Female 22 41.5 23 34.3 45 37.5
Male 31 58.5 44 65.7 75 62.5
Age group: 2.849 0.415
Between 26 and 6 11.3 8 11.9 14 11.7
35 years
Between 36 and 28 52.8 30 44.8 14 11.7
45 years
Between 46 and 19 35.8 26 38.8 45 37.5
65 years
More than 0 0.0 3 4.5 3 2.5
65 years
Place of 7.887 0.048*
residence:
Braga 34 64.2 57 85.1 91 75.8
Porto 11 20.8 4 6.0 15 12.5
Guimarães 7 13.2 5 7.5 12 10.0
V.N. Famalicão 1 1.9 1 1.5 2 1.7
Educational 8.301 0.016*
qualification of
the financial
manager:
Elementary 0 0.0 4 6.0 4 3.3
education
Secondary 13 24.5 28 41.8 41 34.2
education
(continued)
14 Financial Impact of COVID-19: Perspective from the Hospitality … 179

Table 14.1 (continued)

Lodging Restaurant Total X2 Sig.
n (53) % n (67) % n (120) %
(44.2%) (55.8%) (100)
Higher 40 75.5 35 52.2 75 62.5
education
Field of 19.937 0.000*
education:
No formal 13 24.5 29 43.3 42 35.0
education
Administration, 9 17.0 15 22.4 24 20.0
economics, and
accounting
Tourism 22 41.5 5 7.5 27 22.5
Other 9 17.0 18 26.9 27 22.5
Note* indicates
p < 0.05
Source Own data

and 85.1% in the restaurant sector). Regarding the educational level of the finan-
cial managers, it was observed that most of them had higher education, with a
higher percentage in the accommodation sector (75.5%) than in the restaurant sector
(52.2%), which could be explained by the higher demands of managing accom-
modation establishments compared to restaurants. Finally, the field of education of
financial managers in the accommodation sector is mainly tourism (41.5%), while
in the restaurant sector most respondents did not specify a specific field of educa-
tion (43.3%), followed by other fields of education (26.9%) other than tourism,
administration, economics, and accounting.

14.3.3.2 Companies Before the Pandemic Period

It was then considered essential to understand the behavior of the enterprises before
the pandemic period. An analysis of Table 14.2 shows that most enterprises were in
a growth phase, with 50.9% in the accommodation sector and around 59.7% in the
restaurant sector. There is also a small percentage of enterprises in both sectors that
were already in decline. This situation of struggle for survival of tourism enterprises
was also highlighted by [8].
In terms of financial stability, most enterprises had good liquidity indicators, both
in the accommodation sector (88.7%) and in the restaurant sector (92.5%). In other
words, they were able to meet their short-term expenses. In the long term, a smaller
number of enterprises in both sectors also had good solvency and financial autonomy
(69.8% in hotels and 71.6% in restaurants). This means that, prior to the pandemic
period, enterprises were able to meet their medium and long-term obligations with
good autonomy, without having to resort to bank loans.
180 M. Durães et al.

Table 14.2 Company’s behavior before the pandemic period

Lodging Restaurant Total X2 Sig.
n (53) % (44.2%) n (67) % (55.8%) n (120) % (100)
Level of 0.923 0.630
company’s
turnover
In a growth 27 50.9 40 59.7 67 55.8
phase
In a stabilized 23 43.4 24 35.8 47 39.2
phase
In a declining 3 5.7 3 4.5 6 5.0
phase
Presented 47 88.7 62 92.5 109 90.8 0.529 0.467
good
liquidity
indicators
Presented 37 69.8 48 71.6 85 70.8 0.048 0.827
good
solvency and
financial
autonomy
Source Own data

It is important to understand the financial management tools used by these busi-

nesses before the pandemic period in order to gain a more detailed insight into their
operations.
Table 14.3 shows that the most used tools in the accommodation sector are cost
control (96.2%), accounts receivable and payable control (92.5%), cash flow control
(90.6%), bank reconciliation (56.6%), profit and loss statement (49.1%), and balance
sheet (47.2%). The least common tools are internal audit (7.5%) and working capital
analysis (3.8%). As for the hotel and restaurant sector, the analysis of Table 14.3
shows that the most prominent tools are cost control (97.0%), followed by accounts
receivable and payable control (91.0%), cash flow control (88.1%), profit and loss
account (56.7%), balance sheet (55.2%), and bank reconciliation (44.8%). Again,
the least used financial management tools are internal audit (22.4%) and working
capital analysis (3.0%). It is worth noting that the value of internal audit is statisti-
cally different between the two sectors, with a significantly lower percentage in the
accommodation sector. This may be due to the fact that a large number of respondents
in the accommodation sector are involved in the operation of local accommodation,
which may require less stringent internal control and monitoring than in the restaurant
sector.
These results show that both sectors are very concerned about managing costs and
being productive with a strong focus on cost efficiency. In addition, both sectors show
a strong emphasis on managing payment and credit terms with suppliers, as well as
ensuring sufficient cash availability for day-to-day expenses. In the restaurant sector,
14 Financial Impact of COVID-19: Perspective from the Hospitality … 181

Table 14.3 Tools used in financial management of the business before the pandemic period
Lodging Restaurant Total X2 Sig.
n (53) % n (67) % n (120) %
(44.2%) (55.8%) (100)
Cash flow 48 90.6 59 88.1 107 89.2 0.192 0.661
control
Accounts 49 92.5 61 91.0 110 91.7 0.077 0.782
payable and
receivable
control
Internal audit 4 7.5 15 22.4 19 15.8 4.891 0.027*
Cost control 51 96.2 65 97.0 116 96.7 0.057 0.811
Bank 30 56.6 30 44.8 60 50.0 1.656 0.198
reconciliation
Balance sheet 25 47.2 37 55.2 62 51.7 0.769 0.381
Income 26 49.1 38 56.7 46.7 53.3 0.698 0.404
statement
Working 2 3.8 2 3.0 4 3.3 0.057 0.811
capital analysis
Note * indicates p < 0.05
Source Own data

there appears to be a greater emphasis on the net profit of the business compared to
the accommodation sector. This may be due to a greater need in the restaurant sector
to ensure profitability at the end of the year.

14.3.3.3 Companies During the Pandemic Period

As given in Table 14.4, most enterprises in the accommodation sector had to

temporarily suspend their activities (54.7%), some experienced changes in their
activities (43.4%) and only a small percentage continued to operate normally (1.9%).
Similarly, in the restaurant sector, the majority had to temporarily suspend their activ-
ities (52.2%), some experienced changes in their operations (46.3%), and only a few
continued to operate normally (1.7%). The pandemic had a significant impact on both
sectors, with a significant number of businesses affected and forced to change their
operations to meet the challenges posed by the COVID-19 restrictions and safety
measures.
The results show that all businesses in the accommodation sector experienced a
decrease in monthly billings (100%), and most businesses in the restaurant sector
(97%) also experienced a decrease. These revenue losses are in line with global trends
[9–11]. It can be observed that the accommodation sector was more affected by the
emergence of COVID-19, as it had higher fluctuations in revenue. Most respondents
182 M. Durães et al.

Table 14.4 Companies during the pandemic period

Lodging Restaurant Total X2 Sig.
n (53) % (44.2%) n (67) % (55.8%) n (120) % (100)
Functioning 0.116 0.944
of the
company
during the
pandemic:
Experienced 23 43.4 31 46.3 54 45.0
a change
Continued to 1 1.9 1 1.5 2 1.7
function
normally
Temporarily 29 54.7 35 52.2 64 53.3
suspended
its activities
Monthly 1.609 0.447
billing:
Decreased 53 100.0 65 97.0 118 98.3
Remained 0 0.0 1 1.5 1 0.8
the same
Increased 0 0.0 1 1.5 1 0.8
Percentage n (53) n (65) n (118) (100)
change in
billing:
2.275 0.517
Below 10% 0 0.0 1 1.5 1 0.8
Between 10 1 1.9 4 6.2 5 4.2
and 30%
Between 30 10 18.9 13 20.0 23 19.5
and 60%
Above 60% 42 79.2 47 72.3 89 75.4
Ability to n (53) n (67) n (120) % (100)
settle
short-term
debts:
Had 12 22.6 26 38.8 38 31.7 3.573 0.059
sufficient
assets to
settle
short-term
debts
(continued)
14 Financial Impact of COVID-19: Perspective from the Hospitality … 183

Table 14.4 (continued)

Lodging Restaurant Total X2 Sig.
n (53) % (44.2%) n (67) % (55.8%) n (120) % (100)
Had good 12 22.6 22 32.8 34 28.3 1.515 0.218
liquidity
indicators
Had good 6 11.3 29 43.3 35 29.2 14.633 0.000*
solvency and
financial
autonomy
Note * indicates p < 0.05
Source Own data

reported decreases of more than 60% (79.2% in the accommodation sector and 72.3%
in the restaurant sector).
In terms of financial stability, the accommodation sector showed a sharp decline
compared with the results in Table 14.2. Only 22.6% had sufficient assets to meet
short-term liabilities, 22.6% had good liquidity indicators, and only 11.3% had good
solvency and financial autonomy. The results for the restaurant sector are slightly
different, but still show a significant financial impact. Some 38.8% of respondents
had sufficient assets to meet short-term liabilities, some 32.8% had good liquidity
indicators, and 43.3% had good solvency and financial autonomy. This last figure is
statistically higher than that of the accommodation sector.
The financial ratios of enterprises declined significantly, with a greater impact
on the accommodation sector. Accommodation enterprises have a more fixed cost
structure than restaurants. This makes the restaurant sector more vulnerable, as fixed
costs become a risk when economic activity, especially sales, declines abruptly.
As a result, accommodation companies have less financial capacity to cover their
expenses, which means they have little ability to meet their short, medium, and
long-term obligations. The reduced financial stability increases the probability of
bankruptcy. The change in financial autonomy indicates that these enterprises are
less able to finance their activities through equity, leading to a greater need for debt
financing. This is evidenced by the fact that the accommodation sector has a solvency
and financial autonomy value of only 11.3%, while the restaurant sector has a value
of around 43.3%.
In times of COVID-19, businesses require more assets, especially cash reserves,
to cover cash flow deficits, as highlighted by [9] and Data and Analysis from Census
(2021). The accommodation sector was much more affected than the restaurant sector.
This could be since other business opportunities arose for restaurants, such as the
provision of takeaway services, which restaurants began to implement.
184 M. Durães et al.

14.3.3.4 The Need for Debt and the Main Challenges Faced
by Companies

It was considered important to understand the reasons that led to the need for debt
for enterprises with greater financial instability (Table 14.5). In the accommodation
sector, the main reasons were a fall in turnover (81.1%) and loans and debts (81.1%).
Other costs (26.4%) also played a significant role in the need to seek external finance,
together with rent (9.4%), taxes (9.4%), increased staff costs (7.5%), and energy and
water costs (7.5%).
In the restaurant sector, loans and debts (55.2%) and a fall in turnover (51.5%)
were also the main reasons for the need to borrow, although to a lesser extent. Other
reasons given were higher staff costs (19.4%), taxes (10.4%), rents (9.0%), energy
and water costs (9.0%), and other costs (9.0%).
The results comparing the two sectors for the reasons ‘decrease in business
income,’ ‘loans and debts,’ and ‘other costs’ show statistically significant differences,
with a greater impact in the accommodation sector. This factor can be explained by
the fact that enterprises in the accommodation sector had a lower financial capacity
to meet their obligations during the pandemic period, which led to a greater need to
borrow.
Having understood the reasons that led to the need for borrowing, the main chal-
lenges faced during the pandemic period were then examined. Table 14.6 shows
that the main challenges faced by accommodation businesses were managing the

Table 14.5 Reasons that led to the need for borrowing

Lodging Restaurant Total X2 Sig.
n (53) % n (67) % n (120) %
(44.2%) (55.8%) (100)
Increase in 4 7.5 13 19.4 17 14.2 3.421 0.064
personnel
expenses
Decrease in 43 81.1 34 51.5 77 64.7 11.290 0.001*
company
revenue
Taxes 5 9.4 7 10.4 12 10.0 0.034 0.854
Energy and 4 7.5 6 9.0 10 8.3 0.077 0.782
water
expenses
Loans and 43 81.1 37 55.2 80 66.7 8.938 0.003*
debts
Rental 5 9.4 6 9.0 11 9.2 0.008 0.928
expenses
Other costs 14 26.4 6 9.0 20 16.7 6.495 0.011*
Note * indicates p < 0.05
Source Own data
14 Financial Impact of COVID-19: Perspective from the Hospitality … 185

reduction in business income (100%), meeting day-to-day expenses (88.7%), finan-

cial management of the business (79.2%), incurring unforeseen financial obligations
(79.2%), and laying off staff (71.2%), which were also significant challenges for the
accommodation sector. Other challenges included communicating with customers
(56.6%), adapting the business to non-face-to-face offerings (52.8%) and complying
with government prevention measures (44%).
For enterprises in the restaurant sector, the most difficult aspect was managing
the decline in turnover (92.5%), followed by the ability to cover daily expenses
(78.8%), financial management of the enterprise (59.7%), adapting the enterprise
to non-face-to-face activities (58.2%), compliance with government preventive
measures (56.0%), redundancies (50.8%), unforeseen financial obligations (49.3%),
and communication with customers (47.8%).

Table 14.6 Challenges faced during the pandemic period

Lodging Restaurant Total X2 Sig.
n (53) % n (67) % n (120) %
(44.2%) (55.8%) (100)
Measures to 51 44.0 65 56.0 116 96.7 0.057 0.811
prevent
COVID-19
imposed by the
government
Managing the 53 100.0 62 92.5 115 95.8 4.127 0.042*
decrease in
company
revenue
Managing the 28 52.8 39 58.2 67 55.8 0.347 0.556
decrease in
company
revenue
Assuming daily 47 88.7 52 78.8 99 83.2 2.057 0.152
expenses
Financial 42 79.2 40 59.7 82 68.3 5.223 0.022*
management of
the business
Employee 37 71.2 33 50.8 70 59.8 4.995 0.025*
layoffs
Emergence of 42 79.2 33 49.3 75 62.5 11.357 0.001*
unforeseen
financial
obligations
Communication 30 56.6 32 47.8 62 51.7 0.927 0.336
with customers
Note * indicates p < 0.05
Source Own data
186 M. Durães et al.

The analysis in Table 14.6 shows that there are statistically significant differences
in some of the items evaluated. In other words, the two areas had to face certain
challenges during the pandemic period with different intensity. We can see that
coping with the drop in business turnover was experienced differently, with the
accommodation sector experiencing a greater drop in turnover.
The management of the financial aspects of the business was also handled differ-
ently, with the restaurant sector finding alternative ways to adapt to the new reality,
while the accommodation sector was faced with a complete stop in cash flow, but still
had to bear all fixed costs. Despite the fall in turnover, the restaurant sector managed
to generate some income through new processes, which led to a greater need for
debt in the accommodation sector and a significant difference in the emergence of
unforeseen financial obligations.
Layoffs were also more frequent in the accommodation sector, as the lack of
income made cost-cutting measures necessary. This health crisis had a negative
impact on employment, with significant economic consequences, as highlighted by
several studies [9, 12–15].
Finally, it was important to understand whether there were any changes in the use
of financial tools during the crisis, in order to assess the increased importance that
companies attached to financial management during these difficult times.
Table 14.7 shows that there are no significant differences between the two sectors
in terms of the financial tools used during the pandemic. Compared with Table 14.3,
we can see that the control of accounts receivable and accounts payable became
more important in the accommodation sector (+1.8%), and internal audit became
more important in both the accommodation sector (+24.6%) and the restaurant
sector (+9.2%). There was also a greater focus on cost control (+1.9% in hotels
and +3% in restaurants), the use of balance sheets (+17% in hotels and +7.5%
in restaurants), the profit and loss account (+15.1% in hotels and +6% in restau-
rants), and finally the analysis of working capital (+1.9% in hotels and +3.4% in
restaurants). This suggests that financial management tools became more important
during the pandemic. The problems caused by the pandemic centered mainly on
cash flow issues and the ability of businesses to survive in the short term. As a result,
government support focused primarily on short-term survival through credit lines,
leave schemes, and moratoria. By effectively minimizing the short-term impact of
COVID-19, companies can ensure better survival in the medium and long term.

14.4 Conclusion

It is becoming increasingly clear that the tourism sector plays a crucial role in
the development of a destination. This progress is not only due to socio-cultural
development, but also to economic growth, as it creates jobs, attracts investment,
enhances global recognition, and stimulates demand and development in the desti-
nation. Tourism is becoming an essential driver of a country’s enrichment on a global
scale.
14 Financial Impact of COVID-19: Perspective from the Hospitality … 187

Table 14.7 Tools used in the financial management of the business during the pandemic period
Lodging Restaurant Total X2 Sig.
n (53) % n (67) % n (120) %
(44.2%) (55.8%) (100)
Cash flow 48 90.6 59 88.1 107 89.2 0.192 0.661
control
Accounts 50 94.3 61 91.0 111 92.5 0.463 0.496
payable and
receivable
control
Internal 17 32.1 21 31.3 38 31.7 0.007 0.932
auditing
Cost control 52 98.1 67 100.0 119 99.2 1.275 0.259
Bank 40 75.5 45 67.2 85 70.8 0.989 0.320
reconciliation
Balance sheet 34 64.2 42 62.7 76 63.3 0.027 0.869
Income 34 64.2 42 62.7 76 63.3 0.027 0.869
statement
Working 3 5.7 5 7.5 8 6.7 0.154 0.694
capital analysis
Source Own data

In 2020, however, this progress came to a halt with the emergence of the COVID-
19 pandemic. The impact of the pandemic was evident in the lack of demand and loss
of revenue for companies in the sector. Many companies focused on cutting costs and
reducing their workforce. Some also took the opportunity to invest in small projects
as there was less activity in their services during this period.
Analysis of the results of a survey of accommodation and catering businesses in
Braga revealed the perceptions of financial managers about the impact of COVID-19
on their businesses. Of the 120 companies surveyed, the majority belonged to the
restaurant sector (55.8%), with the remainder in the accommodation sector (44.2%).
Most of the replies came from enterprises that had been operating for 5–10 years
(56.6% in the accommodation sector and 38.8% in the restaurant sector).
As regards the profile of financial managers, the majority were male in both
accommodation (58.5%) and restaurants (65.7%). They were mostly in the 36–45
age group and were residents of Braga (64.2% in hotels and 85.1% in restaurants).
Financial managers were mostly university graduates (75.5% in accommodation
and 52.2% in restaurants), with a significant number having a background in tourism
(41.5% in accommodation) and others not specifying their field of education (43.3%
in restaurants).
Before the pandemic, most enterprises were in a phase of growth (50.9% in
accommodation and 59.7% in restaurants), with good liquidity indicators (88.7%
in accommodation and 92.5% in restaurants), which meant they were able to cover
daily expenses. They also showed a good ability to manage medium and long-term
188 M. Durães et al.

expenditure, with high solvency and financial autonomy (69.8% in accommodation

and 71.6% in restaurants). During the pandemic, most enterprises had to temporarily
suspend their activities (54.7% in accommodation and 52.2% in restaurants) and
their turnover decreased significantly (100% in accommodation and 97% in restau-
rants), with fluctuations of more than 60% in most cases (79.2% in accommodation
and 72.3% in restaurants). The accommodation sector was more affected by the
pandemic.
A comparison of the behavior of enterprises during the pandemic showed that
the financial stability of enterprises decreased significantly. In the accommodation
sector, only 22.6% had sufficient assets to meet short-term debts and 11.3% had
good solvency and financial autonomy (down from 66.1 to 58.5%, respectively).
In the restaurant sector, 32.8% had good liquidity and 43.3% had good solvency
and financial autonomy (decreases of 59.7 and 28.3%, respectively). Once again, the
accommodation sector was more affected than the restaurant sector. Enterprises in the
accommodation sector showed a lower financial capacity to meet their obligations,
resulting in a greater need to borrow.
Regarding the limitations of this research, I would like to highlight the difficulty of
the respondents to cooperate in this study. The managers/chief financial officers were
not receptive, which could be explained by the fact that this is financial information
and requires a more sensitive study. As the data was collected face-to-face through
a questionnaire survey, another limitation is that in many situations there was little
availability, resulting in a smaller sample.

Acknowledgements UNIAG, Research and Development Unit funded by FCT—Foundation for

Science and Technology, Ministry of Science, Technology, and Higher Education, under the scope
of project UIDB/04752/2020 and UIDP/04752/2020.

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Chapter 15
The Dynamics of Participant
Engagement in a Food Festival: The Soup
Congress Case in Tomar

João Tomaz Simões, Célio Gonçalo Marques, and Lígia Coutinho Mateus

Abstract In an era where specialized events are becoming pivotal in tourism and
local economies, this study offers a comprehensive analysis of an under-researched
area: food events. The paper examines the demographics, satisfaction, and future
intentions of visitors to the Soup Congress held in Tomar, Portugal. Utilizing a case-
study approach, the research adopts a quantitative methodology, analyzing data from
questionnaires administered to event participants and supported by existing tourism
literature. Data were collected and subsequently analyzed using SPSS software, with
statistical techniques employed to test hypotheses and examine relationships between
variables. The study finds that the congress appeals to a diverse demographic and
identifies notably high satisfaction rates and robust intent to return among attendees.
These outcomes suggest effective management and successful engagement strategies
deployed by the event organizers. While the study recognizes strengths, it highlights
the need for better integration of the congress with local cultural and touristic activ-
ities, as many attendees did not participate. The research suggests re-evaluating
the event’s infrastructure and pricing, considering the diverse employment statuses
of attendees. These findings provide insights for the future planning of the Soup
Congress and other food festivals, with wider implications for event management.

J. T. Simões (B) · C. G. Marques · L. Coutinho Mateus

TECHN&ART—Centre of Technology, Restoration and Art Enhancement, Polytechnic
University of Tomar, Estrada da Serra, Quinta Do Contador, 2300-313 Tomar, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
C. G. Marques
e-mail: [email protected]
L. Coutinho Mateus
e-mail: [email protected]
J. T. Simões
UI&D ISLA Santarém, ISLA Santarém, R. Dr. Teixeira Guedes 31, 2000-029 Santarém, Portugal

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 191
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_15
192 J. T. Simões et al.

15.1 Introduction

Tourism operates as a global engine driving economic advancement and promoting

socio-cultural connections [1]. Within the multifarious sectors of tourism, event
tourism has gradually risen to prominence, sparking considerable scholarly, and
industry interest. Notably, gastronomic events are now recognized as powerful drivers
in the broader landscape of tourism [2]. They serve as focal points for tourist attrac-
tion and contribute to the reshaping of destination images [2]. Despite their increasing
importance, there is a significant gap in literature that addresses the synergy between
gastronomic events and local tourism development [2]. This study turns its lens
toward the annual Soup Congress held in Tomar, Portugal, a gastronomic event
that plays a critical role in enhancing the local tourism appeal [3]. We explore
the Congress’s impact on various metrics, including visitor satisfaction, destination
image, tourist expenditure, and propensity for revisits. This is aimed at addressing the
existing literature gap and contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of
how gastronomic events affect local tourism [2]. Utilizing a robust dataset gathered
from surveys of Congress attendees, this study provides empirical insights into the
multi-dimensional aspects of the tourist experience. The intent is to offer valuable
knowledge for stakeholders, ranging from tourism planners and policymakers to local
businesses and the community at large [3]. The outcome of this research is poised
to inform and influence strategies for event planning, management, and marketing,
thereby aiding cities like Tomar in leveraging gastronomic events as potent catalysts
for tourism growth [2, 3].

15.2 Literature Review

Recent literature underscores tourism’s multifaceted role in both economic develop-

ment and socio-cultural interchange, with specific emphasis on its multi-dimensional
nature [4]. The significance of events in shaping tourist behaviors extends beyond
conventional tourism paradigms [5, 6]. A burgeoning interest lies in gastronomic
tourism, where events serve as platforms for culinary exploration and cultural immer-
sion, aligning with experiential tourism paradigms [7, 8]. Economically, gastronomic
events bolster local economies [9], and while broader studies, such as Quinn’s on arts
festivals, reflect on their economic benefits [10], they also spotlight socio-cultural
impacts and contributions to destination branding [3, 10]. However, despite initial
explorations by Sio et al. [2], gaps persist in context-specific analyses of these events’
comprehensive impacts, including visitor satisfaction and tourist expenditure.
15 The Dynamics of Participant Engagement in a Food Festival: The Soup … 193

15.3 Methodology

This study utilizes a quantitative methodology anchored in a positivist philosophy to

analyze data from attendees at the 2019 Congress of Soup event in Tomar, Portugal,
presuming that observable data patterns yield measurable insights [11]. Primary
data were sourced via a structured questionnaire tailored to gastronomic events,
capturing variables like attendee satisfaction, perceived value, destination image,
and spending patterns, along with demographic information for stratified analysis
[4, 12]. Given the event’s specific nature and logistical challenges, a convenience
sampling was chosen, with recognition of potential limitations in generalizability
[4]. Data were rigorously analyzed using SPSS, encompassing descriptive statistics,
inferential techniques like chi-square tests, and regression analyses to discern
relationships and predict trends [13].

15.4 Context of Tomar and the Congress of Soup

Located in the heartland of Portugal, Tomar emerges as an idyllic city steeped in a

rich tapestry of history and culture, serving as a potent magnet for tourists globally.
Its diverse offering, ranging from the UNESCO World Heritage site of the Convent
of Christ to the alluring charm of its medieval architecture, extends an intriguing
narrative of Tomar’s past, underscoring its unique cultural landscape [14]. A key
element enhancing this allure is the array of unique events hosted within the city,
of which the annual Congress of Soup remains a significant attraction. This gastro-
nomic rendezvous acts as a vibrant celebration of the universally loved dish—soup,
transcending boundaries and offering a gourmet spectacle of diverse soup variants.
Through a myriad of culinary demonstrations, food enthusiasts and tourists alike
are plunged into a sensorial exploration of taste, heritage, and communal bonding
[15, 16]. The Congress of Soup, as an event, is not merely an expression of Tomar’s
gastronomic prowess; it signifies an active medium through which the city nego-
tiates its cultural identity, contributing substantially to the ongoing construction
of its touristic appeal. The event intertwines local culinary traditions with innova-
tive gastronomic practices, thereby reinforcing Tomar’s position on the gastronomic
tourism map [8, 9]. As a result, the Congress of Soup holds a dual role. It is not only
a platform where tradition and innovation converge in a culinary dialogue but also
a strategic tool in promoting Tomar as a desirable tourist destination. This event-
centric strategy, often termed “eventification” [17], underscores the importance of
events like the Congress of Soup in stimulating tourism, enhancing visitor experi-
ences, and fostering economic development in cities like Tomar. It enables the city
to showcase the depth and breadth of its culinary traditions, enhancing its image
as a distinguished gastronomic destination [18]. This emphasis on regional cuisine
not only provides tourists with unique, culturally immersive experiences but also
cultivates a sense of pride among locals for their regional culinary traditions [19].
194 J. T. Simões et al.

In line with the growing trend of gastronomic tourism, the Congress of Soup adds a
unique dimension to Tomar’s tourist offerings, rendering it an essential stop on the
gastronomic map of Portugal. Gastronomic events such as this one have the poten-
tial to influence tourists’ destination choices and motivate travel [20]. Such events
increase the allure of a destination by adding value to the overall tourist experience
and creating distinct gastronomic narratives that cater to the ever-evolving tourist
palette [21]. Another element to consider in the context of the Congress of Soup is
its attention to environmental considerations. The event often highlights soups made
with ingredients sourced from the local region, subtly emphasizing the link between
food production, consumption, and sustainability in the culinary realm and the use of
more sustainable products such as plates, cups, spoons. This aspect not only adds to
the event’s interest from a visitor’s viewpoint, but also subtly underlines the value of
supporting local economies, nudging toward sustainability. This research will further
examine the role it plays within Tomar’s wider gastronomic tourism sector.

15.5 Research Questions

Tourism, as a multifaceted global phenomenon, facilitates economic development,

cultural exchange, and diplomatic relations [1]. Various niches including cultural,
historical, and gastronomic tourism, contribute to its comprehensive framework, with
event tourism gaining academic traction due to its role in enhancing tourist influx
and destination appeal [5, 6]. Gastronomic events have surfaced as distinct drivers
of tourism, influencing tourist preferences, dovetailing with experiential tourism
trends, and creating direct and indirect economic impacts [7]. They serve not only
as economic stimuli, but also as socio-cultural platforms for cultural preservation,
community pride, and destination branding [3]. The present research aims to unravel
the dynamics and impacts of gastronomic events, particularly the Congress of Soup,
on tourism-related dimensions such as visitor satisfaction, destination image, and
revisit intentions. It also fills a gap in the literature by offering a comprehensive
exploration of the event, situated in the framework of destination branding and expe-
riential tourism [22]. The study is founded on an empirical approach, utilizing data
from a survey of Congress of Soup attendees and applying descriptive and inferen-
tial statistical analysis. The study’s outcomes have broad ramifications, providing
insights for tourism stakeholders, offering potential for local businesses to capi-
talize on the event, and fostering socio-cultural understanding for Tomar residents.
Addressing the following research questions helps elucidate the role of the Congress
of Soup in Tomar’s gastronomic tourism landscape:
1. “Who are the attendees of the Congress of Soup?” This captures a demographic
profile of attendees, enabling a holistic understanding of the event’s audience
[23].
15 The Dynamics of Participant Engagement in a Food Festival: The Soup … 195

2. “Do attendees intend to return to future Congress of Soup?” The intent to revisit
the event can illuminate the contribution of the Congress to sustainable tourism
growth in Tomar [24].
3. “How do attendees perceive the Congress of Soup and the broader Tomar expe-
rience?” Probing into attendees’ satisfaction and cultural tourism activities can
offer a comprehensive understanding of their overall experience [25].
4. “What is the attendees’ perception of event support at the Congress of Soup?”
Insights into event support can guide continuous enhancement of event infras-
tructure [26].
5. “Does attendees’ perception of the event’s pricing impact their intent to return?”
The role of pricing strategy in influencing revisit intentions is evaluated through
this question [27].
Findings regarding the Congress of Soup’s demographic appeal, participant satis-
faction, infrastructure, and pricing can guide enhancements for culinary events and
local tourism growth.

15.6 Results

15.6.1 Sample and Survey Administration

The 26th Edition of the Congress of Soup in Tomar attracted a total of 2036 attendees.
The study employed a non-probability sampling technique to gather responses from
a judiciously selected cohort of attendees. Our sample size included 249 respon-
dents, representing approximately 12.22% of the overall participant population.
Given the one-day duration of the event, which took place from 12 to 6 PM, the
survey was administered throughout the entire event to capture a wide range of expe-
riences and perceptions. The survey instrument was designed to capture multiple
facets of attendee experiences and perceptions. It included 36 questions covering
various topics such as demographic information, attendance characteristics, travel
and tourism behaviors, event evaluation, and future intentions. The questions were
designed to address the five research questions outlined earlier, providing a holistic
view of the attendee experience and the event’s overall impact.
The questionnaire was organized into the following sections:
Demographics (Questions 1–4).
Attendance Characteristics (Questions 5–8).
Travel and Tourism Behavior (Questions 9–12).
Event Evaluation (Questions 13–26).
Future Intentions and Suggestions (Questions 27–36).
The questions included multiple-choice, Likert scale, and open-ended formats,
allowing for both quantitative and qualitative data collection. The range of questions
196 J. T. Simões et al.

aimed to offer a comprehensive understanding of attendee profiles, perceptions, satis-

faction levels, and revisit intentions, which aligns well with the research objectives.
It is important to underscore that this sample, while illustrative, may not manifest
full generalizability to the broader target demographic.

15.6.2 Participant Profile

In an endeavor to encapsulate the participant profile, a compendium of variables

underwent rigorous scrutiny. These comprised nationality, age, gender, domicile
status in Tomar, contemporary place of residence, occupational status, vacation
interval, inaugural congress participation, transportation modality to the congress,
solitary or companioned attendance, precedent cultural and tourist expeditions,
toured attractions, post-congress tourism aspirations, cognizance of the congress,
awareness of the congress orchestrator, evaluation of price equity, acquaintance with
the congress’s mandate/objective, ticket procurement latency, overall information
gratification, motivational constituents impelling participation, favored soup variant,
recurrence of prior congress participation, congruence of expectations with event
outcomes, appraisal of stall abundance, critique of event infrastructure (sanitation
facilities, parking amenities, accessibility, directional signage, and event aid), cumu-
lative event satisfaction, intentions to patronize ensuing congress editions, propen-
sity to frequent represented gastronomic establishments driven by curiosity, and
recommendations for prospective interactions.

15.6.3 Descriptive Statistics

The event sample consisted of 249 attendees, with the majority being Portuguese
(82.7%) and a significant minority being Spanish (11.2%). Other nationalities repre-
sented included English, French, German, Guinean, Italian, and Swiss. The age range
was broad, from 6 to 89, with a substantial number falling between 20 and 46 years
old. The gender distribution was almost even, with females making up 56.6% and
males 43.4%. In terms of residency, 45.8% lived in Tomar, while 54.2% were from
elsewhere, with the largest group being from Lisbon. When it came to employment
status, slightly more were employed (57.4%) than unemployed (42.6%). Almost a
third of the attendees were on vacation, suggesting the event attracted both tourists and
locals. The attendees resided in a variety of locations, with the largest group residing
in Lisbon. 54.2% of the attendees had been to the event before, indicating a good mix
of new and repeat attendees. In terms of transport, 42.6% used their own vehicles
while 34.1% walked. Most attendees came with others (83.9%) and the majority
(87.1%) did not engage in tourist visits before the event. Most attendees intended to
go home after the event (77.5%), with the rest planning to stay in a hotel. Finally,
most attendees found out about the event through friends (41.8%) or the Internet
15 The Dynamics of Participant Engagement in a Food Festival: The Soup … 197

(28.1%). Satisfaction with the Congress was high, with 85.1% satisfied, 4% dissatis-
fied, and 10.8% neutral. Event organizers were recognized by 55.8% of respondents.
Ticket pricing was considered fair by 76.3%, and 59.4% were informed of the event’s
objective. The ticket acquisition wait time was viewed as unsatisfactory by 34.1%.
Event information was deemed sufficient by 62.2%. The main participation motiva-
tion was social interaction (44.2%). Most preferred “Sopa de Peixe” (Fish Soup) at
12.0%. Repeat attendance varied, with the largest group (27.3%) first timers. The
event met expectations for 95.2% of participants. The number of stalls was found
sufficient by 83.9%. Potential improvements include clarity on event objectives,
streamlining ticket acquisition, and optimizing information dissemination. Social
interaction and soup variety were key motivators. Infrastructure assessment showed
split opinions on restroom facilities (34.1% insufficient) and parking (43.8% insuffi-
cient). Event access (85.1% satisfactory) and signage (81.1% sufficient) were viewed
positively. Event support was deemed satisfactory by 90.8%. Satisfaction levels were
64.7% satisfied, 32.1% very satisfied, and 3.2% dissatisfied. A high intent for return
attendance was noted (77.1%). Responses were mixed on curiosity to visit repre-
sented restaurants (40.6% yes, 31.3% unsure, 28.1% no). Common improvement
suggestions pertained to parking facilities, restrooms, event access, signage, and
soup offerings.

15.6.4 Statistical Inference

To evaluate the statistical significance of observed relationships, we employed an

inferential statistical framework. Depending on the nature of the research questions
and the relationships under investigation, either chi-square tests or logistic regression
analyses were used to assess categorical variables.
Research Question 1: Demographics
Findings: The majority of attendees were Portuguese (82.7%). The event attracted
a balanced mix of first-time and repeat attendees. A youthful audience was predom-
inant, specifically in the 21–27 age range, with a notable peak at 22 years
old.
Statistical Tests: Chi-Square.
Significance Level: Not specified.
Research Question 2: Return Intention and Influencing Factors
Findings: Approximately 77.1% of participants intend to return, suggesting high
attendee loyalty. However, 20.9% were undecided. Significant factors influencing
the intention to return included participant satisfaction (p < 0.001) and interest in
local gastronomy (p = 0.043).
Statistical Tests: Chi-Square, Logistic Regression.
Significance Level: p < 0.001 for satisfaction, p = 0.043 for gastronomy interest.
198 J. T. Simões et al.

Research Question 3: Participant Perception and Activities

Findings: The vast majority (95.2%) felt that the event met or exceeded their expec-
tations. Despite this, 87.1% did not partake in any cultural or touristic activities in
Tomar before the event.
Research Question 4: Facility Satisfaction
Findings: Restroom facilities did not significantly impact return intentions (p =
0.070). However, parking facilities showed a marginally significant association (p =
0.078) with return intention.
Statistical Tests: Chi-Square.
Significance Level: p = 0.070 for restrooms, p = 0.078 for parking.
Research Question 5: Pricing Perception
Findings: A significant relationship exists between the perception of pricing fairness
and the intention to return (Chi-square = 39.801, p < 0.001). Notably, no participants
who viewed the pricing as unfair intended to return.
Statistical Tests: Chi-Square.
Significance Level: p < 0.001.

15.7 Discussion

The Soup Congress has demonstrated its efficacy as an inclusive and rewarding
event, attracting an assorted and international audience with a significant Portuguese
(82.7%) and growing Spanish (11.2%) demographic, alongside smaller representa-
tions of English, French, German, Guinean, Italian, and Swiss attendees. The wide
age range (6–89) of participants, with a considerable portion (20–46 years old),
further substantiates the diverse appeal of the event. Moreover, the balanced gender
distribution (females at 56.6% and males at 43.4%) signifies the event’s ability to
attract diverse genders. The high intent to return amongst 77.1% of participants is a
testament to the successful execution of the event. Conversely, the 20.9% of attendees
who are unsure about future participation highlight a need for further examination
into their hesitations. The satisfaction levels were high, indicating effective event
organization. However, an area of potential growth is the integration of cultural and
touristic activities, given that a significant majority (87.1%) did not partake in such
visits before the congress. The analysis of overall satisfaction and curiosity toward
local gastronomy is crucial as these factors have proven integral in shaping atten-
dees’ intent to return. Infrastructure aspects such as transportation and residence,
while not directly impactful, influence the overall attendee experience. For example,
most attendees preferred to use their own mode of transport (42.6%) or walk (34.1%).
This data might be reflecting factors such as the proximity of attendees’ residences to
the congress venue, as well as the availability and convenience of different transport
options. Moreover, most attendees planned to return home after the event (77.5%),
15 The Dynamics of Participant Engagement in a Food Festival: The Soup … 199

implying that a majority lived within commuting distance or preferred the comfort
of their homes to staying in a hotel. Price fairness emerged as a critical determi-
nant of repeat participation. However, the event organizers should also consider the
employment status and vacation period of attendees. A slight majority of attendees
(57.4%) were employed and might have more discretionary income, while a sizeable
percentage (70.3%) were not on vacation during the festival, indicating the event
drew a substantial local or non-vacationing crowd.

15.8 Concluding Remarks

Building on these insights, future initiatives should focus on the “undecided” 20.9%
of attendees to better understand their hesitations and incorporate local cultural and
touristic activities into the event itinerary. The study also emphasizes the importance
of infrastructural planning and transparent pricing strategies for influencing return
rates positively. The proposed development of a user-friendly app could serve as
an effective tool for information dissemination, enhancing attendee experience and
engagement. Continual improvements in these areas will contribute to the event’s
long-term success, especially when contextualized within the broader landscape of
similar events.

15.9 Comparative Context

When compared to similar events in Portugal and other countries, the Tomar Soup
Congress exhibits several distinct traits. Firstly, the high intent to return (77.1%)
among attendees is noticeably higher than similar gastronomic and cultural events
nationally and globally. This could be attributed to various factors including the
unique appeal of the event, effective organization, and high participant satisfaction.
However, there’s a gap to bridge concerning cultural engagement; unlike other events
where attendees frequently engage in local touristic activities, 87.1% of attendees at
the Soup Congress did not participate in such activities. These comparative obser-
vations illuminate potential areas for event enhancement and underscore its unique
strengths.

15.10 Limitations and Future Research

While this study provides actionable insights, its limitations warrant discussion. First,
the study’s focus on a specific region and event type may limit the generalizability of
the findings. The sampling method could also introduce bias, restricting the broader
200 J. T. Simões et al.

applicability of the results. Additionally, the study’s cross-sectional nature hampers

its ability to capture evolving trends and attitudes among attendees over time.
Future research avenues are abundant. Subsequent studies could employ a longi-
tudinal approach to gauge the shifting attitudes and demographics of the event.
Further, qualitative interviews could delve into the motivations of the “undecided”
attendees, whose reservations are not fully captured in the current study. Compar-
isons with similar events in different locations would add a layer of complexity and
depth, providing a more nuanced understanding of attendee behavior across different
contexts.

Acknowledgements Work funded by national funds through the Portuguese National Funding
Agency for Science, Research and Technology (FCT) under the project UID/05488/2020—
TECHN&ART.

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Chapter 16
Proposal for the Creation of a MOOC
on Military Tourism

Célio Gonçalo Marques , Lígia Mateus , and João Tomaz Simões

Abstract In recent years, we have seen a decline in mass-market tourism patterns

and a growing interest in personalised and distinctive experiences. Military tourism
fits perfectly into this new demand. Connecting with the military history and culture
of a particular region or community offers a unique opportunity to explore and under-
stand the key events and social influences that have shaped that region/community.
To keep up with this trend and to meet the needs and expectations of visitors, it is
important that professionals working in military tourism are properly empowered
with the necessary knowledge. In this sense, and according to the training gap iden-
tified, this paper proposes the creation of a military tourism training programme,
in MOOC format, aimed at professionals in the tourism sector, to enhance their
specialised skills and improve the quality of tourist experiences. The MOOC consists
of three modules with broad themes according to the identified training needs, with
each module containing with specific training topics, using gamification strategies to
make the learning process more engaging and interactive. Training in MOOC format
allows tourism professionals to follow the content at their own pace, autonomously
and according to their availability. The intention is to make this MOOC available on
NAU platform and future work will include evaluation of the MOOC by its users.

C. G. Marques (B) · L. Mateus · J. T. Simões

TECHN&ART—Centre of Technology, Restoration and Art Enhancement, Polytechnic
University of Tomar, Estrada da Serra, Quinta Do Contador, 2300-313 Tomar, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
L. Mateus
e-mail: [email protected]
J. T. Simões
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 203
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_16
204 C. G. Marques et al.

16.1 Introduction

Military tourism has grown in popularity in recent years, offering visitors a unique
opportunity to learn about the history and culture of a particular region, primarily
through its military history [1].
With the growth of military tourism comes a growing demand for operators who
can provide enriching and immersive experiences for visitors interested in the history
and culture of a region, especially in the context of military history. To meet this
demand, it is essential that professionals in the sector have specialist skills and in-
depth knowledge of the historical events, cultural contexts and military nuances of
the area in question [2].
In recent years, there has been an interest in the training of professionals working
in military tourism in Portugal, to keep up with new market trends and to meet the
expectations of visitors looking for this type of experience.
Between December 2018 and February 2019, the first Military Tourism Course
[3] took place, organised by the Polytechnic Institute of Tomar (IPT) in partnership
with the Portuguese Military Tourism Association (ATMPT), with the institutional
support of the Municipality of Tomar and the Regional Tourism Authority of Central
Portugal. The short course was attended by 20 trainees from different public and
private institutions, different areas of work and different regions of the country. At
the end of the course, ATMPT carried out a questionnaire among the trainees to
collect some data on the topics covered. The trainees expressed particular interest
in the sessions on storytelling, memories, narratives and innovation. Regarding the
areas of interest for future training in the context of military tourism, they highlighted
military and historical heritage, tourism and cultural communication and heritage
conservation and valorisation.
Following the growing interest and need for training in military tourism,
ATMPT, in partnership with TECHN&ART/IPT and the Regional Tourism Authority
of the Centre of Portugal, promoted various actions of “Capacity Building for
Military Tourism” [4], together with the Municipalities of the Central Portugal
Region. Between the months of October, November and December 2019, training
actions were promoted on “Military Tourism Routes”, “Storytelling”, “Organising
and Conducting Accompanied Visits” and “Museology, Military and Historical
Heritage”, with the aim of raising awareness and informing public and private actors
working in tourism and national military history about good practices in the field
of tourism activation of military and historical heritage. In addition to theoretical
sessions, lunch debates with professionals in the field and technical visits to the sites
where the actions took place were promoted.
More recently, as part of the Napoleonic Itineraries Portugal project, led by
the Coimbra Region Intermunicipal Community, made up of 13 municipalities and
funded by Turismo de Portugal, I.P., online sessions were organised for tourism agents
and employees of the municipalities involved in the project, to present the project and
promote the exchange and capacity building of agents working on the same theme in
different territories. The sessions “Napoleonic Itineraries: from resource to tourism
16 Proposal for the Creation of a MOOC on Military Tourism 205

product” took place on 9, 11 and 16 November 2022 and were hosted by ATMPT,
with the themes “Military Tourism and Napoleonic Itineraries: Network Project”,
“Product Development and Structuring” and “Storytelling: Narratives applied to
heritage and military tourism” [5].
Apart from the training actions mentioned above and the occasional exchange of
knowledge between professionals in the field, there is currently no specific training in
military tourism to accompany the new trends in demand for this type of experience.
Another case that has been observed in Portugal in recent years is the incorporation
of immersive technology into the visitor experience, either in monuments, interpre-
tation centres, museums or in conjunction with temporary exhibitions. For example,
the Municipality of Almeida invested in the creation of the “Conhecer Almeida”
app, which allows the user to take a guided tour of the built heritage of the Almeida
Fortress through augmented reality (AR) [6]. Another case is the aforementioned
“Napoleonic Itineraries Portugal” project, which is still in progress, incorporates
gaming elements into the tourist experience through virtual reality (VR). And the
temporary exhibition “Fuzileiros: 400 anos” at the Naval Museum included a series
of digital and interactive experiences through AR and a video mapping show [7].
Despite the awareness of the importance of accompanying technology in the tourism
sector, and more specifically at the level of military tourism, investments often depend
on applications for national and European funds to realise these projects.
In any case, there is no specialised training in military tourism, accessible to all,
to strengthen the skills of professionals in the field.
In line with the identified training gap, this paper proposes an online training
programme for tourism operators, in a Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) format,
with the aim of fostering the acquisition of specialised skills and enhancing the quality
of tourist experiences. It is possible to attest that MOOCs aimed at professionals in
the field of the course have a higher demand and a higher level of execution, because
the objective is to strengthen their competences and recycle knowledge [8].
The creation of a MOOC in Military Tourism will make it possible to reach a
large number of professionals in the field, from different regions of the Portuguese
territory, where they can learn at their own pace, according to their availability. The
course consists of three main modules, each focusing on key aspects of military
tourism, with three topics each, previously identified as specific issues and training
needs, adopting gamification strategies to make the learning process more engaging
and interactive.
The development and implementation of this programme should be guided by an
inclusive, collaborative and interactive process using gamification, involving feed-
back from participants and continuous refinement of the curriculum based on the
evaluation of learning outcomes. The goal is to create a programme that is both
pedagogically sound and engaging, that not only equips operators with the skills
they need, but also fosters a culture of continuous learning and improvement within
the sector [9].
206 C. G. Marques et al.

16.2 Literature Review

16.2.1 Military Tourism

Military tourism is a subcategory of cultural tourism that focuses on visiting

sites associated with military heritage, such as battlefields, military museums and
memorials [10].
According to the most recent definition proposed in the Encyclopedia of Tourism
Management and Marketing, military tourism can be defined as a type of tourism
“(…) based on the demand for places of historical and cultural interest associated
with military history in a given country or region, as well as the associated authentic
and distinctive experiences that evoke the history of a place and its community” [11].
Military history plays a crucial role in creating a national narrative of patriotism
and identity, rooting a sense of belonging to the community and its historical heritage.
As well as instilling pride and unity, it has a strong educational dimension, making
society aware of past events and their lessons, fostering a deeper understanding of
the past and a commitment to national values for the future [12].
As well as promoting historical and cultural knowledge, military tourism acts as
a catalyst for the development of new products and experiences. It has the potential
to stimulate the creation of new products and activities, while playing a key role in
driving innovation and enriching the local landscape and communities [13].

16.2.2 Skills Required for Operators in Military Tourism

Operators need a range of skills to deliver the high-quality tourism experience that is
now demanded. These include interpersonal skills, leadership skills and the ability
to develop, programme, create, plan and manage tours or tourism experiences [14].
In the context of military tourism, the needs remain the same. To provide a differ-
entiated and high-quality experience for visitors interested in military history and
culture, operators need to have a unique combination of skills.
Operators should have a thorough knowledge of military history and heritage,
including historical events, personalities and associated military structures. Being
familiar with the historical facts and having a thorough knowledge of the sites where
they operate will enable them to provide accurate information and create engaging
narratives to capture the attention of visitors, thereby also contributing to the protec-
tion and enhancement of this heritage [15]. Respect and understanding of the signifi-
cance of these sites is key. It is important to be culturally sensitive when dealing with
sites that may have important emotional or historical significance for local communi-
ties or visitors [16]. Of course, interpersonal skills are key to connecting with tourists,
empathising with them and understanding their individual needs and interests.
To be able to create and develop military tourism products, it is important that
operators effectively understand the concept of military tourism [13]. By knowing the
16 Proposal for the Creation of a MOOC on Military Tourism 207

genesis of the concept in Portugal and its evolution over time according to different
interpretations in the global context, operators will be able to structure products in
this area according to the needs existing in the different regions of the Portuguese
territory [17]. Creating tourism experiences in a military context requires careful
planning and efficient organisation, with the capacity to be flexible and adaptable.
One of the characteristics of military tourism is the creation of differentiated
experiences that integrate different tourism segments [11], such as wine tourism
or nature tourism. To produce this type of experience, operators need to have a
thorough knowledge of the existing resources that can be linked to the experience,
such as local wine tastings, gastronomy or outdoor tours. It is important to develop
interesting itineraries, select the best locations and ensure proper logistics.
In the field of military tourism, operators should adopt effective communication
strategies to provide tourists with a comprehensive and engaging experience. Oper-
ators must have the ability to communicate effectively, be friendly, empathetic and
understanding to create a positive relation with tourists, as well as the ability to tell
stories and provide information in a clear, engaging and informative manner during
visits. The ability to incorporate gamification and educational elements into tourism
experiences can make the visit more engaging and informative. Operators should
have the skills to create playful and educational activities that encourage learning
throughout the visit, contributing to meaningful tourism experiences by stimulating
positive emotions and deeper levels of engagement among tourists [2]. Authenticity
and respect for history must be maintained throughout the process of developing
these tourism experiences.
Considering the evolution of technology in tourism, several tourist-cultural institu-
tions related to military history, such as interpretation centres and military museums,
have invested in the use of technology to enrich the military tourism experience,
namely using mobile applications, VR and AR, as mentioned. It is important that
operators keep up with the updating and development of this technology. In some
cases, tourists can relive historic battles through VR, explore interactive maps and
access detailed information during their visit [18].

16.3 MOOC on Military Tourism Proposal

Given the unique nature of military tourism, the specific training of operators is vital
to ensure they are equipped to provide high-quality experiences [19]. The sector’s
niche character demands a diverse skill set, centring on both practical application
and theoretical comprehension.
In this sense, our proposal is the creation of a MOOC on Military Tourism aimed
at professionals in the tourism sector who work or could work in Military Tourism
in Portugal, with the aim of developing and promoting the unique and innovative
Portuguese military tourism offer at national and international levels. To this end,
we present a table with the structure of the course, designed to meet the skills needs
of tourism technicians in the context of military tourism (Table 16.1). The course
208 C. G. Marques et al.

has a duration and effort of 30 h and is made up of three modules: Module 1—

Historical and Military Heritage, Module 2—Creation and Development of Military
Tourism Products, Module 3—Communication in Military Tourism. Each module is
composed of three specific topics, with written and audiovisual content, where the
learning objectives are presented.
In this sense, assessment procedures and strategies need to be aligned with the
learning objectives of each topic. Consideration should be given to creating quizzes or
knowledge checks at the end of each topic to assess participants’ understanding of the
main concepts and facts presented in the course [20]. Practical tasks and small projects
can be assigned that require learners to apply what they have learned. For example: for
“Interpretation, narratives and storytelling”, participants can choose a place to visit
and develop a specific narrative for a particular audience. During the course, real or
hypothetical case studies related to military tourism can be presented so that operators
can analyse the situation, propose solutions and justify their recommendations based
on the course content, using discussion forums to encourage critical thinking and
reflection by asking open-ended questions. At the end, participants will be able
to complete a comprehensive final project that integrates the knowledge and skills
acquired throughout the course.
The MOOC on Military Tourism should be implemented in on the Portuguese
platform NAU, a pioneering online project at national level in Portugal to support
education and training for a wide audience. This is a service developed and managed
by the FCCN Unit of the Foundation for Science and Technology, which allows the
creation of courses in MOOC format [21].
Gamification elements can be introduced into each of the topics to make the
learning process an interactive, engaging and rewarding experience. These features
of gamification resonate with modern pedagogical theories that emphasise active
learning, problem-solving and immediate feedback, thus fostering a deeper under-
standing and retention of the learnt material [22]. According to the Octalysis Frame-
work, led by Yukai Chou, the gamification process takes place in four implementation
phases of Discovery, Onboarding, Scaffolding and Endgame [23].
The initial “Discovery” phase is designed to capture the interest of participants and
provide them with an intrinsic motivation to participate and learn. The subsequent
“Onboarding” phase, while providing initial challenges, offers a comprehensive
introduction to the game environment, ensuring that participants become aware of the
rules and dynamics of the environment in which they will be operating. During the
“Scaffolding” phase, the cultivation of knowledge and skills is incremental, fostering
an environment that encourages continuous learning and interactive improvement.
In the climactic “Endgame”, participants are confronted with a comprehensive simu-
lated scenario that brings all the skills and knowledge accumulated throughout the
journey, providing a practical and integrative experience [20].
Our analysis suggests that this gamified approach provides an effective and
engaging means of enhancing skills in the context of military tourism. It not only facil-
itates the acquisition of essential skills, but also creates a positive, collaborative and
competitive learning environment [24]. However, as with any pedagogical paradigm,
16 Proposal for the Creation of a MOOC on Military Tourism 209

Table 16.1 Proposal for the creation of a MOOC on military tourism

Modules Topics Learning objectives
M1. Historical and M1/T1. Military –Identify and understand the different types
military heritage structures of military structures that exist in Portugal
and classify them according to their historical
context and purpose
–Understand the strategic importance of
military structures in different historical
periods and regions
–Relate specific military structures to
significant historical events and conflicts,
highlighting their role in shaping military
history
M1/T2. Interpretation, –Develop skills in interpreting military
narratives and storytelling heritage sites, including understanding their
historical and cultural context
–Learn how to create engaging narratives and
storytelling techniques to convey the
significance and stories behind military
heritage and to tailor narratives for different
audiences, including tourists, students and
history enthusiasts
–Discuss ethical considerations when
interpreting military heritage, including
dealing with sensitive issues and conflicts
M1/T3. Protection and –Evaluate the conservation needs of specific
enhancing military heritage sites, including structural
integrity, environmental impact and visitor
management
–Understand the concepts of restoration and
adaptive reuse in the context of military
heritage, including their benefits and
challenges
–Explore sustainable practices for the
protection and enhancement of military
heritage, considering environmental and
economic factors
M2. Creation and M2/T1. Introduction, –Understand the concept of military tourism
development of concepts and structuring and its place in the tourism industry
military tourism –Recognise the key stakeholders involved in
products military tourism, including government
agencies, tour operators and heritage
organisations
–Learn how to structure military tourism
products, including routes, itineraries,
packages and tours, for different target
audiences
(continued)
210 C. G. Marques et al.

Table 16.1 (continued)

Modules Topics Learning objectives
M2/T2. Experiences –Develop the skills to create engaging and
creation and management informative military tourism experiences that
resonate with visitors and understand
techniques for engaging visitors emotionally
and intellectually through storytelling,
interactive exhibits and immersive
experiences
–Learn how to manage safety and risk factors
associated with military tourism experiences,
including visitor safety during guided tours
–Address issues of cultural sensitivity when
designing experiences, including recognising
the historical and cultural significance of
military sites
M2/T3. –Understand the logistical aspects of
Operationalization operationalizing military tourism products,
including transport, accommodation and
visitor services
–Learn how to manage the financial aspects
of military tourism operations, including
budgeting, pricing and revenue generation
–Explore effective marketing and promotion
strategies for military tourism products and
develop methods to ensure the quality and
consistency of military tourism products and
services
M3. Communication M3/T1. Digital content –Learn the basics of media production to
in military tourism creation capture and communicate the essence of
military heritage sites and gain skills in
editing digital content for multiple platforms
–Understand the principles of search engine
optimization to increase the visibility and
reach of military tourism content online
–Understand copyright and licensing
considerations when using multimedia
content in military tourism communications
M3/T2. Communication –Learn how to conduct audience analysis to
strategies tailor communication strategies to different
demographics and visitor preferences
–Explore strategies for effectively distributing
military tourism content through websites,
social media and other digital channels
–Develop techniques for using storytelling to
engage audiences emotionally and
intellectually, fostering a deeper connection
with military heritage
(continued)
16 Proposal for the Creation of a MOOC on Military Tourism 211

Table 16.1 (continued)

Modules Topics Learning objectives
M3/T3. Immersive –Learn about key projects and locations
technology where these experiences are being applied
and gain an understanding of VR and AR
technologies and how they can be applied to
enhance military tourism experiences
–Understand the importance of ensuring that
immersive technology experiences are
accessible to all visitors, including those with
disabilities
–Discuss the ethical and cultural
considerations when using immersive
technology at military heritage sites,
including respecting the historical
significance of the site

this approach should be subject to regular critical evaluation to ensure its continued
relevance and effectiveness in meeting the evolving needs of the tourism industry.
The proposed gamified training approach, steeped in educational modernity, epito-
mises the fusion of technology and pedagogy, underpinned by a solid understanding
of the capability needs within military tourism. Its multifaceted nature ensures a
comprehensive response to these needs, highlighting the transformative potential of
gamification in the field of professional development.
Military tourism is characterised by a diverse set of historical, cultural and
geographical elements, requiring operators to demonstrate a level of expertise that
can be effectively honed through a combination of formal education, technology-
assisted learning and immersive experiences [25]. MOOC in military tourism should
not be seen as a stand-alone project, but rather as an integral part of broader regional
development strategies. This requires the establishment of collaborative partnerships
between various stakeholders, including educational institutions, regional tourism
bodies, intermunicipal communities, municipalities, museums, tourism agencies,
technology companies and local communities. Together, these stakeholders can
work to create an ecosystem that supports the growth of military tourism and the
professional development of its operators [26].

16.4 Final Considerations and Future Work

The creation and proliferation of MOOCs play an important role in today’s society,
particularly in stimulating lifelong learning, allowing citizens to acquire knowledge
and skills throughout their lives. The way the content is delivered is the opposite
of formal education. It allows professionals in each field to learn new subjects and
improve their knowledge in order to stay relevant in a rapidly changing labour market.
212 C. G. Marques et al.

In addition, MOOCs offer several advantages in terms of accessibility, flexibility

and diversity of education, allowing anyone to access high-quality courses from any
educational institution in the world, over the Internet, often for free or at affordable
prices, at their own pace and on a wide variety of topics.
The creation of this MOOC has been designed to meet the needs of professionals
working in the field of military tourism in Portugal, allowing them to develop their
skills in this specific segment at their own pace, accessing the content according to
their schedule and availability. The future work will include the evaluation of the
MOOC by its users.
Military tourism presents a unique set of challenges that requires specific skills
from operators to deliver exceptional experiences. Achieving a delicate balance
between historical significance, cultural sensitivity and engaging storytelling is
crucial in this sector. Operators need to have a deep understanding of military history,
the context of conflict and the impact on local communities to create narratives that
engages visitors while respecting the sensitivity of these sites.
Incorporating gamification strategies into training allows operators to understand
complex historical details and effectively develop their storytelling skills, creating
differentiated and dynamic experiences and effectively communicating the potential
of Portugal’s historical and military heritage.
By continually investing in developing and enhancing their skills and acquiring
new knowledge, tourism professionals can ensure that they deliver exceptional mili-
tary tourism experiences that leave a lasting impact on visitors, while respecting and
promoting military heritage. Furthermore, it is crucial to foster a sense of cultural
appreciation and understanding in military tourism. Military tourism is not just
about battles, but about the people, societies and cultures affected by these historical
events. Operators should pre-send narratives that bring out human stories and cultural
nuances, encouraging tourists to understand history with nuance and empathy.
In this ever-changing tourism landscape, it is also essential to embrace continuous
innovation and adaptation. Capacity enhancement should be seen as a dynamic and
continuous process to keep pace with technological advances and evolving tourist
expectations.

Acknowledgements Work funded by national funds through the Portuguese National Funding
Agency for Science, Research and Technology (FCT) under the project UID/05488/2020—
TECHN&ART.

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Chapter 17
Cross-Border Tourism: A Residents’
Perspective of the Iberian Meseta Reserve

Elaine Scalabrini , Márcia Vaz , João Paulo Teixeira ,

Carlos Jesus Rivas Rojo, David Alonso, Lucía Mestre,
and Paula Odete Fernandes

Abstract Tourism destinations depend deeply on the contribution of residents, who

play a crucial role as stakeholders. Obtaining insight into their perspectives is crucial
for the success of the tourism industry. Hence, this study aimed to understand how
residents in the cross-border region of the Iberian Meseta Reserve perceive tourism
in their land. From April to May 2023, a questionnaire was administered to residents
aged 18 and above, selected from various locations such as shops, parks, restaurants,
streets, and residences. A total of 470 valid questionnaires were collected and anal-
ysed descriptively, focusing on the means and standard deviations of the effects. An
inferential analysis was conducted to determine the differences between the depen-
dence on tourism, gender, and the tourism effects. The findings revealed that residents

E. Scalabrini (B) · M. Vaz · J. P. Teixeira · P. O. Fernandes

UNIAG, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Vaz
e-mail: [email protected]
J. P. Teixeira
e-mail: [email protected]
P. O. Fernandes
e-mail: [email protected]
J. P. Teixeira
Research Centre in Digitalization and Intelligent Robotics (CeDRI), Associate Laboratory for
Sustainability and Technology (SusTEC), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
C. J. R. Rojo
Asociación Ibérica de Municipios Ribereños del Duero, Laguna de Duero, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
D. Alonso
Clúster Habitat Eficiente, Valladolid, Spain
L. Mestre
Fundación Santa Maria la Real del Patrimonio Histórico, Valladoli, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 215
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_17
216 E. Scalabrini et al.

generally hold a positive perspective on tourism in cross-border areas. The economic

effects ranked highest in mean perception, followed by the sociocultural effects, and
lastly, the environmental effects. However, it’s important to acknowledge a limitation
of this study, namely the uneven sample size between residents from Portugal and
Spain.

17.1 Introduction

In tourism research, residents’ opinions hold great significance as they are crucial
stakeholders in the development of tourist destinations [1, 2]. Investigating the rela-
tionship between residents and tourism is focused on the positive and negative effects
of tourism both positive and negative and is imperative, as negative perceptions can
lead to resistance and opposition towards tourism in the affected regions [3, 4].
However, research has revealed that residents often acknowledge the advantages of
tourism, particularly the economic and sociocultural contributions it brings [1].
Cross-country tourism is particularly interesting, where visitors explore places
that reside on the boundaries of different territories [5]. This form of tourism can
substantially impact residents’ lives and traditions [6]. In this sense, the present
study focuses on localities in a cross-border region between Portugal and Spain,
namely Atenor, Bemposta, Bragança, Miranda do Douro, and Rio de Onor (Portugal)
and Puebla de Sanabria, San Martin de Castañeda and Riomanzanas (Spain). The
strategy map for this low-density population region’s protection was previously elab-
orated under the Paisaje Ibérico Project [7]. This region boasts several natural tourist
attractions, including the Douro River, Montesinho Natural Park, Vinhais Biological
Park, and Arribes del Duero [8]. Although the Paisaje Ibérico project has analysed the
region’s tourism offer, no study has focused on understanding residents’ opinions
about tourism, which is a justification for conducting this research. In this sense,
this study aims to investigate the residents’ perspectives in this cross-border area
towards tourism, expanding the literature on the subject of residents’ perceptions,
which has already been studied in different tourist destinations around the world,
and contributing to the understanding of residents in cross-border areas, where a gap
was identified in the literature relating the two subjects.
To achieve this aim, the paper has been divided into five sections: introduction,
theoretical framework, methodology, results, discussions, and concluding remarks.
The theoretical framework centres on resident perceptions and cross-border tourism,
while the methodology elucidates the study’s approach. The results and discussions
section presents the findings, while the concluding remarks provide a reflection on
the study’s limitations and recommendations for future research.
17 Cross-Border Tourism: A Residents’ Perspective of the Iberian Meseta … 217

17.2 Theoretical Framework

The studies of resident perceptions concerning the impacts of tourism, encompassing

economic, sociocultural, and environmental dimensions, have been a subject of
considerable interest in tourism research. Such studies adopt various approaches,
often investigating the influence of demographic factors such as age, gender, educa-
tional level, and length of residency in the researched location. These studies are
conducted in diverse contexts, including events, destinations, and tourist attractions
[1].
Initially, tourism studies predominantly focused on tourists and territorial aspects
related to tourism [9]. However, since the 1970s, a noticeable shift has occurred, with
increasing attention being directed towards understanding residents’ perceptions of
tourism development in global destinations. Other authors have shown that social and
economic factors, residence place and economic dependence on tourism significantly
influence their perception [10]. Similarly, there is a study in which it was observed
that residents residing closer to areas experiencing high tourist flows tend to hold
more negative perceptions of tourism activities [11].
Another analysis highlights the role of direct economic dependence on tourism in
shaping residents’ perceptions. People who are economically dependent on tourism
are more likely to have a more positive perception of tourism [2, 10, 12].
The involvement of residents emerges as a critical factor in the success of a
tourist destination [12–17]. Positive residents’ perceptions can minimise conflicts and
negative sentiments. While residents generally acknowledge the benefits of tourism,
they are highly sensitive to its negative impacts. Residents who perceive substantial
benefits tend to support tourism development, whereas those who identify few or no
benefits may oppose it [18].
These analyses can also be conducted in cross-border areas. Several studies have
been dedicated to understanding border tourism, a segment involving visits to places
located on the borders of different territories [19]. Such destinations offer visitors
the opportunity to explore the cultural, historical, and landscape differences and
similarities between the bordering territories.
Cross-border tourism has the potential to bring economic, social, and cultural
benefits to the destinations involved, such as generating employment, fostering
trade and cooperation, enriching diversity, local identity, and promoting integra-
tion and peace among communities. However, it also presents challenges and issues,
including unfair competition, exploitation, smuggling, trafficking, violence, pollu-
tion, and loss of authenticity [5, 20]. Ensuring that tourism benefits both residents
and visitors, supporting sustainable development and preserving cultural traditions is
of paramount importance. Therefore, understanding residents’ perceptions becomes
a crucial aspect of tourism planning [19].
218 E. Scalabrini et al.

17.3 Methods

17.3.1 Study Site

The research was carried out within the cross-border region that spans Portugal and
Spain, specifically focusing on the Trás-os-Montes region in Portugal (Northeast
Portugal) and the Castilla y León region in Spain (Fig. 17.1).
The cross-border area is distinguished by the presence of the Douro River and
natural parks, which predominantly categorises it as a nature-oriented tourism desti-
nation. Comprising 87 municipalities on both sides of the border and encompassing
five protected areas, this region boasts remarkable rural, monumental, and culturally
significant heritage intimately intertwined with its ecological and natural attributes.
Consequently, it attracts tourists across various domains, potentially yielding both
positive and negative effects on the residents.

Fig. 17.1 Cross-border biosphere reserve Meseta Ibérica location [7]

17 Cross-Border Tourism: A Residents’ Perspective of the Iberian Meseta … 219

17.3.2 Data Collection and Analysis

This study constitutes an integral part of the DuraDOURO project, a collabora-

tive initiative involving a multidisciplinary team from both Portugal and Spain. The
primary objective of this research was to collect data from eight distinct locations
within the cross-border region, comprising five locations in Portugal and three in
Spain (as illustrated in Table 17.1). A stratified sampling methodology was employed
to ensure a comprehensive representation of the diverse characteristics inherent to
each locality.
This approach considered each area’s single attributes and peculiarities, enhancing
the study’s accuracy and reliability in capturing a holistic perspective of the cross-
border region under research.
In the period from April to May 2023, a questionnaire was administered to resi-
dents aged 18 years old and above, employing a random approach to gather data from
various locations, namely shops, parks, restaurants, streets, and residences. The study
accrued a total of 470 valid questionnaires, which were subjected to subsequent anal-
ysis. With a confidence level of 95% and a margin of error of 4.0%, the sample size
was deemed appropriate to represent the population under research. It is noteworthy
that the sample aligns with previous international studies on the subject, particularly
in line with Sharpley’s (2014) research.
Descriptive statistics were used to characterise the participants’ demographic
features for the sociodemographic analysis. Furthermore, the mean and standard
deviation of each statement were computed to assess the perceptions of the effects
and their respective rankings. To ensure the reliability and validity of the measure-
ment scale, Cronbach’s Alpha was applied. The internal consistency of the overall
effects (0.878), economic effects (0.724), sociocultural effects (0.820), and envi-
ronmental effects (0.630) was established, with all values exceeding the threshold
of 0.6 [21]. This verification lends further credibility to the study’s measurement
instruments and reinforces the robustness of its findings.

Table 17.1 Questionnaires

Local Country n %
applications per local
Atenor Portugal 17 3.6
Bemposta Portugal 25 5.3
Bragança Portugal 203 43.2
Miranda do Douro Portugal 61 13.0
Rio de Onor Portugal 25 5.3
Puebla de Sanabria Spain 106 22.6
San Martín de Castañeda Spain 23 4.9
Riomanzanas Spain 10 2.1
Total 470 100
Source Own elaboration
220 E. Scalabrini et al.

Considering previous studies that demonstrate that gender and tourism depen-
dence are discriminators of the effects [22], this study formulated hypotheses to
validate whether this reality also occurs in the analysed cross-border region. Thus,
given that the statistical assumptions were met, the following six hypotheses were
tested using the t-Student test.
H1 : There are differences concerning tourism dependence and the perception of
economic effects.
H2 : There are differences concerning tourism dependence and the perception of
sociocultural effects.
H3 : There are differences concerning tourism dependence and the perception of
environmental effects.
H4 : There are differences concerning gender and the perception of economic
effects.
H5 : There are differences concerning the gender and the perception of sociocul-
tural effects.
H6 : There are differences concerning gender and the perception of environmental
effects.

17.4 Results

17.4.1 Sociodemographic and Professional Profile

Concerning the participants’ sociodemographic characteristics, a significant majority

(61.1%) indicated that they were born in the municipality under study, suggesting a
strong sense of rootedness among the residents in the region. The average duration of
residency was calculated at 29 years, with a standard deviation of ± 23.731, further
supporting the notion of long-term attachment to the area.
In terms of gender distribution, the sample comprised a higher representation of
women, accounting for 56.4% of the respondents. The average age of the partici-
pants was 46 years, with a standard deviation of ± 18.241. Furthermore, a substan-
tial proportion of the sample (71.2%) reported having attained secondary or higher
education, meaning a relatively well-formed population. Additionally, most of the
participants were married, constituting 51.3% of the sample.
As for the economic aspects, the average monthly income of the participants fell
within the range of 760 e to 2160 e for 81.8% of the respondents. This data provides
insights into the income distribution within the sample population.
17 Cross-Border Tourism: A Residents’ Perspective of the Iberian Meseta … 221

Table 17.2 Effects’ means

Effects n X s Cronbach’s alpha
Economic 3.63 0.654 0.724
Create jobs for residents 470 4.02 1.112
Increase in prices of goods and 470 3.19 1.292
services*
Gives more visibility to the 468 4.34 0.875
destination, attracting more tourists
Job vacancies are occupied by 468 3.10 1.295
people who did not previously
reside in the destination
Opportunities for local businesses 469 3.83 1.148
Increases the residents’ income 466 3.65 1.182
Note *, Inversion of the items for calculating the global averages, by effect

17.4.2 Tourism Effects Perspectives

The mean score obtained for each effect statement (Table 17.2) demonstrates the
highest overall mean to the economic effects (3.62 points ± 0.653), followed by
sociocultural effects (3.49 points ± 0.422), and environmental effects (3.36 points
± 0.745). Notably, no effect means exceeded 4 points, like previous studies [23–25].
Analysing the individual mean scores for the effects, the statement with the highest
mean score (4.34 points ± 0.875) refers to “gives more visibility to the municipality
and can attract more tourists,” reflecting an economic effect. This finding aligns with
prior research [26, 27]. Regarding sociocultural effects, the highest mean score was
“promotes contact with different cultures” (4.18 points ± 0.911).
Similar to economic effect, the environmental ones are more noticeable to resi-
dents, as pollution and waste are evident daily. This finding is supported by a study
conducted in Faro, Portugal [26], which highlighted negative economic and environ-
mental effects as having the highest averages. In contrast, the cross-border region
under study demonstrated lower average environmental effect scores than the other
two categories. Nonetheless, it is essential to draw attention to the statement “increase
in rubbish” (3.14 ± 1.302), which emerges as a concern among the residents in the
analysed area (Table 17.3).

17.4.3 Hypotheses Validation

To determine if there is a significant difference between the effects means (Table 17.4)
and the variables related to tourism employment and gender, the t-Student test was
applied. As mentioned above, the statistical assumptions or applying the t-Student
222 E. Scalabrini et al.

Table 17.3 Effects’ means (cont.)

Effects n X s Cronbach’s alpha
Sociocultural 3.49 0.421 0.820
Increase crime rates* 469 2.11 1.041
Encourages residents to be more 470 3.80 0.990
culturally active
Promotes contact with different 466 4.18 0.911
cultures
Limits residents’ access to leisure 468 2.48 1.211
sites*
Encourages local culture and 465 4.05 0.971
handicrafts
The quality of services is better 468 3.73 1.099
Local people change their behaviour 468 2.43 1.186
to mimic the tourists
Increase the stress* 468 2.93 1.308
More public investment in the 467 3.64 1.127
cultural sector
Increases traffic* 465 3.87 1.142
Parking is difficult* 466 3.49 1.374
Increase cultural offers 467 3.88 1.030
Improve infrastructure and local 465 3.71 1.072
facilities
Increases public security * 466 3.19 1.139
Increases the number of people 466 4.23 0.946
circulating through shops,
restaurants, hotels, and services
Increases the sense of pride of the 466 3.98 1.032
residents
It is more difficult to preserve local 466 2.53 1.197
values, customs, and traditions*
Conflicts between tourists and 464 2.23 1.129
residents*
Environmental 3.36 0.735 0.630
Generates excessive noise* 468 2.68 1.218
Increase in air and water pollution* 467 2.67 1.261
Provides consciousness for the 466 3.55 1.089
preservation of natural areas
Increase in rubbish* 468 3.14 1.302
(continued)
17 Cross-Border Tourism: A Residents’ Perspective of the Iberian Meseta … 223

Table 17.3 (continued)

Effects n X s Cronbach’s alpha
Decreased water supply * 464 2.69 1.253
Infrastructure and visits to natural 465 3.77 1.050
areas are improved
Note *, Inversion of the items for calculating the global averages, by effect. n = sample; X = mean;
s = standard deviation
Source Own Elaboration

Table 17.4 Effects’ means per variable

Effects
n Economic (X ± s) Sociocultural (X . Environmental
± s) (X ± s)
Tourism Yes 146 3.82 (± 0.652) 3.47 (± 0.460) 3.16 (± 0.832)
employment No 324 3.54 (± 0.636) 3.50 (± 0.403) 3.44 (± 0.670)
Gender Female 265 3.63 (± 0.602) 3.47 (± 0.418) 3.29 (± 0.747)
Male 201 3.62 (± 0.712) 3.51 (± 0.429) 3.43 (± 0.703)
Source Own Elaboration

test was fulfilled. The null hypothesis was rejected when the p-value was less than
the significance level (p-value < 0.05).
The hypothesis test supported H1 , indicating differences in means concerning
the tourism employment and economic effects, signifying that residents that work/
worked in tourism tend to be a higher perception of economic effects (3.82 points
± 0.652). The hypotheses related to tourism employment and sociocultural and
environmental effects were not supported (H2 , H3 ). Related to gender, the economic
and sociocultural effects did not show significant differences (H4 , H5 ). However, the
hypothesis relating gender and environmental effects was supported, suggesting that
men tend to have a higher perception of these effects in the studied region (3.43
points ± 0.703) (Table 17.5).

17.5 Discussion and Conclusions

17.5.1 Main Findings

This study examined the residents’ perspectives towards cross-border tourism in

Northern Portugal, namely in the regions of Terras de Trás-os-Montes (Portugal)
and Castilla y León (Spain). It is worth noting that various locations around the
world have already researched to gather the thoughts and perspectives of their resi-
dents. Nonetheless, this is the first study conducted in this cross-border region and
224 E. Scalabrini et al.

Table 17.5 Inferential statistics

Hypotheses p-value Result
H1 : There are differences concerning tourism dependence and the < 0.05 Supported
perception of economic effects
H2 : There are differences concerning tourism dependence and the > 0.05 Not
perception of sociocultural effects supported
H3 : There are differences concerning tourism dependence and the > 0.05 Not
perception of environmental effects supported
H4 : There are differences concerning gender and the perception of > 0.05 Not
economic effects supported
H5 : There are differences concerning the gender and the perception > 0.05 Not
of sociocultural effects supported
H6 : There are differences concerning gender and the perception of < 0.05 Supported
environmental effects
Source Own Elaboration

provides insights into the residents’ perspectives towards tourism activity. It should
be mentioned the characteristics of low population density and economically fragile
regions where tourism is vital.
The results from the research showed that residents tend to perceive tourism posi-
tively in the cross-border area. In the literature, it is a common trend that economic
effects are more prominently perceived [26, 27], given their tangible nature and ease
of measurement by residents. Moreover, it becomes evident that in the border region
under research, the mean score for economic effects (3.63 points ± 0.654) surpasses
that of sociocultural and environmental effects. One of the key reasons behind this
observation in the region is its geographical attributes, which make tourism a signifi-
cant economic activity, leading to increased job opportunities and enhanced income
for the residents.
Cultural aspects play a vital role in studies on residents’ perceptions, a tendency
corroborated in the context of Brazil [25]. Notably, it should be acknowledged that,
according to the literature, the statement “increases the number of people circulating
in the destination” could be considered a negative aspect. However, given the char-
acteristics of the cross-border region, residents perceive the influx of more tourists
positively, indicating the growth of tourism in an area with limited prior exposure
to tourism activities and relatively low effect from overtourism. Furthermore, the
perception of the statement “increases crime” as the least significant sociocultural
effect is likely linked to the region’s current state of security. Finally, the results
related to the economic effects are similar to the studies conducted in other regions,
where these are the statements with lower mean [26].
Concluding, the hypothesis test validated what has already been highlighted in
the literature, demonstrating that residents who have an economic relationship with
tourism tend to have a higher perception of the economic effects of tourism [22].
17 Cross-Border Tourism: A Residents’ Perspective of the Iberian Meseta … 225

17.5.2 Theoretical Implications

Some theoretical implications can be presented with this study, once exploring the
factors that influence positive or negative attitudes can provide valuable insights into
community acceptance of tourism and its potential effects on residents’ quality of
life. Residents’ perspectives play a crucial role in shaping the destination’s image and
identity. The study can shed light on how tourism development influences residents’
perceptions of their community and how they perceive their cultural heritage and
natural resources in the context of the cross-border tourism, an area still under-
explored in the literature. This knowledge can be vital for managing tourism in a
way that aligns with the destination’s identity and fosters a sense of pride among
residents.
Related to the cross-border tourism studies, understanding residents’ perspectives
on both sides of the border can shed light on the complexities of cross-border inter-
actions and highlight the potential for cross-border collaboration and cooperation in
tourism development.

17.5.3 Practical Implications

Some practical implications of this research are related to stakeholder engagement,

tourism planning and management, marketing and promotion, community capacity
building and sustainable tourism development. In other words, this study provides
invaluable direction for creating a sustainable and mutually beneficial relationship
between tourism and the local community. It allows for an inclusive and participa-
tory approach to tourism development, ensuring that residents’ opinions are gotten
and considered in decision-making processes. In other words, bearing in mind the
residents’ opinions is crucial in the planning process.

17.5.4 Limitations and Future Studies

One potential limitation of this study examining residents’ perspectives on tourism

concerns the sampling method. While the researchers employed a random selection
process across a variety of venues, including shops, parks, restaurants, streets, and
residences, there exists the possibility that the sample group may exhibit certain
biases based on geographic or socioeconomic factors. Furthermore, the study’s
restricted focus on a specific time, such as April and May of 2023, may not provide
a comprehensive understanding of how tourism patterns vary seasonally or due to
other relevant factors.
Another limitation of the study is the subjectivity of residents’ responses when
answering the questionnaire. Residents’ perceptions may be influenced by response
226 E. Scalabrini et al.

bias or memory, leading to potential inaccuracies or biases in evaluating their percep-

tions of the effects of tourism. Additionally, relying on self-reported responses could
result in limitations in the representativeness of the sample and the generalisability
of the findings to the entire resident population, as non-response is a possibility in
questionnaire-based studies.
Furthermore, the results of the study may lack objectivity due to the dependence on
self-reported data and the lack of external validation. Future research could comple-
ment the existing study by using additional methods such as conducting in-depth
interviews or analysing secondary data to address these limitations. This would
strengthen and confirm the residents’ perceptions of tourism in the study area, thereby
enhancing the overall validity and reliability of the study’s findings.

Acknowledgements This project is being carried out within the scope of the DuraDOURO—El
Duero como recurso perdurable del paisaje y el territorio de la frontera, 0785_DURADOURO_2_
E, financed by FEDER, through the POCTEP. The authors are also grateful to the Foundation for
Science and Technology (FCT, Portugal) for financial support through national funds FCT/MCTES
to CeDRI (UIDB/05757/2020 & UIDP/05757/2020), SusTEC (LA/P/0007/2021) and to UNIAG
(UIDB/04752/2020 & UIDP/04752/2020).

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Chapter 18
The Impact of Work-Life Conflict
on Employees’ Emotional Well-Being
and the Adoption of Quiet
Quitting—A Study Case Applied
to the Portuguese Hospitality Industry

Helena Carina Ferreira Rocha, Márcia Duarte,

and Sérgio Dominique-Ferreira

Abstract The present paper aims to understand the relationship between work-
life conflict, emotional well-being, burnout, and the recently emerged quiet quit-
ting phenomenon. Considering the importance of understanding quiet quitting
antecedents and outcomes, as well as it’s relation with the above-mentioned vari-
ables, the authors propose a study within the Portuguese hospitality industry aiming to
better understand this new phenomenon. Hospitality is especially vulnerable in what
concerns to human resources practices and employee’ well-being, and considering
its contribution to the economy and its long-lasting difficulties in retaining talent.
Bearing this in mind, the present work seems to have several contributions, being
this, to our knowledge, the first study relating these four concepts, in Portugal, and,
specifically, within the hospitality industry. The theoretical framework covers four
important constructs: work-life conflict, emotional well-being, burnout, and quiet
quitting. Results from the literature review suggest a negative relationship between
work-life conflict and well-being. Conflicts are correlated with increasing burnout.
It is also recognized that employees may adopt quiet quitting behaviors, in order to
protect themselves from burnout and to improve their work-life balance. This work

H. C. F. Rocha (B)
School of Management, Polytechnic Institute of Cavado and Ave (ESG-IPCA), Barcelos, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
M. Duarte
Department of Management, School of Management, Polytechnic Institute of Cavado and Ave
(IPCA), UNIAG (Applied Management Research Unit (UNIAG), Barcelos, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Dominique-Ferreira
Department of Marketing and Tourism, School of Hospitality and Marketing, Polytechnic
University of Cavado and Ave (ESHT-IPCA), UNIAG (Applied Management Research Unit
(UNIAG), Barcelos, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 229
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_18
230 H. C. F. Rocha et al.

contributes to the literature by identifying some key risk factors that can foster quiet
quitting.

18.1 Introduction

It is widely known that hospitality industry has been facing several problems in what
concerns to Human Resources Management. Due to atypical working schedules,
which includes rotating shifts and working on weekends and holidays, employees
will have a bigger difficulty in effectively managing both work and personal life
domains, lacking time for their leisure, frequently experiencing work-life conflict.
This interrole conflict can have a negative impact on employees’ emotional well-
being, increasing anxiety, stress, and burnout experiences.
In the wake of the Covid-19 pandemic, a new workforce, setting new priorities
has emerged. The pandemic brought undeniable changes to the workforce, changing
the way employees see life and work. Some disengaged workers join two emergent
phenomena: the Great Resignation, and months later, quiet quitting. Quiet quitters
deliberately limit their efforts and availability at work, which, according to most
authors can be justified by lack of motivation and disengagement and as a way
employees adopt to protect themselves from burnout and to achieve a better work-life
balance.
Considering the importance of understanding quiet quitting antecedents and
outcomes, as well as it’s relation with work-life conflict, emotional well-being, and
burnout, we propose a study within the Portuguese hospitality industry aiming to
better understand this new reality.
The post-pandemic overtired workforce, with different work and life priorities,
is demanding more from employers: Workers are valuing work-life balance more
than ever as well as their own well-being. This could represent an additionally hard
challenge for hospitality managers, in a sector where burnout levels are tremen-
dously high and work-life balance is especially hard to achieve. Several authors
enhance the lack of quality work environments in hospitality, stating that they are
not supportive for employees’ work-life quality, as they promote emotional exhaus-
tion, depersonalization, and limited personal accomplishment [1, 2]. In the current
context, workers are not living to work, and not available to give up leisure. They
are prioritizing their well-being and establishing a better work-life balance, this,
sometimes, requiring a reduced work productivity, making them to engage in quiet
quitting, keeping on performing the minimal tasks required and avoiding extra efforts
[3]. The present paper aims to understand the existing relationships between work-life
conflict, emotional well-being, burnout, and quiet quitting.
18 The Impact of Work-Life Conflict on Employees’ Emotional … 231

18.2 Work-Life Conflict

Managing work and non-work domains is a great challenge for organizations as it

impacts psychological, physical, and behavioral health [4]. The modern working
environment is demanding, as it is expected that employees balance multiple roles
while keeping on working with maximum productivity [5]. Furthermore, work is
currently seen as an instrument to support a lifestyle and ensure optimal conditions
for the individual’s personal life [6], this being an indicator of the new workers’ prior-
ities and the importance of work-life balance for them. When the energy, time, and
demands of work interfere with the personal sphere and its inherent roles, work-life
conflict arises, work and family spheres become incompatible: It becomes harder to
perform one of the roles because of what the other one requires [7, 8]. Work-family
conflict is “the extent to which experiences in the work (family) role result in dimin-
ished performance in the family (work) role” [9, p. 65]. According to the authors, this
definition assumes that WFC represents “cross-role interference in performance”:
When an individual sacrifices time or energy devoted to one domain because of the
other, the performance in this last will be reduced. It is “a form of interrole conflict
that occurs when workers are exposed to high job demands exhausting their valuable
resources such as energy and time and making them incapable to meet their profes-
sional role and to have adequate leisure activities” [10]. There are four main mech-
anisms of conflict that justify different kinds of interference: time, strain, behavior,
and energy. Time-based conflict occurs when time applied to one domain preju-
dice time available for the other domain and its related responsibilities; stress-based
conflict—occurs when stress resultant from one domain, makes it harder to perform
and accomplish responsibilities on the other domain; behavior-based conflict—arises
when behavior in one of the domains becomes incompatible with the other domain
requirements; energy-based conflict—arises when energy devoted to one domain
reduces energy available for the other domain [7–9].
Employees’ overall well-being suffers a negative impact from conflict between
life and work domains [11]. It can bring health-related consequences, impacting both
mental and physical health, self-reported general health, health-related behavior,
sleep quality [12], family well-being, and emotional well-being [7, 13]. It increases
anxiety, one of the main risk factors for burnout [14]. Besides that, it affects also
organizational outcomes, such as productivity and turnover [7, 13].
Although it can be a problem for several workers, it is especially pernicious for
hospitality workers due to non-standard working hours, the lack of sufficient human
capital allied with low wages and limited benefits [15]. In the hospitality industry,
there are some risk factors that influence employees’ well-being, such as high work-
load and pace of work, low remuneration, insecurity, and instability regarding the
employment situation, low possibilities of career advancement or promotion, lack
of resources, and low level of support are some of the recurring problems in the
sector [16]. Hospitality workers also deal with reduced leisure time to spend with
family and friends, which, besides instigating work-life conflict, generates a sense
of fatigue and negatively affects their motivation to engage in customer service work
232 H. C. F. Rocha et al.

[17, 18]. In fact, they are usually unable to achieve a desired work-life balance.
Due to that reality, they are more prone to stress at work as well as outside work,
this leading to conflicts in both domains and problems in their relationships, which
will impact negatively their mental and physical health [19]. Moreover, they often
provide services to customers on their holidays, which can increase their frustration,
emotional stress and disengagement, especially when they are not assured their own
leisure time, due to work-life imbalance.
Work life conflict can endanger emotional well-being, increasing anxiety and
frustration [20], strain, resources depletion [5] and fatigue [17]. The lack of leisure
will also affect psychological well-being [21].

18.3 Emotional Well-Being (EWB)

Due to its scope and complexity, it is not easy to find a concrete definition for
emotional well-being. Emotional wellness is the capacity to successfully manage
life’s stresses, cope, and adapt to change and difficult times [22]. It is a positive mental
state, by which individuals are able to handle their emotions within life activities
[23]. It can be simpler defined as the emotional quality of individual’s experiences
[24] or as the capacity to generate positive thoughts and to cope with adversity and
stress [25]. EWB is as a measure of emotional vitality and good feelings that allows
individuals to feel good and energetic, experiencing high levels of positive affect. It
embodies satisfaction with relationships, the subjective perception of social support
[26]. EWB is, in fact, an umbrella term for several psychological concepts and a
multi-dimensional composite, comprising life satisfaction, life purpose and positive
emotions, psychological well-being, thriving and subjective well-being [26, 27]. As
the name suggests, it is centered on emotions: among their EWB dimensions there are
positive emotions and moods (e.g., happiness); absence of negative emotions, moods,
and states (e.g., stress, sadness, loneliness) [26]. It is not mandatory that there is an
absence of negative effects, but a predominance of pleasant effect (positive affect)
over unpleasant effect (negative affect) in the individuals’ life overall perceptions
(past, present, and future) [28].
Emotional well-being influences the quality of relationships and the ability to give
and receive love (self-love and for others), so the lack of it will endanger relationships
[29]. High levels of EWB are also favorable for recovery and survival of physically ill
patients [30]. In the same way, positive affect is beneficial for the immune and cardio-
vascular systems and for stress reduction [30]. Additionally, individuals reporting
high levels of SWB are more likely to be more successful than their peers and to hold
better social relationships [31], more probable to secure job interviews, to have better
evaluations at work, to handle with job requirements in a better way, showing good
performance and productivity, being unlikely to show counterproductive workplace
behaviors and job burnout [32]. Individuals with high levels of EWB are expected
to be stable, confident, and able to cope, and to show empathy for others [33]. When
individuals understand their own emotions, learning from them and coping through
18 The Impact of Work-Life Conflict on Employees’ Emotional … 233

them, they will achieve a positive emotional state that will foster success. EWB has
a positive role on individual’s mental health and overall well-being: It controls the
health-seeking behavior, while increasing decision-making skills, improving inter-
personal communication, and helping to recover from stressful experiences or illness
[23].

18.4 Burnout

Burnout is an occupational phenomenon that can be described as a syndrome

resulting from chronic workplace stress that has not been successfully managed [34],
comprising three main dimensions—people feel emotionally and physically overex-
tended, drained, tired, with lack of energy; cynicism—people adopt a cold, distant
attitude toward work and the people on the job, lack of involvement; and infectiveness
or reduced professional efficacy—people feel a growing sense of inadequacy, over-
whelming, with lack of confidence [35]. It is a state of mental fatigue convoyed with
mental stress prevenient from the work environment, a delayed answer to chronic
stressors, also more common in people-related professions [36]. The prevalence of
burnout is quite high in service industries. This can be explained by the phenomenon
of chronic labor shortage, work and function overload, long working hours, and
pressure from superiors and colleagues. In addition, the high contact with customers
and often the management of complaints may also be explanatory factors [37, 38].
Burnout is more likely to arise when there is a great mismatch between the nature
of the job and the nature of the person who performs it. This mismatch between the
person and the job can be characterized by: work overload; lack of control; lack of
reward; lack of community; lack of fairness; value conflict [35]. It is mainly caused by
work stress, intense work environment, excessive workload, or hostile working envi-
ronment [39]. Also, interpersonal conflicts, with clients, colleagues, or managers,
increase the burnout risk significantly, acting as a stimulator [40].
As widely studied, burnout carries several costs, not only for people’s health,
but also for the organization. It increases physical problems (headaches, gastroin-
testinal illness, high blood pressure, muscle tension, chronic fatigue), mental distress
(anxiety, depression, sleep disturbance), issues at home (exhaustion and negative feel-
ings that can affect relationships with family and friends) [35], leading to physical,
emotional, and mental fatigue [39]. There are costs for the job as well, individuals
who experience burnout may adopt negative attitudes toward work: drops in perfor-
mance and commitment, dedication decrease, inhibition of creativity and innovation,
work accidents, absenteeism, withdrawal intentions, and physical and mental illness
[1, 2, 38, 41, 42]. Besides the individual harmful consequences, burnout can affect
interpersonal relations as well: Burned out employees can be seen as a burden for
their coworkers as they can promote work delays or overburdening the colleagues
with work, they are not capable to handle due to emotional exhaustion [1]. Like-
wise, people’s experience at work influences their lives outside work. High levels of
burnout may result in difficulty to accomplish family duties.
234 H. C. F. Rocha et al.

Even though burnout is a global hazard, it is especially significant in the hospi-

tality industry, considering the existence of favorable factors for its manifestation:
excessive workload, long atypical working hours, unpredictable shiftwork, taxing
employees’ emotional and physical capabilities, all these mentioned factors can
justify emotional exhaustion, high work-related stress and intention to quit [1].
Burnout rate of hospitality workers is tremendously high, one of the highest of
all industries: It is estimated that one in seven hotel and restaurant workers suffers
from burnout [43]. Besides all the general health and organizational outcomes, it can
also “undermine customer loyalty” as staff is not providing the best quality service
to the customer [44]. Customers unfair treating causes emotional exhaustion and
the prolonged aggressive leadership promotes psychological distress and increases
turnover intentions [1]. Hotel employees are overtired and emotionally exhausted due
to the various above-mentioned job stressors, which can lead to voluntary turnover
[36].

18.5 Quiet Quitting

With the pandemic, workers got the chance to “slow down and re-evaluate their lives
by questioning how they were spending their time and what moments they were
missing out on by themselves and with their loved ones” [46, p. 3]. The pandemic
had indeed harsh impacts on employees’ health, finance, and well-being [46]. It
affected not only employees’ mental health but also their job security and perception
of work and life placement [45]. Although there were pre-existing workforce prob-
lems in hospitality, the pandemic crisis intensified fragilities. The fact that hospitality
employers were only worried about the customers and in creating a secure environ-
ment to welcome them back, neglecting once again employees’ needs and fears, was
another dissatisfaction cause [46]. In the wake of the pandemic, some disengaged
workers joint two emergent phenomena: The Great Resignation, and months later,
quiet quitting. There is no consensual definition for quiet quitting. It is a mindset
whereby employees decide to deliberately limit their efforts in what concerns to
work activities, avoiding volunteering to extra tasks or to exceed the pre-established
expectations. By doing that they are able to maintain their employment status and, at
the same time, they are prioritizing their well-being and work-life balance [47, 48].
Quiet quitters are less psychological invested in their work, choosing to continue
fulfilling their primary responsibilities, but avoiding going beyond by refusing or
simply ignoring extra efforts/activities such as staying late, showing up early or
attending non-mandatory meetings, those being usually defined as citizenship behav-
iors [48]. Some indicators of quiet quitting are disengagement on a chronic basis;
performance only to the minimum set of performance standards; isolation from other
members of the team; withdrawal from any non-necessary conversations, activities
or tasks; attendance at meetings but not speaking up or taking action; and team-
mates report a sudden increase in their workload in having to pick up the slack
[49]. Quiet quitters deny the idea that “work should be at the heart of the personal
18 The Impact of Work-Life Conflict on Employees’ Emotional … 235

life,” rejecting the hustle culture and fighting to recalibrate their disturbed work-life
balance and to reclaim their endangered well-being, dedicating more time to other
meaningful things to them. Quiet quitters show a low psychological commitment and
a lack of engagement; they are re-prioritizing their efforts according to their values,
looking for more autonomy, independence, flexibility (e.g., remote work opportu-
nities) in order to better balance their time between work and non-work activities,
family time, or personal projects [50]. A matter of concern in quiet quitting is that it
can be contagious within the business and organization, leading to severe decreases
in productivity, motivation, quality of work and customer satisfaction, as well as
increased absenteeism [39]. Organizational disengagement, decreased performance,
absenteeism, presenteeism, bore-out syndrome, discomforting coworkers, unethical
behaviors, organizational corruption, perceived organizational injustice, counterpro-
ductive work behaviors, devastating corporate reputation and brand image, decreased
well-being, undeveloped skills, and job loss [51]. In what concerns to positive conse-
quences, employees may have the chance to improve their mental state and personal
life. Surprisingly, some (quiet quitters) experienced a positive impact on their career,
which can be justified by the increasing sense of pleasure and fulfillment with the
job, after engaging in quiet quitting [47]. While improving their work-life balance,
employees reduce stress and anxiety [52], which can reveal that employees are
adopting QQ as a strategy to protect their well-being or to relieve an overburdened
mind.

18.6 Conclusion

Several studies concluded that work-life conflict negatively affects employees’

psychological well-being [5, 11, 53, 54]. Specifically speaking about burnout, work-
life conflict is proven to positively contribute to burnout [21, 55, 56], negatively
affecting leisure participation and well-being [57] with those with high work-life
balance tending to experience lower levels of burnout [3]. It is proved that conflict
can trigger burnout, while affecting work productivity and the quality of people’s
life, as individuals that are unhappy with the job and workplace environment may
experience work-life conflicts and the continuity of conflict may foster burnout. It is
also clear that employees are re-prioritizing their efforts accordingly to their values,
seeking more autonomy and remote positions to achieve a greater independence
and flexibility to spend more quality time with family and friends or work on side
projects [58]. Workers are not living to work, and not available to give up leisure.
They are prioritizing their well-being and establishing a better work-life balance,
this, sometimes, requiring a reduced work productivity, making them to engage in
quiet quitting, keeping on performing the minimal tasks required and avoiding extra
efforts [59].
In the same vein, several authors are suggesting that employees are adopting quiet
quitting to avoid burnout, protecting their well-being while achieving a desirable
work-life balance [3, 47, 50–52, 57, 58, 60]. Besides that, we can assume that some
236 H. C. F. Rocha et al.

quiet quitters are already suffering from burnout and to mitigate its effects engage
in quiet quitting: Cynicism and depersonalization behaviors are common on quiet
quitters, as they reveal a detached attitude and a cold behavior. Due to high work
stress and a resulting emotional exhaustion, workers choose to reduce their efforts
to avoid sources of work stress and by that protecting their own well-being [45].
Emotional exhaustion can also lead to disengagement and depersonalization that will
motivate quiet quitting attitudes [58]. Recent studies, performed within the health
sector, showed that higher levels of burnout are positively related with higher levels
of QQ [52, 59].

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT,
Portugal) for financial support by national funds FCT/MCTES to UNIAG (UIDB/04752/2020 and
UIDP/04752/2020).

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Chapter 19
Reviving the Templar Tale: Proposal
for the Creation of an Immersive
Experience Through the Templar
Heritage of Tomar

João Tomaz Simões , Lígia Coutinho Mateus ,

and Célio Gonçalo Marques

Abstract The aim of this paper is to advance the theoretical discourse on the
enhancement of cultural heritage in tourism by presenting an integrative framework
for the development of immersive tourist experiences. Using the Templar heritage of
Tomar as a case study, this research employs a qualitative methodological approach
to identify and inventory tangible, intangible, and natural resources related to the
Templars. Subsequently, the paper conceptualizes a mobile application using geolo-
cation, augmented reality (AR), and artificial intelligence (AI). This application is
designed to bring together all the catalogued Templar heritages in an interactive,
gamified experience, thereby addressing the tourism management requirements of
personalization and differentiation. A multi-disciplinary analysis incorporates histor-
ical, cultural, symbolic, and touristic perspectives, enriching the visitor’s engagement
with the Templar narrative. The final product is conceived as a tool for cultural preser-
vation and as a strategic lever for strengthening the positioning of Tomar as a unique
and exemplary Templar tourist destination.

J. T. Simões (B) · L. Coutinho Mateus · C. G. Marques

TECHN&ART—Centre of Technology, Restoration and Art Enhancement, Polytechnic
University of Tomar, Estrada da Serra, Quinta Do Contador, 2300-313 Tomar, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
L. Coutinho Mateus
e-mail: [email protected]
C. G. Marques
e-mail: [email protected]
J. T. Simões
ISLA Santarém, R. Dr. Teixeira Guedes 31, 2000-029, Santarém, Portugal

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 241
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_19
242 J. T. Simões et al.

19.1 Introduction

Tourism infrastructure and its strategic design are crucial for transforming a
geographical area into an alluring destination. This meticulous orchestration of routes
and itineraries can stimulate a plethora of advantages, ranging from fortifying the
local economy to buttressing cultural and environmental conservation [1].
This paper aims to operationalize the theoretical constructs of immersive expe-
riences within the framework of heritage tourism. Focusing on the Templar legacy
in Tomar, the research seeks to catalogue its diverse cultural, historical, and natural
assets while proposing a gamified visitor experience enhanced by innovative tech-
nologies. Recognizing the untapped potential of tourism helps to preserve and
promote the rich cultural and historical heritage of an area, thereby fostering a sense
of community ownership of locally significant traditions and heritage [2]. Moreover,
the valorization of cultural heritage serves as a catalyst for broadening the spec-
trum of potential visitors, thereby fostering cross-cultural exchange and creating an
environment ripe for mutual cultural appreciation [3].
This multi-faceted approach to curating tourism experiences aims not only to boost
local economies through increased visitor spending, but also to support cultural and
environmental preservation efforts. This contributes to a sustainable, dynamic, and
holistic tourism industry [4].
Immersive experiences are designed to engage visitors profoundly, transcending
mere touristic sightseeing to stimulate emotional, intellectual, and sensory facul-
ties. This heightened level of engagement facilitates a more authentic connection
between the visitor and the cultural essence of the destination [5]. Such immersive
experiences, when meticulously crafted, can significantly enrich visitor interactions,
thereby attracting a larger visitor pool, stimulating economic gains, and promoting
sustainable cultural development. These benefits collectively enhance a destination’s
reputation as an enriching and memorable locale [6].
In a market increasingly congested with competing destinations, it is the distinct,
immersive experiences that captivate and retain visitors [7]. Enriched experiences that
prioritize local culture, historical heritage, and sustainability empower destinations
to foster more responsible and conscious tourism. It is essential to rigorously assess
and mitigate any environmental, social, and cultural repercussions to ensure equitable
benefit distribution and a universally positive tourism experience [4]. Investing in
innovation and technology is indispensable for crafting these immersive experiences,
serving as a stimulant for local tourism industry development.
With the Templars’ seminal influence during the Middle Ages in Europe, particu-
larly in pioneering intricate commercial networks and introducing ground breaking
business practices, they offer a fascinating thematic core for a unique tourism expe-
rience. The work “Performance, Innovation Modes and Territorial Embeddedness”
emphasize the role of the local environment—or “territorial embeddedness”—in
fostering innovative performance [8].
The enduring allure of the Templars lies in their complex history, architectural
marvels, and the cloud of myths surrounding them. This multi-faceted appeal makes
19 Reviving the Templar Tale: Proposal for the Creation of an Immersive … 243

them an optimal focus for thematic tourism experiences [9]. The subsequent sections
of this paper will delve into our specific methodology, elaborate on the theoretical
frameworks relevant to our study, discuss the potential challenges and opportunities,
and finally, outline our key recommendations.

19.2 Methodology

The overall objective of this research is to explore the unique potential for
tourism experiences, anchored in the city’s Templar heritage. This encompasses
both elevating Tomar’s appeal to tourists and contributing to the conservation and
promotion of the Templar legacy.
The case study methodology will be used as a research framework to identify
the various Templar assets in the city. Documentary analysis was used to gain a
comprehensive understanding of both the tangible and intangible Templar assets.
The Qualitative Data Analysis method involved coding the textual data, categorizing
the codes into themes related to historical relevance, cultural significance, and tourist
potential, followed by a narrative synthesis.
A meticulous review of the existing literature provided a nuanced insight into the
influence of the Templars on the socio-cultural fabric of the city over the years. This
literature review involved the interpretation of primary sources such as manuscripts,
legal documents, and architectural plans, as well as secondary sources such as schol-
arly articles and books. The insights gained were then integrated into the research
findings in order to contextualize the identified Templar resources historically and
culturally.
Tangible resources—such as buildings, monuments, and artefacts—were assessed
based on a set of predetermined criteria, including historical relevance, significance,
state of conservation, accessibility, and tourist potential. These criteria were selected
following a review of best practices in heritage conservation and tourism research.
Intangible resources such as legends, myths, and local narratives were examined for
their potential to enhance the visitor experience and establish a deeper connection
with the Templar heritage.
The study aims to provide a multi-faceted tourist experience by exploiting the
city’s unique Templar heritage. The chosen criteria for evaluation are based on
both heritage conservation standards and current tourism trends and aim to strike
a balance between preserving the city’s historical essence and boosting its tourist
appeal. Our research aims to identify the most important Templar heritage sites in
Tomar, Portugal, in order to develop an engaging tourism experience.
The methodology consists of a review of the academic literature on Templar
history and heritage tourism [10, 11]. The research also conducted on-site evaluations
of the selected heritage sites, namely by assessing factors such as their current state
of preservation, security measures, accessibility, ticketing, and existing facilities.
The aim was to evaluate the sites for their potential to be integrated into a larger
tourism experience. Criteria for site selection were determined based on historical
244 J. T. Simões et al.

significance, architectural value, and overall suitability for tourism. The data were
mainly collected from the websites of the Sistema de Informação para o Património
Arquitetónico (SIPA) [12] and Direção-Geral do Património Cultural (DGPC) [13]
databases, where a qualitative analysis was carried out. These institutions are the main
sources of information on Portuguese architectural, urban, and landscape heritage.

19.3 Tomar: A Historical and Touristic Case Study

in Templar Heritage

Tomar is located in the central region of Portugal, specifically in the Santarém district,
Médio Tejo. It has been identified as a city with deep ties to the Templar heritage that
dates to the medieval era [14]. The focus of this section is to explore Tomar not only
as a Templar heritage site but also as a tourism offering with a range of attractions
beyond the Templars.
The city served as a strategic fortress and headquarters for the Templar Order,
gaining historical and cultural prominence over the years [15]. While the Templar
history forms the core of Tomar’s identity, it also has other elements worth noting,
such as its architectural diversity and community engagement in preserving history.
Among the city’s prominent attractions, the Castle of the Templars and the Convent
of Christ stand out. Both have been recognized for their historical and architectural
significance, with the latter being a UNESCO World Heritage Site [16]. These land-
marks are often featured in tourist itineraries and scholarly discussions, reflecting
their multi-faceted importance [17].
Beyond its Templar ties, Tomar is replete with other cultural assets like churches,
museums, and cobbled streets that reveal the city’s rich history [18]. The architecture
ranges from medieval to Renaissance and Baroque, showing the stylistic evolution
of the city over centuries. According to various travel reviews and cultural journals,
Tomar’s warm and hospitable environment adds a unique layer to its appeal. This
is an observation supported by tourists’ testimonials that speak to the welcoming
nature of the city’s inhabitants [10].
Creating immersive tourist experiences is a part of Tomar’s strategy to promote
and preserve its heritage. This is supported by studies that highlight the importance
of experiential tourism in historical preservation [11]. These experiences encourage
tourists to engage more deeply with the city, thus supporting the preservation of its
rich cultural history [10].
Various initiatives have been spearheaded to celebrate and enhance the Templar
heritage. These range from annual events like the Templar Festival to unique activ-
ities such as Templar camps organized by local history enthusiasts [19]. In 2016,
the Templars Route European Federation association (TREF) was created, an initia-
tive founded by Aube (France), Tomar (Portugal), Ponferrada (Spain), and Perugia
(Italy) [20]. Between 2020 and 2023, Tomar assumed the presidency of TREF and
guided several initiatives [20]. The Templar Route project, launched in 2020, adds
19 Reviving the Templar Tale: Proposal for the Creation of an Immersive … 245

another dimension to Templar tourism. Covering various municipalities, it is aimed

at becoming a well-recognized tourism product [21]. The Municipality of Tomar
has also invested in curating Templar-themed tourist routes, and the recently inau-
gurated Tomar Templar Interpretation Centre is a testament to this commitment
[22]. This centre uses modern technology and sensory experiences to enrich visitor
understanding of the Templars.
Tomar’s international allure is not solely based on its Templar history but also on
its capacity to offer immersive experiences. By effectively capitalizing on its rich
past, the city not only preserves its history but also provides varied and enriching
experiences for tourists [23].

19.4 Unveiling the Templar Legacy: Key Attractions

and Cultural Significance in Tomar

The research involved the identification and analysis of the material, immaterial,
and natural Templar heritage of Tomar. After conducting on-site evaluations and a
qualitative review, the research identified the most crucial heritage sites from both
a historical and tourist standpoint. These include landmarks such as the Castle of
Tomar, the Convent of Christ, and others, as outlined in Fig. 19.1.
Each site offers visitors the opportunity to explore the history of the Templars,
their architectural innovation, and the spiritual significance they gave to their struc-
tures, enriching the experience with layered historical narratives and cultural depth.
Ensuring that the interpretation of these sites is historically accurate and engaging
for a broad range of visitors requires careful planning and execution. One of the
research challenges is to balance heritage conservation with the requirements of
modern tourism. This includes considerations for safety, accessibility, and ticketing,
among other factors. Sustainable tourism management practices are vital in this
context.
The objective of this study is to serve as a foundational element for the creation
of an engaging, gamified Templar Experience in Tomar. These sites are key compo-
nents in the creation of this experience, providing a rich context and history of the
city’s relationship with the Knights Templar. The aim of the experience, which links
these key points, is to offer a tangible narrative of the Templar legacy that can be
explored and experienced today. Creating a Templar Experience in Tomar offers
a transformative journey into the Templars’ glorious past, revealing their strategic
strength, religious devotion, and enduring influence. This exceptional experience,
interwoven with centuries of history and mysticism, consolidates Tomar’s place as
a key destination for those wishing to discover the remarkable legacy of the Knights
Templar and Portugal’s maritime heritage.
246 J. T. Simões et al.

Fig. 19.1 Map with the identification and brief description of the key elements of Tomar’s Templar
heritage that can be integrated into an immersive gamified experience

19.5 Reviving the Templar Legacy: A Gamified Journey

Through Tomar

Incorporating the central tenets of gamification, location affordances, and user

engagement previously discussed, this proposal articulates an interdisciplinary
framework aimed at enriching the touristic experience in Tomar. Based on the rich
19 Reviving the Templar Tale: Proposal for the Creation of an Immersive … 247

narrative axis of the Templars, this innovative initiative aspires to offer both cultural
and historical immersions in an entertaining and interactive way.

19.5.1 Methodology: Geocaching and Augmented Reality

in Heritage Tourism

Background. Emerging from the principles of geocaching, a widely recognized

recreational and educational activity [24], this endeavour seeks to modernize and
expand upon the traditional format. Geocaching is based on the thrill of a treasure hunt
but made more dynamic and information-rich through the use of GPS technology.
By capitalizing on this concept, tourists are encouraged to engage directly with the
rich cultural tapestry of Tomar.
Application to Tomar. The proposed system integrates these elements into a bespoke
mobile application. Unlike standard geocaching, which is often disconnected from
any overarching narrative or theme, the app aims to seamlessly integrate rich educa-
tional material about the Templars. This will be accomplished using augmented
reality (AR) technology.

19.5.2 User Engagement and Dynamics

How It Works. After downloading the app and completing the registration process,
users will find themselves on a digitized map of Tomar. Scattered throughout the map
will be various “points of interest,” each linked to a cache containing either physical
or virtual rewards, and challenges or questions that the user must answer to progress.
They are provided with a “digital Templar Passport” to record their progress.
Rewards and Recognition. By completing challenges and successfully finding
caches, users earn badges or points that can later be redeemed for physical rewards
or certificates. A unique “Templar Honoris” membership certificate can be obtained
from the Tourist Office upon completion of all challenges.

19.5.3 Illustrative Case Studies

Item 1: Templar Castle

Historical Background. Founded in the twelfth century under the stewardship of D.
Gualdim Pais, the Templar Castle in Tomar stands as a testament to medieval military
architecture [15]. The fortress not only protected the settlement but also served as a
248 J. T. Simões et al.

base for the order’s operations in the region. Pais, an expert in military fortifications,
introduced revolutionary designs such as the Alambor and keep [15].
Gamified Experience. Through the app, participants can undertake quests that lead
them through the castle grounds and the Charola, a unique circular chapel of signif-
icant religious and architectural importance [25]. AR can resurrect long-faded fres-
coes and architectural details, allowing users to see the castle and chapel as they
would have appeared in their heyday.
Item 3: Mata dos Sete Montes
Overview. Nestled within the fortified boundaries of the Castle and the Convent of
Christ, this forested area is steeped with mysticism [17]. This natural setting adds a
layer of complexity and intrigue to the history of the Knights Templar.
Gamified Features. Challenges include solving riddles based on Templar history,
or finding AR-enabled representations of Templar knights hidden in the scenery.
A highlight would be the Charolinha, a small stone temple designed by João de
Castilho, presented through AR as if he himself was there to guide you through its
secrets.
Item 7: Praça da República and D. Gualdim Pais
The setting. Located in the heart of Tomar, this public square hosts a statue of D.
Gualdim Pais, the 4th Grand Master of the Order of the Temple [26].
Gamified Elements. Users can interact with a holographic AI avatar of D. Gualdim
Pais and listen to his first-hand account of the history of the Templars in Portugal
and the city’s formative years. Quests and challenges here could focus on the social
contributions of the Templars, their religious ideologies, or their relations with other
Portuguese and European entities.
Concluding Remarks. By combining traditional methods of historical engagement
with modern technological features, this proposal promises to take heritage tourism
in Tomar to the next level. Much more than a sightseeing excursion, it offers a
deeply immersive, interactive, and educational experience that grounds the narrative
of Tomar in its rich Templar heritage.

19.6 Conclusion

The city of Tomar, with its incomparable Templar heritage, offers a unique oppor-
tunity for those interested in culture and history. With its vast architectural, natural,
and immaterial resources, this awe-inspiring municipality serves as a living tapestry
that embodies the formidable power and far-reaching influence of the Templars. As
these seemingly disparate threads intertwine, they bring to life a complex narrative
of Templar history, a story waiting to be unravelled and appreciated by the curious
observer.
19 Reviving the Templar Tale: Proposal for the Creation of an Immersive … 249

The Templar Experience proposed seeks to encapsulate the rich tableau of Templar
history by drawing on numerous integral elements. These resources not only anchor
the experience in the historical legacy of the Templars, but also extend to a wealth
of complementary cultural and tourist assets, creating a holistic visitor experience of
richness and depth.
The use of immersive experiences through gamification strategies allows us to
create a different experience for the user. The competitive elements and the ability to
earn achievements and rewards encourage the pursuit of knowledge and enhance the
sense of community and collaboration [27]. Leaderboards or ranking systems can
be used to create a competitive environment that encourages participants to improve
their skills and knowledge. This can lead to higher level of active participation and
effort among users, resulting in a better understanding of the history and culture of
the site [23].
These heritage resources and the experience curated pave the way for a better
understanding of deep imprint that the Templars have left on the historical and cultural
fabric of Tomar. The experience acts as a tangible channel through which the past
reaches the present, offering an enriching historical narrative that goes beyond mere
aesthetic appreciation. This historical narrative of the Templar legacy is essential for
a deeper understanding of the lasting influence and monumental contributions of the
Order.
Tomar, with its deep-rooted Templar history and wealth cultural resources, is an
irreplaceable historical beacon. The city is a testament to the enduring legacy of the
Templars, whose powerful influence echoes through the centuries, transcending the
boundaries of time and space. An immersive historical experience, Tomar, offers
a rare opportunity to relive the grandeur of the Templar era, uncovering the layers
of a past full of faith, power, strategy and architectural innovation. This inimitable
blend of history, culture, and natural beauty makes Tomar an essential destination for
anyone wishing to experience the mystical aura of the Templars. The creation of the
Templar Experience is therefore an important step towards preserving, celebrating,
and sharing the remarkable Templar heritage that has indelibly marked the city of
Tomar.

Acknowledgements Work funded by national funds through the Portuguese National Funding
Agency for Science, Research and Technology (FCT) under the project UID/05488/2020—
TECHN&ART.

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Chapter 20
Business Intelligence Tools to Improve
Business Strategy

Maria Inês Campante, Célia Talma Gonçalves,

and Maria José Angélico Gonçalves

Abstract In the past, decision-support systems were non-integrated systems in an

organization and, therefore, had a weak relationship with other information systems.
Today, business information systems are the foundation of an organization, and prac-
titioners design and implement business intelligence tools integrated into existing
information systems, creating a comprehensive decision-support environment for
management. Thus, innovating, increasing efficiency, and maintaining competitive-
ness for businesses are essential. Several business intelligence tools are on the market,
ranging from standard MS Excel spreadsheets to OLAP tools and data mining soft-
ware. With the advent of big data and the fact that data seamlessly gain dimension,
a specialized approach to big data analytics has emerged, which is more data-driven
and deals with large volumes, a variety of feeds and a higher rate of data feed. This
article presents the leading business intelligence tools that combine operational data
with analytical tools to extract and present complex, competitive, and valuable infor-
mation for decision-making. The methodology used to achieve this objective was a
critical review of the available tools and technologies: a literature review and content
analysis of websites. As a result, the most prominent BI tools and their main func-
tionalities were identified and posted in a summary table, and some conclusions were
pointed out.

M. I. Campante
ISCAP, Polytechnic of Porto, ISCAP, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
C. T. Gonçalves · M. J. A. Gonçalves (B)
CEOS.PP, Polytechnic of Porto, ISCAP, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
C. T. Gonçalves
e-mail: [email protected]
C. T. Gonçalves
FEUP, LIACC, Porto University, Porto, Portugal

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 251
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_20
252 M. I. Campante et al.

20.1 Introduction

Nowadays, organizations are constantly pursuing the need to predict their future
to make data-driven decisions with a high degree of complexity in an agile and
expeditious manner based on the information they generate and provide.
The development of systems that enable analysis for decision-making in organi-
zations has increasingly been identified as essential for improving the quantity and
quality of information available for strategic decision-making in organizations [1–3].
In this context, decision-support systems (DSSs) are vital in the organizational
environment since they automate daily activities to support strategic decision-
making. These systems emerge to respond to the needs of managers at strategic,
tactical, and operational levels.
At the strategic level, through Business Intelligence Systems, it is possible to
define the main goals (the organization’s strategic Key Performance Indicators) and
objectives and to monitor them [4].
Implementing and using BI tools are essential for making better decisions and
enhancing the organization’s performance. Implementing BI tools is complicated,
and many factors contribute to the successful implementation and use of BI tools.
However, there are no commonly agreed success measures for implementing BI.
This paper presents the leading business intelligence tools that combine opera-
tional data with analytical tools to extract and present complex, competitive, and
valuable information for decision-making.
After this introduction, Sect. 20.2 presents the main topics in the study area.
Section 20.3 describes the methodologic approach, the procedures for data collection,
and data analyses. Section 20.4 offers and discusses the results of the study. Finally,
the main conclusion and the limitations of this study are described in the final section,
in addition to future research opportunities on the topic.

20.2 Theoretical Background

20.2.1 DSS to Enable Decision-Making

Since the 1970s, researchers have focused on developing computer-based technology

solutions that can be used to support complex decision-making and problem-solving
[5].
A DSS is an information system that analyzes massive datasets effectively to aid
business decision-making. DDS aims to develop and deploy information technology-
based systems to support the decision-making processes [1, 6, 7]. According to [8],
the DSS aim is to help decision-makers.
The large volume of data, the large number of options to consider, the need for
analysis based on sophisticated mathematical models due to the uncertainty of the
decisions, the large number of possible alternative solutions, and the achievement of
20 Business Intelligence Tools to Improve Business Strategy 253

Fig. 20.1 Business processes decision-making

competitive and efficient advantages for organizations make DSS of great relevance
for organizations.
Figure 20.1 shows the roadmap to enable the decision-making process [9], where
we can see that raw data are transformed into information and knowledge and by
which an environment is created to adopt effective strategic decision-making.
Business intelligence and decision-support systems are nowadays recognized
as critical enterprise infrastructure. Upper and middle managements commonly
use decision-support systems (DSSs) to develop alternative outcomes based on
pre-existing and historical business data [10].

20.2.2 Business Intelligence

The evolution of contemporary society has been a determining factor in creating new
mechanisms and systems to assist organizations in decision-making to become more
competitive, have a greater organizational capacity, and obtain positive results at a
global level.
The Business Intelligence System was developed around 1990 by the researcher
Howner Dresner, who belonged to the Gartner Group and who stated that BI is a
term used in business management that serves to describe the different applications
and technologies that are used to collect, provide, and analyze data and information
that constitute an organization, to be used to assist in making important decisions
based on organized and analyzed data [11].
According to [12], the use of Business Intelligence in organizations is essential
and beneficial because it helps to process data quickly and obtain deeper detail
about the work that is done through financial analysis, marketing communication
planning and the management of different departments, which provide information
254 M. I. Campante et al.

about suppliers and customers, which help to structure which are the best strategies
to adopt to receive positive results and thus overcome the competition [12].
It should be stated that the Business Intelligence concept is understood as a digital
tool that has mechanisms that help the user to collect, process, store, and organize a
large amount of data to assist in decision-making processes and the interpretation of
relevant information [13].
According to [3], the use of BI tools brings changes at various levels, namely
in the organizational context, not only in decision-making but also in the quality
of data, human resources, and the time to perform certain practices. Regarding the
repercussions on decision-making, the BI tools impact three levels: data quality,
data analysis, and even the human factor [3, 14]. Regarding the first factor, the
authors state that it is characterized by being essential in creating value from existing
processes. Concerning data analysis, they show that decision-making must consider
data analysis and control to manage the business promptly. Finally, human factors’
impact on managers’ decisions depends on the nature of the problems raised.
The limitations of implementing the BI can be summarized in internal, external,
and technical factors. Berhane et al. [14] identified internal factors and [15] state that
there may be limitations in the knowledge of their employees in the use of BI tools
without adequate training for them. There is also a tendency for the organization’s
employees to use existing tools and processes instead of this kind of information
systems, even if this takes longer to run. Regarding external factors, the same authors
emphasize that when external IT consultants exist, difficulties may arise in obtaining
the necessary support in using BI concerning organizational processes. In addition,
regarding technical factors, the same authors state that problems may occur in the
quality of the information in this new tool. Difficulties may also arise that cause the
information to be manually entered into the system, which will also be a problem
considering that there is a possibility that this manual process has errors or failures.
Information privacy can be a technical challenge for organizations, as it can cause
problems when data are loaded into the BI system [16]. It is, however, necessary that
to maximize their performance, they outline strategies and plans so that the Business
Intelligence tools meet their needs, constantly considering all the challenges and
limitations described here.

20.2.3 Business Intelligence Systems’ Components

Business Intelligence Systems offer data integration and analytical capabilities that
provide valuable decision-making [1].
According to Wixom and Watson [17], BI is a process that includes two primary
activities: getting data in and getting data out. Getting data in, traditionally called
data warehousing, involves moving data from a set of source systems into an inte-
grated data warehouse. The second activity, commonly referred to as BI, consists of
business users and applications accessing data analytics. Figure 20.2 presents the BI
framework.
20 Business Intelligence Tools to Improve Business Strategy 255

Fig. 20.2 BI framework

The information comes from different sources, such as other information systems
such as Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), Customer Relationship Management
(CRM), and Supply Chain Management (SCM) tools, among others [18]. However,
through the extract, transform, and load (ETL) process, only essential information
will be considered in the needs of each department so that there is no excess of
information, thus concentrating the data from the different sources of the organization
in a more agile way in the elaboration of reports in the Business Intelligence tool
used.
The data warehouse, which holds all relevant internal and external data, is often
considered the core of BI. The quality and format of data sources vary, as does their
meaning, depending on their origin. Today, data are more granular and produced in
much larger volumes than ever. Extract, transform, and load are standard methods to
integrate this data and ensure its validity and usefulness to an organization. In addi-
tion, the tool cleanses the data before storing it in the data warehouse and preparing it
for BI tasks. These are the back-end processes of a traditional BI system. When data
are available in a central data warehouse, different levels of media servers are used for
data analysis, which serves as the basis for decision reports used by decision-makers
[19].

20.3 Materials and Methods

The present study aims to identify the primary business intelligence tools that
combine operational data with analytical tools to extract and present complex,
competitive, and valuable information for decision-making. In order to realize the
proposed objective, an exploratory study with a qualitative approach was carried out.
The technique used to collect empirical data was content analysis of the available
256 M. I. Campante et al.

information contained in the tools websites, manuals, and documents of the tools.
Some tools were also installed and explored.

20.3.1 Tools’ Selection

Implementing and using BI tools are essential to make better decisions and improve
the organization’s performance. In 2018, [2] developed a study where he presented a
research conceptual framework to identify critical factors in BI tools. The framework
defined the essential success factors and divided them into Organization, Technology,
Environment, and Process categories. Moreover, [20] defined the fundamental
characteristics of BI tools.
In addition [21], by applying a graphical treatment and a uniform set of evaluation
criteria, a Magic Quadrant helps you quickly ascertain how well technology providers
are executing their stated visions and how well they are performing against Gartner’s
market view (see Fig. 20.3).
The BI tools are used in the business context. Gartner’s Magic Quadrants provides
graphical comparative current market trends through a two-dimensional matrix that
assesses a vision study and execution capacity.
Also according to [21], the Leaders indicate the software which matches their
vision of the software and has a solid foundation for implementing new functionalities
that will be needed in the future. The visionaries have a good understanding of the
market and ideas about changing the market rules but still need to execute better. The
Niche players match a specific task but need help competing on other fronts, which

Fig. 20.3 Magic quadrant

for business intelligence
20 Business Intelligence Tools to Improve Business Strategy 257

can be related to a need for more innovation or performance. The challengers have
solid software that executes well but needs to understand the market’s direction.
Given the above, the tools selected were Microsoft Power BI, Tableau, Qlik,
MicroStrategy, IBM Cognos Analytics, Oracle Analytics, and Looker (Google Cloud
Platform, since 2019). We analyzed all the tools of the quadrant Leaders quadrant
and some of the best-placed tools in the Visionaries and Niche Players quadrants.

20.3.2 Data Collection

An analysis matrix was developed to record the functionalities/features of the BI

tools. For each of the tools analyzed, the following items:
• Supported Operating Systems.
• Functionalities.
• Advantages.
• Disadvantages.
Data were collected during the period March 2023–July 2023.
The following section presents the results.

20.4 Results Presentation

The present study briefly presents, analyzes, and compares the Business Intelligence
tools selected. At the end of this section, a summary table is given with the main
features addressed in the study.

20.4.1 Power BI

Microsoft has developed Power BI in 2015. It is a cloud-based business analytical

and visualizing tool for business decision-makers to monitor business performance
and interact with data to obtain more or less detailed business insights.
Power BI is a software consisting of several tools that allow data analysis, linking
data from different sources, as well as creating reports, graphs, visualizations, and
dashboards, which allow analyzing the performance indicators and metrics that are
most relevant to the growth of the organization and support the decision-making
process [22, 23]. Power BI has two paid options: Power BI Pro, which allows publi-
cations on the Web, and Mobile and Power BI Premium, which has advanced features
in Azure [22].
The main advantages are that the tool is low-cost and easy to handle [24], updates
are frequent and present pre-defined graphics that help inexperienced users [25], and
258 M. I. Campante et al.

it also contains a considerable diversity of graphics/visualizations with appealing

design, allows integration with several data sources and the extraction and transfor-
mation of data in a simple way, and also allows integration in the cloud and the use of
formulas and DAX expressions (Data Analysis Expressions). Power BI has sophis-
ticated data visualization features and an intuitive design and integrates excellently
with the rest of the Microsoft Office [26]. However, it also has the disadvantage that
it only exists for the Windows operating system [27].
Microsoft Power BI has been recognized as the first Leader in the Analytics and
Business Intelligence Platform in the Gartner Magic Quadrant [21].

20.4.2 Tableau

Tableau was founded in 2003 as a result of a computer science project at Stanford

that aimed to improve the flow of analysis and make data more accessible to people
through visualization [28].
Tableau is one of the leading solutions for business intelligence and is available
on premise and on a public cloud basis. It is a data visualization tool that allows the
creation of interactive visualizations from a set of data from various databases, such
as Excel, PDF, and Text File, and various servers, such as MySQL and OneDrive
[29]. It is a tool that has adopted the self-service BI model [30] as it offers an
analytical component so that users can present, analyze, and prepare data, identify
patterns, and obtain results more quickly [25]. Analyses can be presented through
dashboards, online visualizations, scatter plots, and analytical panels [24], providing
live visual analysis and interactive dashboards. Tableau is available for Microsoft
Windows, Android, and iOS [30].
One of Tableau’s special features is the inclusion of Natural Language Processing
(NLP), allowing users to quickly describe what they are looking for using their
own words. Another advantage is integrating with Google Analytics [30]; a large
community of users uses it, and it is user-friendly. A disadvantage is that it is a costly
tool [25].
However, Tableau provides basic prepossessing; thus, cleaning data must be recur-
ring to other tools. Visualizations provided are also limited when compared with other
tools, have few hardware requirements, and require advanced programming knowl-
edge, with drag-and-drop techniques to allow the integration of data and the creation
of visual graphs.

20.4.3 QlikView

QlikView is a data visualization and business intelligence software created by the

Qlik company, which was founded in 1993 by three Swedish [31].
20 Business Intelligence Tools to Improve Business Strategy 259

QlikView is a business intelligence and analytics software with which users can
quickly and efficiently create data visualizations, reports, and dashboards and interact
and collaborate with real-time data analysis. QlikView enables users to assemble data
from multiple sources (such as Excel and SQL databases), explore data, discover
insights, solve business problems, and make informed business decisions. QlikView
is available only in the desktop version [32]. QlikView provides the means for the
complete development of a BI tool, from extracting, transforming, and loading (ETL)
data to developing and designing a Dashboard. QlikSense is [25] a self-service BI
tool more focused on business users. Both share the same engine running the data
and rely on a script for data modeling.
The advantages of the Qlik tool are continuous updating of data preparation and
analytical capabilities [25] and functionalities to perform complex calculations and
modeling that come from a large amount of data. Regarding the disadvantages, it is
a complex tool compared to Power BI and Tableau tools. It is necessary to obtain
scientific knowledge, and it does not present quality in the visualizations [25], in
addition to its high cost [24].

20.4.4 MicroStrategy

MicroStrategy was founded in 1989 by Michael J. Sylor and Sanju Bansal [33].
The tool has software that helps companies in data processing with the ability to
make reports accurately and efficiently, thus allowing the introduction of Business
Intelligence in organizations. Over the years, it has grown and is now one of the largest
companies with as many customers: small, medium, and large. MicroStrategy offers
a clear and easy-to-use interface that allows you to work more effectively and utilize
all the tool’s features. All tasks are performed through the Web or Desktop interface.
It has the competence to create reports with a great capacity for analysis [30]. The
tool only works on operating systems of Microsoft Windows [33], UNIX, and Linux
[34].
There are advantages associated with the MicroStrategy tool, such as developing
BI software applications according to business data, having the possibility to analyze
a large amount of data, the layout of the tool being dynamic for visualizations and
creating statistical-based reports. On the other hand, it has disadvantages because it
is a rather complex tool; sometimes, there are development problems, and the user
must have deep knowledge about the platform to elaborate their analyses [33].

20.4.5 IBM Cognos Analytics

IBM Cognos Analytics, formerly known as IBM Cognos Business Intelligence, is a

web-based business intelligence platform that enables data analysis, reporting, score-
carding (a tool for managing the performance of applied strategies), and metrics
260 M. I. Campante et al.

monitoring [35]. It allows data import from different cloud sources and databases
such as SQL, Google BigQuery, and Amazon. Due to the use of artificial intelligence,
Cognos Analytics allows an automatic preparation and connection of the imported
data into the tool. It contains different functionalities, such as creating dynamic dash-
boards, discovering unknown patterns, and customized reports [36]. IBM Cognos
Analytics presents three paid versions: Standard, Plus, and Premium [36], and a free
30-day trial version, Cognos Analytics with Watson [37]. The tool can be used on
the following operating systems: AIX, Linux, Mobile OS, and Microsoft Windows
[36, 38].
The IBM Cognos Analytics tool has advantages; for example, it is a self-service
BI tool, which means that it is easy to understand and use, prepares data based
on artificial intelligence, and allows different deployment options: on the device
itself, in the cloud or through platforms such as Microsoft Azure, Google, AWS.
The disadvantage of this tool is that the cost to acquire it is high, and it needs to
present innovation in its functionalities [39]. Its latest version includes an artificial
intelligence (AI) assistant interface and native natural language generation (NLG).

20.4.6 Oracle

Oracle Corporation was founded in 1977 by Larry Ellison, Bob Miner, and Ed Oates.
It is a US-based company that develops and markets hardware systems and enter-
prise software products [40]. Oracle Analytics is a platform that provides different
services related to the processing and evaluation of data (which can be stored in the
cloud or on the desktop) that result in valuable information that will be used in the
organizations’ decision-making. Oracle Analytics employs artificial intelligence and
machine learning to make its structure more innovative and provide a connection,
preparation, modeling, exploration, and sharing of information obtained through data
processing [41]. The functionalities of this tool are: explore and search for visual or
verbal information. It allows for a “search-like experience”, a spoken narration of
the results of analyses, instead of the display of traditional dashboards. Presentations
related information through graphs and customized maps according to the studies
performed. There is the possibility to interconnect data sources that belong to Oracle
with those that do not, and finally, it offers analytical solutions already realized [41].
The advantages of this tool are that it has the functionality to create deeper anal-
yses, the program is available in 28 languages, and the user can store the data through
the cloud. As for the disadvantages, it presents competitive products, but the public
does not know them, and only Oracle Cloud can access any data source and business
analytics applications [39].
20 Business Intelligence Tools to Improve Business Strategy 261

20.4.7 Pyramid Analytics

Pyramid Analytics was developed by Omri Kohl, Avi Perez, and Herbert Ochtman.
It is a platform that provides analytical functionality and data visualization without
needing in-depth knowledge of the subject, as it is a self-service BI tool. Due to the
ease of use, users can perform business analyses and dashboards and make deci-
sions faster in just one platform. The platform’s functionalities are easier because
of artificial intelligence. Pyramid Analytics provides a query engine, PYRANA,
which is an engine that helps in building and performing calculations associated
with numeric databases [42, 43]. The tool is exclusive to the Microsoft Windows and
Linux operating systems [43].
According to [42], there is only one component associated with the tool, which
is Pyramid’s Tabulate app—a virtual spreadsheet that is designated for business
modeling and provides real-time business data through queries, visualizations, and
flexible formatting; all the information that is pulled out can be presented or shared
through interactive dashboards, visualizations, and reports.
Pyramid Analytics has advantages such as sharing information across multiple
datasets and metadata, easy use, and installation of the platform. It provides automatic
and dynamic visualizations, but it also has disadvantages as it needs more innovation
and vision about the tool, no product quality, and low market visibility [39].

20.4.8 Looker

Looker is a company based in Santa Cruz, California, in the USA, and was founded
in 2011 [44]. It is a Business Intelligence and Big Data Analytics software that
provides help with exploring, analyzing, and sharing information in real-time through
dashboards and visualizations. It is possible to work with different databases such
as BigQuery, Redshift, and Snowflake and also with different cloud platforms such
as Google Cloud Platform or AWS [45].
Looker is built on a web architecture hosted in the cloud, and it runs entirely in
the browser; hence, unlike Power BI, Tableau, and Qlik, there is no need to install a
desktop version.
The Looker tool has advantages such as the user experience, the tool is of good
quality, and it can model the data and reuse data and calculations in other applications.
Regarding the disadvantages, the tool can only be used in the USA, Great Britain,
Ireland, and Japan; it lacks data preparation and visualization capabilities and requires
knowledge of computer programming [39].
Comparing Business Intelligence Tools.
Table 20.1 summarizes the BI tools, highlighting the most important features that
discriminate each tool.
Table 20.1 Business intelligence systems
262

BI tools Visualizations Operating systems Functionalities Advantages Disadvantages

Microsoft Power BI • Reporting • Microsoft Windows • Data lake • Low cost • Only available for the
• Graphical • Android • Extract–transform– • Easy to use Windows platform
visualizations • iOS load • Drag and drop • Limited data storage of
• Dashboards data interface 1GB for power BI
• OLAP • Frequent upgrades desktop free version
multidimensional • Supports almost all
analysis. Data types of sources
processing • Large variety of
• Security access levels reports/visualizations
• Data modeling • Cloud-based version
• Deep learning
algorithms
• Real-time data
analysis
• Integration with MS
products
• Interactive
visualizations
Tableau • Dashboards • Microsoft Windows • Extract-transform- • Self-service BI • Highly cost
• Graphical • Android Load • There is no limitation • Needs skilled users
visualizations • iOS data on the data analyzed
• Microsoft Windows • OLAP • Supports almost all
multidimensional types of sources
analysis • No limited storage
• Basic data • Loud-based version
manipulation functions • Integration with R and
• Security access levels Google analytics
(continued)
M. I. Campante et al.
Table 20.1 (continued)
BI tools Visualizations Operating systems Functionalities Advantages Disadvantages
Qlik • Dashboards • Microsoft Windows Extract–transform–load • Supports almost all • Needs skilled users
• Graphical • Android data types of sources
visualizations • iOS • OLAP • Ability to perform
multidimensional complex calculations
analysis and modeling
• Data modeling
MicroStrategy Reporting • Microsoft Windows • OLAP • Analysis of a large • Not easy to use
• Graphical • UNIX multidimensional amount of data
visualizations • Linux analysis • Dynamic layout in
• Dashboards Predictive analysis and visualizations
alerts • Supports almost all
• High-security access types of sources
levels • Integration with MS
office suite
IBM Cognos analytics • Reporting • AIX; • Data lake • Self-service BI • Highly costly
• Data analysis • Linux • Data processing tools • Easy to understand
• Mobile OS • Data modeling and use tool
20 Business Intelligence Tools to Improve Business Strategy

• Microsoft Windows • advanced ML

algorithms
(continued)
263
Table 20.1 (continued)
264

BI tools Visualizations Operating systems Functionalities Advantages Disadvantages

Oracle analytics • Reporting • Microsoft Windows • Data processing tools • Reporting • Only the Oracle cloud
• Graphical • MacOS • Self-service BI component can access
visualizations • Android • Easy to use any data source
• Dashboards • iOS • Advanced ML
algorithms
• Cloud data storage
• Interactive
visualizations
Looker • Reporting • It works on a cloud • Explore, analyze, and • Possibility to model • Lack of data
Google cloud platform, • Dashboards share information in and reuse data preparation tools and
since 2019 real-time • Complex aggregation lack of visualization
and calculations capacity
almost in real-time
• Cloud-based version
• Multi-cloud
integration
• Advanced ML
algorithms
M. I. Campante et al.
20 Business Intelligence Tools to Improve Business Strategy 265

20.5 Comparing Business Intelligence Tools

Table 20.1 summarizes the BI tools, highlighting the most important features that
discriminate each tool.
Regarding the visualizations provided, all tools allow for reporting and data
analysis. Some tools enable the development of dashboards and graphical reports.
Of the tools presented, almost all systems allow the use of Windows OS, MacOS,
and mobile technology operating systems (IOS and Android). The MicroStrategy
and IBM Cognos Analytics tools will enable the use of Windows and Linux.
Regarding the functionalities, some tools allow the creation of Data Lakes; all
allow analysis using OLAP tools and data sharing. IBM Cognos Analytics provides
metadata management. Some will enable the definition of security levels.
As for the advantages/disadvantages, we can highlight the tool’s usability, the cost,
the functionalities provided, the maintenance of the tools, and the storage capacity
(free versions).

20.6 Conclusions

The literature review, as well as the content analysis, showed that BI is an

emerging technology that, over time, has become indispensable for organizations. It
enables effective decision-making, improves business processes, increases business
performance, and enables making new deals [1–3].
The objective of this work was to identify the main tools available, as well as
their characteristics. So, there are several tools which can be implemented in orga-
nizations. According to Gartner 2002 [21], by applying a graphical treatment and
a uniform set of evaluation criteria, a Magic Quadrant helps you quickly ascertain
how well technology providers are executing their stated visions and how well they
are performing against Gartner’s market view.
Regarding the analysis of the tools, we note that significant software development
companies (Microsoft, IBM, Google, Oracle) have BI and analytics tools available;
most of the tools are available on Windows, iOS, and Android operating systems.
Although some tools are also available on Linux, some tools allow the creation
of Data Lakes; all allow analysis using OLAP tools and data sharing. IBM Cognos
Analytics provides metadata management. Some will enable the definition of security
levels. In line with market research, the Microsoft tool has the highest use trend. Some
companies are migrating to the Microsoft tool after having used others (Pedro article).
As for the advantages/disadvantages, we can highlight the tool’s usability, the cost,
the functionalities provided, the maintenance of the tools, and the storage capacity
(free versions).
A limitation of this study is related to the methodology used. To achieve the
objective of the work, other methodology could be used, namely a questionnaire
survey (interviewing decision-makers and launching questionnaires to measure the
perception of users and developers of the tools).
266 M. I. Campante et al.

As future suggestions for future research, it is proposed to measure the finan-

cial impact of emerging technologies on the accounting sector and to identify how
universities are considering changing their accounting course curricula to adapt to
emerging technologies and digital transformation in the sector.
As suggestions for future research, applying the methodology mentioned in the
limitations is proposed, using a case in a real context.
This study is intended to support decision-makers when they have to select the
tool to implement.

Acknowledgements This work is funded by national funds through FCT—Foundation for Science
and Technology, I.P., within the scope of the project UIDB/05422/2020.

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com/decision-intelligence-platform/business-analytics/ (2023). Accessed 31 Mar 2023
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des/installation/Main/Recommended%20Setup.htm (2020). Accessed 31 Mar 2023
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com/ (2021). Accessed 31 Mar 2023
Chapter 21
Technology Towards Luxury Brands:
Preliminary Insights on Fashion
Tourism, Metaverse and Non-fungible
Token (NFT)

Vasco Santos and Bruno Sousa

Abstract The luxury fashion industry is undergoing a profound transformation due

to the uncertainty experienced recently because of constant change, increasingly
competitive markets and increased competition. Fashion tourism can be defined as
the interaction between Destination Marketing Organizations (DMOs), trade associ-
ations, tourism suppliers and host communities, with people travelling to and visiting
a particular place for business or leisure to enjoy, experiment, discover, study, trade,
communicate about and consume fashion. Luxury brands, characterized by their
traditional and conservative approach, have been pressured to make strategic deci-
sions towards the digital and technological world, thanks to the covid-19 pandemic.
As luxury represents something much more emotional, contrary to what might be
thought by often associating luxury with material goods, luxury brands are entering
the virtual world precisely to provide unique shopping and entertainment experiences,
just as consumers crave. Methodologically, this is a qualitative exploratory study
using netnography. In terms of results and conclusions, the relevance of studying
how luxury brands can use technology to their advantage, particularly, regarding the
Metaverse and Non-fungible Tokens, is thus justified. Several luxury brands have
all benefited greatly from their digital journeys. In conclusion, in the virtual world,
luxury has the same aspirational relevance that it has in life. With an interdisciplinary
approach, the chapter presents preliminary insights for fashion tourism and digital
knowledge management.

V. Santos
ISLA Santarém, Portugal GOVCOPP, Research Unit on Governance, Competitiveness and Public
Policies and CiTUR—Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation, Polytechnic of
Leiria, Leiria, Portugal
B. Sousa (B)
Portugal and CiTUR—Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation, Polytechnic
Institute of Cávado and Ave (IPCA), Barcelos, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 269
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_21
270 V. Santos and B. Sousa

21.1 Introduction

Currently, with increasing globalization, increased competition and the evolution of

market competitiveness, times of uncertainty and constant change are being experi-
enced. The world of luxury fashion is no exception and is also undergoing profound
transformation. Luxury brands generally have a very traditional and conservative
approach; however, with the covid-19 pandemic [1], these companies found them-
selves pressured to make strategic decisions towards the digital and technological
world [2].
For this reason, more and more companies in the luxury market are changing
their approach and mentality, incorporating the virtual world into their long-term
strategies, trying at the same time to reach new consumers who, if they followed the
traditional way [3], would not be able to call their attention, such as generation Z. By
accelerating the adoption of strategies that include the digital world, providing luxury
shopping experiences using technology, this new target audience can be captivated
and respond positively to the onslaughts of luxury brands. The starting point of
this preliminary chapter is: how are luxury brands strategically using the Metaverse
and NFT? Virtual, and, in particular, with regard to the NFT market and Metaverse
platforms. Thus, the two main objectives of this study were defined, such as: (1)
understanding how the Metaverse can contribute to the expansion of the luxury
fashion industry and (2) identifying the advantages of creating and marketing NFT
by fashion luxury brands.

21.2 Theoretical Background

Lazzeretti, Capone and Casadei [4] argue that fashion tourism is a niche market
segment evolved out of three major sectors: Creative Tourism, Cultural Tourism and
Shopping Tourism. Fashion tourism can be defined as the interaction between Desti-
nation Marketing Organizations (DMOs), trade associations, tourism suppliers and
host communities, with people travelling to and visiting a particular place for busi-
ness or leisure to enjoy, experiment, discover, study, trade, communicate about and
consume fashion [5]. International cities are increasingly using the cultural industries
for the development of tourism and other industries to boost their economic fortune
and to position themselves in the global market [6].
Luxury fashion brands have entered the tech world in a variety of ways, with the
aim of using the digital world to their advantage, particularly the Metaverse and NFT.
According to [7], the benefits that a luxury brand in the Metaverse and/or through the
NFT can achieve are the following: (1) consumers of luxury goods in the Metaverse
can become new customers of traditional physical goods in the future; (2) conquest
of a new generation of customers, younger ones and who are not the usual buyers
of traditional physical luxury items; (3) capacity to use Metaverse as a platform
for testing projects before putting them into physical production; (4) sustainable
21 Technology Towards Luxury Brands: Preliminary Insights on Fashion … 271

character of luxury allied to technology in its production and distribution; (5) creating
new revenue streams; (6) use of designs from past collections to be converted into
new NFT virtual assets, while promoting the brand’s heritage; (7) high profit margins
coming from the creation of NFT digital items that can be infinitely replicated for
free and distributed for a significantly lower amount than their physical equivalents;
and (8) ongoing royalty fees due to future transactions of NFT Virtual Goods as the
Goods change hands;
The technological world is constantly changing, and for many, the Metaverse
represents the next step in the evolution of how people interact, work and play
online. The Metaverse concept has been circulating in video game markets, as more
and more platforms adopt virtual reality environments that allow multiple users
to participate simultaneously [8]. According to [9], the Metaverse is a post-reality
universe, a perpetual and persistent multi-user environment that fuses physical reality
with digital virtuality. It is an interconnected web of social, immersive environments
networked on multi-user platforms persistent.
It was the science fiction author Neal Stephenson who, in 1992, in his novel
“Snow Crash”, first mentions the word “Metaverse”. At that time, the concept was
used to describe three-dimensional virtual worlds in which there was no physical
limitation on the interaction between individuals. The author introduced the idea
of Metaverse, being a web of virtual reality where people from all over the world
can access, connecting through glasses and headphones, starting to materialize in
Metaverse in the form of configurable digital bodies called avatars [10].
According to [11], the Metaverse represents the world of extended reality (ER)
that encompasses all the different forms of computer reality that are produced by
it. RE therefore includes all aspects of the following three realities: (1) Augmented
Reality (AR)—superimposes digital information on real-world scenarios. AR applies
when using a mobile phone camera to translate signs and menus in real time from
one language to another [12]. The game “Pokémon Go” is an example of the use of
AR [13]. Hundreds of AR applications are now available for use on smartphones.
(2) Virtual reality (VR)—people are completely immersed in a digital environment.
Virtual reality scenarios can be created as fully synthetic computer-generated content,
they can be made up of real-world content (defined in real 360° video), or it can be
a hybrid, being a combination of both; and (3) mixed reality (MR)—experiences
[14–16] that allow people to interact and manipulate computer-generated images in
the real world, in real time. You use a headset, but you see and remain immersed in
the real world, you see and interact with images using your hands [17]—for example,
a three-dimensional (3D) architectural floor plan for a new school or a 3D schematic
for an electric vehicle.
Although augmented reality games and social spaces have been around for several
decades, the development of the Metaverse experienced a sharp acceleration in early
2020 (i.e. covid-19 pandemic). When it was brought to the forefront, new investments
of exorbitant amounts emerged, since the belief was that the Metaverse would be
the future of the internet [18]. In addition to the technologies that were already
in use for some time, digital avatars or online games with multiple players, the
latest technological advances allow the purchase of various non-fungible token-based
272 V. Santos and B. Sousa

digital products, the NFT [19], thus opening the door to a new form of trade. Currently,
users can meet, interact and socialize with each other by taking the form of avatars
or 3D holograms that are in physical or virtual spaces [20].
The luxury fashion industry will continue to be driven by the Metaverse towards
what is known as “the experience economy”, where the main value proposition is
to provide consumers with experiences rather than physical goods. Luxury brands
can sell their items more economically and creatively through NFT and Web 3.0
Metaverse platforms. An advantage of this process is that brands do not have to
worry about delivering inventory or opening physical stores, and customers can
enjoy unique shopping experiences and new forms of entertainment [21–23].
Between 24 and 27 March 2022, a remarkable event in the history of fashion took
place in the virtual world with the first edition of Metaverse Fashion Week (MVFW)
[24]. Thus, with a simple click, in the comfort of their homes, users could access
virtual stores, fashion shows, after parties and conferences organized by various
brands.
Brands were able to present their models on the catwalk, showing their creations
to visitors, who, free of charge and without special invitation, had the opportunity to
obtain different sensory and interactive experiences, participate in events and lectures
and even buy clothing and accessories. digital [25–27].
MVFW allowed brands to confirm that they would have potential customers in
Metaverse. This store allowed users to buy the brand’s clothes and accessories to
customize their avatars with items from the Etro collection [28]. Therefore, and
according to [29], fashion events have the particularity of adding recognition and
value to host cities, which is reflected in a competitive advantage over competing
destinations. However, the tourism of fashion events is not properly valued by the
tourism industry, and therefore, this research aims to deepen scientific knowledge
about this tourism segment [30].

21.3 Methodology and Preliminary Insights

A qualitative, exploratory methodology was adopted. Additionally, in the continua-

tion of the methodology process, three case studies are presented. For this, the three
luxury brands that already more and better use technological means such as Meta-
verse and NFT were chosen. The methodological approach chosen for this research
was netnography. According to [31], netnography is a scientific methodology that
is used to observe online communities regarding their influence on the lives of their
members, in this case, who appear on the internet. The approach used is adapted to
study blogs, newsgroups, forums, social networks, among others.
Netnography becomes progressively more important for the study of digital
cultures. Netnography has been considered extremely useful in all academic fields,
revealing rules, personal narratives and specific practices. Kozinets [32] establishes
ten criteria in order to evaluate and inspire the quality of netnographic research.
21 Technology Towards Luxury Brands: Preliminary Insights on Fashion … 273

The criteria are: coherence, rigour, knowledge, anchoring, innovation, resonance,

verisimilitude, reflexivity, praxis and mixture.
With regard to methodological procedures for netnographic studies, [32] recom-
mends the following steps—stressing that all steps must be in accordance with
research ethics: (1) input: formulation of research questions and identification of
the appropriate community to study; (2) data selection and collection: direct obser-
vation of communications/information found through the use of a computer and the
internet and collection of relevant data; and (3) analysis and interpretation: classifi-
cation and analysis of data followed by interpretation of results and articulation with
theory.
According to [32], the process of transforming the products collected from partici-
pation and netnographic observation into a finished version of the research falls under
data analysis. Throughout the stages of selection, collection and analysis of data, to
carry out his research, the author uses various types of tools, namely, search engines
such as Google that can result in text files, graphics, screenshots, transcripts from
online interviews or reflective field notes.
With regard to the community under study in this investigation, which are luxury
brands, the best three were selected, with the purpose of analyzing the particular case
of each one, analyzing their remarkable journey in the virtual world. The chosen
brands were Dolce & Gabbana, Balenciaga and Gucci. After a quick search, it was
possible to verify that these three great luxury brands had expression in the Metaverse
and in the launch of NFT, being pioneers to reach historical milestones, namely, in
the launching of a luxury collection of NFT, in the appearance in the Metaverse, in
partnership with video games, presence at MVFW, launch of the first luxury NFT or
construction of its own digital world in Metaverse.
It was found, in the three case studies, that luxury brands took advantage of this,
taking advantage, in this way, to create more captivating and immersive experiences
for users. In the case of Dolce & Gabbana, both the pieces from its NFT Collection
and the looks presented on the MVFW catwalk could and have been acquired by
Metaverse users with the intention of equipping their avatars. In the case of Balen-
ciaga, with the partnership with the video game Fortnite, in which the luxury brand
went directly to the platform where potential customers of its virtual pieces could
be found, which were bought by players and used by their avatars. In Gucci Vault
Land when they bought virtual items from the brand that their avatars could use
in The Sandbox spaces, such as with NFT SuperGucci or in the case of the game
Gucci Town from the Italian brand where virtual clothing and accessories were made
available for avatars in Metaverse.
Considering the first objective defined for this study—understanding how the
Metaverse can contribute to the expansion of the luxury fashion industry—it is
possible to state that the objective was fully achieved. Taking into account the
second objective outlined for this work—identifying the advantages of creating and
marketing NFT by luxury brands—it can be considered that it was also fully achieved.
Finally, answering the research question “How are luxury brands using the Meta-
verse and the NFT in their favor?”, it can be said that throughout this investigation,
different options have emerged and as seen in the cases of study, the three brands
274 V. Santos and B. Sousa

opted for different paths, from partnerships with video games, launching NFT collec-
tions with the purpose of equipping avatars, presentations on the MVFW catwalk;
launch of NFT with collectors of rare digital items and fans of the brands as a target
audience, experiences in the Metaverse with the sale of digital skins and even the
creation of its own game in Metaverse with the sale of the brand’s digital items.

21.4 Results

With the theoretical foundation related to the service of technology by luxury brands,
it was possible to understand that the Metaverse is generally constituted by RE spaces,
where interactions between human beings and automated entities take place through
AR applications, which sometimes occur in more remote places. It was noticed the
numerous advantageous opportunities that luxury brands could have due to the use of
Metaverse platforms and NFT trading markets. The results from this confrontation
between the theoretical foundation and the practical cases revealed, quite clearly,
that the use of Metaverse technology and the creation of NFT for commercialization
are really beneficial for luxury brands.
The advantages pointed out included the creation of new revenue streams, the
sustainable nature of digital luxury items, the ability to use Metaverse as platforms
for testing projects before moving to physical production, the possibility of using
designs from past collections transforming them new NFTs, high profit margins
from creating NFTs that can be produced and distributed at a much lower cost than
physical ones, receiving royalties as NFTs change hands and gaining a new generation
of customers who will be future customers of the brands’ physical products.

21.5 Conclusions

In conclusion, Metaverse and NFT have the ability to benefit traditional luxury
companies and can even improve engagement with their customers. With the anal-
ysis of the brands’ cases, it was understood that the NFT must be combined with
physical products or with experiences, so that they become more desirable in the
eyes of the modern consumer of luxury fashion. Case studies from Dolce & Gabbana,
Balenciaga and Gucci corroborate these conclusions, showing that luxury brands can
benefit from including Metaverse and NFT in their digital branding and marketing
strategies. Thus, this research made it possible to verify that, in the digital world,
luxury has the same aspirational relevance as it does in real life: it is a differenti-
ating asset and serves to express the way of being and the values of its possessor.
Regarding the limitations of the study, it should be noted that, as this topic is so
recent, the number of studies already carried out on the subject is still small. For
future studies, it is suggested to analyze the performance and measurability of the
chatbot, often used in customer service, applied in Metaverse. Future studies can
21 Technology Towards Luxury Brands: Preliminary Insights on Fashion … 275

explore more deeply the understanding of the complex process of decision-making

for couples travel, in a post-pandemic scenario (i.e. covid-19), such as destination
choice and risk assessment. Tourism has undergone many changes in terms of habits
and trends. Fashion tourism is a notorious example of being affected by the pandemic
and the acceleration of technology. Several changes have appeared in the consump-
tion of this type of tourism (e.g. video mapping, online visits, digital access). As
such, the present study aims to understand how relational marketing an important
competitive factor for tourist destinations and tourist fashion events can be. In the
future studies, it will be essential to carry out in-depth interviews with specialists
of the phenomenon studied and to develop an empirical (quantitative) study through
questionnaires to tourist consumers (from the “fashion tourism” market niche).

Acknowledgements This work was financially supported by the Research Unit on Gover-
nance, Competitiveness and Public Policies (UIDB/04058/2020) + (UIDP/04058/2020), funded
by national funds through FCT-Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia.

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Chapter 22
Applying the Importance–Performance
Matrix to the Podence Carnival Festival

Fernanda A. Ferrreira , Cláudia S. Martins, and Paula O. Fernandes

Abstract Tourism has been playing an important role in the world and it has been
one of the economic activities that has contributed the most to the growth and devel-
opment of regions, especially local communities, as it is the case of Podence, a
village located in the Northeast of Portugal. Podence has as its main activity which
induces tourism a characteristic carnival, entitled Carnival of Podence or Festa dos
Rapazes. In this context, the main objective of this research is based on analyzing
the importance and satisfaction expressed by visitors to the festival with regard to
attributes that allow evaluating the festivity. Having this objective, the added value
of this research is the real contribution that it gives to the organization’s success of
the Carnival of Podence festival. For this, a quantitative methodology was used, and
data collection was done through a hand-by-hand administered questionnaire survey
on the two days of the festivity that occurred in February 2022. For the purpose of the
study, a final sample of 200 valid questionnaires was worked with. The Importance–
Satisfaction Analysis is revised from the Importance–Performance Analysis which
was used to answer the objective of the study.The results showed that the attributes
with the greatest importance and that generated the highest visitor satisfaction were
“reception/hospitality”, “local gastronomy” and “surrounding/social environment”.
The attributes festivity-related leisure activities, enclosure, and promotion of the
festivity through souvenirs seem not to be of great importance nor did they generate
high satisfaction for visitors. On the other hand, through the tool used, it was possible
to verify that the dissemination of the festivity attribute should deserve more atten-
tion and care from the organization of this festivity since the visitors attributed high
importance and low satisfaction to it.

F. A. Ferrreira (B)
UNIAG, CiTUR; ESHT—Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
C. S. Martins
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
P. O. Fernandes
UNIAG, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 279
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_22
280 F. A. Ferrreira et al.

22.1 Introduction

The ancient Carnival held in the village of Podence is one of the most important
traditional events of northern Portugal and attracts thousands of visitors every year.
One of the most remarkable aspects of the Carnival of Podence is the Caretos, the
main characters of this festivity, who are masked and costumed men who run through
the streets of the village, brandishing sticks and chasing after young girls. Rodrigues
et al. [1] depict these Caretos as embodying a rhythmic movement meant to delight
and engage women.
The Caretos, adorned in vibrant red, green, and yellow wool costumes, are
symbolic of the Carnival and a source of local pride. While the origins of this tradi-
tion are steeped in oral history, it has persisted through the ages, captivating visitors
and enriching the region’s cultural heritage [2].
The carnival has not only brought economic benefits to the region but has also
helped to preserve its cultural heritage and traditions.
With the globalization of economies and the growing competition between local-
ities to attract residents, visitors, and businessmen, there is an increasing need on
the part of companies and organizations to reflect on the services provided to the
customer. Cultural events became an option for those who found in the culture a
way to escape the routine of everyday life, consuming art, customs, and music,
among others [3, 4]. Satisfying the customer’s expectations becomes paramount, as
it uncovers strengths and areas for improvement.
In the realm of cultural events like the Podence Carnival, understanding and
managing expectations are pivotal for satisfaction. Attendees anticipate experiences
based on past encounters or promotional materials. Organizers must ensure that
the festivity’s execution surpasses these expectations through effective communica-
tion, meticulous planning, and flawless execution. This fosters a positive experience,
boosting satisfaction, and loyalty.
In this research, we aim to analyze visitor satisfaction with the Podence Carnival
and its attributes, underscoring its contribution to organizational success. The paper
is structured as follows: Sect. 22.2 provides a theoretical framework discussing event
experiences, satisfaction, and the Carnival’s significance. Section 22.3 outlines our
methodology. Section 22.4 presents and analyzes our findings. Finally, Sect. 22.5
offers conclusions drawn from this research study.
22 Applying the Importance–Performance Matrix to the Podence Carnival … 281

22.2 Theoretical Framework

22.2.1 The Experience, Satisfaction, and the Importance

of Cultural Events

The tourism market is in a saturated and highly competitive state, which is why the
satisfaction has gradually assumed a very relevant character in the sector. Satisfac-
tion can be defined as the overall assessment that the client gives the service received
compared to the service expected [5]. In the context of a competitive and saturated
tourism market, visitor satisfaction gains crucial importance [6]. To facilitate regional
development, tourism strategies must shift towards diversification and deconcentra-
tion, utilizing the potential of various regions and introducing alternative offerings.
A strategic approach involves cultural events, such as festivals, which elevate the
appeal of locations and attract a greater tourist influx [7]. This challenge extends to
the cultural events’ sector, demanding continual innovation and attractions to engage
tourists. Festivals, deemed unique tourist magnets, contribute to destination develop-
ment, economic growth, local pride, and community relationships [8]. Primarily, it
should be noted that satisfaction is intrinsically related to living experiences, which in
turn are linked to intimate characteristics of individuals, such as personality, percep-
tions, and desires [6]. In this sense, the tourists’ choices are a consequence of their
past experiences and their objectives; however, when expectations are not met, the
result is dissatisfaction and the tourist’s lack of interest in the destination and/or
its attractions [6]. It hinges on attributes of the destination, including facilities and
reputation, aligning with tourists’ preconceptions before their visits.
According to [9], no matter if they are centred on sports, music, or art, live events
are fundamentally about providing experiences. That is why many studies have placed
experiences at the core of events. For leisure events and festivals to prosper and
grow in the competitive festival landscape, organizers must prioritize crafting distinct
and unforgettable experiences. This emphasis stems from the profound influence of
visitor experiences on satisfaction, spending behaviour, and post-event actions, such
as word-of-mouth and intent to revisit [9].
Experiences arise from the actions and interactions that occur during consumption,
and they result in certain behaviours, attitudes, and opinions. Such experiences are
multi-dimensional sensations that can be rational, emotional, sensual, physical, and
spiritual in nature. As deeply personal and subjective phenomena, experiences are
shaped by individual attributes like origin, values, interests, attitudes, and emotions.
The intensification of individual experience dimensions augments the value derived
from diverse events, culminating in holistic, lasting personal satisfaction that is
exceptional, distinct, and unforgettable [9].
From the perspective of [10], satisfaction occurs when need and performance
cross each other. In the context of cultural events, tourist satisfaction is associated
to the level of importance of certain attributes, and how they correspond to tourist’s
expectations. It should be noted that when the tourist is satisfied with the attractions’
context, the positive effects for the organization are many, namely with regard to
282 F. A. Ferrreira et al.

reputation, loyalty, increased productivity, external recognition, and attractiveness.

It follows that assessing tourist satisfaction is a fundamental task, since it allows the
organization to identify positive and negative aspects, as well as the characteristics
to be improved for future editions [6]. In this context, the Importance–Satisfaction
Analysis assumes a relevant role, as a method to identify which are and what degree
of satisfaction generates the attributes of a given cultural event.

22.2.2 The Carnival of Podence and Its Importance

The Carnival of Podence is an important cultural event that takes place annually in
the northeast region of Portugal.
As is known, nowadays the subject of sustainability is a very important and
trending topic in all the fields. When it comes to tourism, it is the same: customers
give such importance to sustainable ways of doing tourism, regarding the products,
processes, or services related to the event or non-event that is calling tourists to it.
The inclusion and envelopment of locals in the creation of authentic tourist experi-
ences, and the proximity tourism it brings to the festivity, with people from the places
nearby (e.g.: Bragança, Macedo de Cavaleiros, Mirandela) being the major part of
the overall tourists [11], make the Carnival of Podence being viewed as a tourism
event driven by sustainability.
This means that the Carnival of Podence not only provides a unique and authentic
cultural experience for tourists but also does so in a way that is sustainable and benefi-
cial to the local community. By involving locals in the creation of tourist experiences,
the Carnival promotes a sense of community and fosters economic growth. Addi-
tionally, the proximity tourism it promotes reduces the carbon footprint associated
with travel, further contributing to its sustainable credentials. Overall, the Carnival
of Podence serves as a model for sustainable tourism practices and demonstrates
the importance of considering sustainability in all aspects of tourism development.
As customers increasingly prioritize sustainability in their travel choices, events
and destinations that prioritize sustainability will be best positioned for long-term
success.
The Caretos yield multi-faceted advantages. Pimentel et al. [11] highlight their
role in job creation, counteracting rural exodus, nurturing socio-economic networks,
enriching cultural and natural heritage, and enhancing local quality of life. This
diverse impact prompted UNESCO to declare the Carnival of Podence an Intangible
Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2019. This recognition underscores the carnival’s
significance in bolstering local development and promoting a tourist destination [12].
UNESCO’s endorsement amplifies the carnival’s stature globally, celebrating its
value as a cultural legacy to be cherished and shared. The recognition accentuates the
importance of safeguarding and celebrating cultural heritage, reinforcing the essence
of traditions in shaping our communal identities.
22 Applying the Importance–Performance Matrix to the Podence Carnival … 283

22.2.3 The Importance of Understanding the Satisfaction

of Visitors with the Carnival of Podence

Comprehending visitor satisfaction with the Carnival of Podence is pivotal for

upholding and enhancing the event’s quality and reputation. Positive feedback serves
to draw more visitors, boosting the festivity’s economic influence on the region. It
also offers invaluable insights into the aspects that participants and attendees value
most. Conversely, negative feedback identifies avenues for improvement, addressing
any concerns impacting overall participant satisfaction. This input empowers orga-
nizers to make well-informed decisions in planning and executing future editions,
ensuring that the Carnival remains a cultural pinnacle of the region and a source of
community pride. Hence, understanding satisfaction with the Carnival of Podence is
imperative for its continued success and expansion [6].
Beyond this, comprehending visitor satisfaction contributes to promoting cultural
diversity and conserving local traditions. The Carnival, a centuries-old cultural event,
furnishes a platform for showcasing distinctive local customs and traditions. Moni-
toring participant and visitor satisfaction, as noted by Faria et al. [6], ensures that
these traditions are respected and enjoyed by all. Furthermore, understanding satis-
faction fosters cultural exchange and understanding, enriching the experience for
visitors from diverse backgrounds who can learn and appreciate local culture. In
this way, understanding the satisfaction with the Carnival of Podence is not only
important for the success of the event, but also for promoting cultural diversity and
preserving local heritage [13].
In conclusion, understanding visitor satisfaction with the Carnival of Podence is
pivotal in enhancing event quality, amplifying economic impact, pinpointing areas
for enhancement, and measuring promotional effectiveness. Ergo, prioritizing visitor
feedback is paramount for sustained success of the event.

22.3 Research Methodology

The objective of this research is to analyze the importance and satisfaction expressed
by visitors to the Carnival of Podence regarding its attributes.
For this, the sampling process used was simple random sampling with the appli-
cation of the questionnaire to the visitors. The target population of the present
study is made up of the nearly 50,000 visitors of the Carnival of Podence festivity
who was there on February 26 and 27, 2022. The Likert scale questionnaires were
personally distributed and collected on those days to visitors who had expressed an
interest in participating in the study, following an explanation of the study’s purpose.
The attributes analyzed were the following: dissemination of the festivity, place,
welcome/hospitality, local gastronomy, promotion of the festivity through souvenirs,
surrounding/social environment, festivity-related leisure activities, and global level
of importance/satisfaction.
284 F. A. Ferrreira et al.

High Quadrant B
Quadrant A
Keep up the good work: Attributes
Concentrate here: Attributes to improve
to maintain
Attribute

importance

Quadrant C Quadrant D
of

Low priority: Attributes to maintain Possible overkill: Attributes to de-

with low priority emphasize

Low Attribute of Performance High

Fig. 22.1 Importance–performance matrix. Source Adapted from Martilla and James [14, p. 78]

In order to reach the study’s objective, Importance–Performance Analysis (IPA)

[14] has been used. This is a simple but effective tool that analyzes and crosses
the variables importance and performance [15] and guides companies to identify
strategic options to increase competitiveness [16].
Importance and performance are then integrated into a matrix that guides compa-
nies to identify strategic options to increase competitiveness [16]. Hence, the Impor-
tance–Performance Analysis allows, through a representation in a Cartesian refer-
ence, to identify the areas where an organization should concentrate, reduce, or
maintain its efforts and also evaluate the areas where the greatest deviations occur
between what is important for the individual and what he is getting. The impor-
tance axis represents the level of significance that customers place on a particular
attribute or factor, while the performance axis represents how well the organization
is currently meeting those expectations. By plotting these two variables, the matrix
helps organizations to identify areas that require improvement, as well as those that
are performing well and can be leveraged to gain a competitive advantage.
In Fig. 22.1 it is possible to visualize what has just been mentioned, empha-
sizing that by crossing the variables importance and performance, four quadrants are
obtained that allow to outline four strategies, namely [14, 15]:

1. Quadrant A—Concentrate here—attributes to improve, position where individ-

uals perceive a given attribute to be very important, but its performance is
not satisfactory, so the attributes located in this quadrant represent the main
weaknesses of an organization;
2. Quadrant B—Keep up the good work—attributes to maintain, where individuals
perceive that a certain attribute is very important and are satisfied with their
performance, which makes the attributes of this quadrant can be considered as
opportunities to achieve or maintain the competitiveness of organizations;
3. Quadrant C—Low priority—attributes to maintain with low priority, represents
that individuals are not satisfied with the performance of this attribute but do not
consider it important either, it has low importance and low performance, so these
attributes do not require additional efforts;
22 Applying the Importance–Performance Matrix to the Podence Carnival … 285

4. Quadrant D—Possible overkill—attributes to de-emphasize, in which

individuals- Quadrant D—Possible overkill—attributes to de-emphasize, in
which individuals are satisfied with the performance of attributes but do not
consider them important, have high performance, but little importance, which
indicates that the resources used with these attributes are excessive and should
be directed to other attributes.

It should be highlighted that in this study, the Importance–Satisfaction Analysis

(ISA) tool will be applied with support from the Importance–Performance Analysis
(IPA), where performance is replaced by satisfaction. ISA presents a 2 × 2 attribute
matrix, based on high or low importance and high or low satisfaction [17].

22.4 Results and Discussions

To better understand the profile of respondents in terms of some sociodemographic

characteristics, a descriptive statistical analysis was performed. In this analysis,
distribution measures are presented absolute (number of responses) and relative
(percentage of responses) of the primary data collected, since all the variables
analyzed are qualitative. Regarding gender, only one respondent answered I prefer
not to say, while there is a homogeneous distribution with respect to the female
(54.5%) and male (45%). This same homogeneity is also present in the distribution
of age groups. As for nationality, it appears that the majority of respondents (94.5%)
are of Portuguese nationality, residing mostly in the municipalities of Macedo de
Cavaleiros (12.0%), Bragança (8.0%), and Porto (6.0%). Along with other coun-
tries portrayed in the table, it is perceived that 67.5% of respondents are from the
North Zone of Portugal. It stands out that there is a percentage of 54.5 of respon-
dents who have completed higher education. As for the question of gross monthly
family income, 32.5% of respondents claim to have an income of up to 1000 euros,
while 10.8% of them report having an income of 3000 euros or more. It should
be noted that 43.8% of respondents reported being accompanied by their family,
followed by friends (24.9%) and spouse (23.6%). Likewise, it is highlighted the fact
that most respondents (59.3%) stated that they stayed just less than one day in the
festivity, as well as 59.3% of respondents reporting having accommodation in their
own home and 87 of respondents did not answer the question of accommodation,
which may be due to the fact that most respondents are from the North Zone, as previ-
ously mentioned, and thus, do not need accommodation. Finally, it should be noted
that only two respondents mentioned having become aware of this festivity through
outdoor posters, against the 48 respondents who claim to have always known about
this festivity, the 45 who said that it had been recommended to them, the 44 who
claim to have learned about it through the internet, and the 43 who did so through
the television.
286 F. A. Ferrreira et al.

Table 22.1 presents the results obtained for each attribute defined previously and
for the importance and satisfaction dimensions, both measured on a 5-point Likert-
type scale, where 1 is the most negative extreme and 5 is the most positive.
As it is possible to observe through Table 22.1, the attributes that visitors
mentioned as being the most important and consequently those with higher averages
for importance are: reception/hospitality (x = 4.45 ± 0.722 points), surrounding/
social environment (x = 4.41 ± 0.653 points), and local gastronomy (x = 4.35 ±
0.785 points). On the other hand, the less important attribute for the visitors of this
festivity was the promotion of the festivity through souvenirs (x = 3.84 ± 1.088
points).
In the evaluation of the quality of the festivity’s inherent attributes, the ones
that presented the highest satisfaction were: local gastronomy (x = 4.48 ± 0.734),
reception/hospitality (x = 4.47 ± 0.689), and the surrounding/social environment
(x = 4.44 ± 0.866). In contrast, the attribute with which visitors are least satisfied
is festivity-related leisure activities (x = 3.89 ± 0.918).
When analyzed graphically through an analysis of the quadrants as can be seen
in Fig. 22.2, these values allow a more detailed analysis of the areas with better
performance/satisfaction, as well as the importance given to each attribute by visitors
to this carnival.

Table 22.1 Summary of the results of the Importance vs. Satisfaction Analysis
Attributes Performance/satisfaction Importance Quadrant
Mean (x) Standard deviation Mean (x) Standard deviation
(SD) (SD)
Dissemination of 4.11 0.850 4.29 0.917 A
the festivity
Place 3.98 0.852 4.05 0.988 C
Welcome/ 4.47 0.689 4.45 0.722 B
hospitality
Local 4.48 0.734 4.35 0.785 B
gastronomy
Promotion of the 4.08 0.988 3.84 1.088 C
festivity through
souvenirs
Surrounding/ 4.44 0.866 4.41 0.653 B
social
environment
Festivity-related 3.89 0.918 4.08 0.962 C
leisure activities
Global level of 4.37 0.814 4.27 0.843 D
importance/
satisfaction
Median 4.24 4.28
Source Authors’ own elaboration
22 Applying the Importance–Performance Matrix to the Podence Carnival … 287

Fig. 22.2 Importance–performance/satisfaction matrix of carnival of Podence attributes

It is possible to observe that the attributes place, festivity-related leisure activities,

and promotion of the festivity through souvenirs are in Quadrant C, which means
that individuals give them low importance and low satisfaction, meaning that the
organization should not put additional efforts when it comes to these attributes.
Also, the attribute global level of importance/satisfaction is placed on Quadrant
D, which means that individuals do not consider it important, but are satisfied with
its performance. As this attribute is located in this quadrant, the organization should
de-emphasize it. However, it has to have some attention, since it is very close to the
Quadrant B’s line, meaning that this attribute is not so unimportant for the individuals.
In Quadrant A is placed the attribute dissemination of the festivity. This means that
this is an attribute to improve, since individuals perceive it as having high importance,
but its performance is not satisfactory for them.
Finally, the attributes welcome/hospitality, local gastronomy and surrounding/
social environment, placed in Quadrant B, should maintain their performance, once
individuals perceive them as very important attributes and are also satisfied with their
performance.

22.5 Conclusions

In our interconnected and competitive world, businesses must develop strategies to

meet visitor expectations and surpass competitors, requiring a deep understanding
of visitor preferences and satisfaction. By gaining insights into visitor requirements,
companies can tailor their offerings to gain a competitive advantage. This requires a
288 F. A. Ferrreira et al.

thorough understanding of visitor satisfaction, including the factors that drive loyalty
and retention. Therefore, the regular collection and analysis of visitor feedback are
essential for improving products, services, and the overall visitor experience. Further-
more, in a constantly evolving event landscape, event planners, as per [18], must
continually innovate to set their events apart and provide an extraordinary experience
for visitors.
To this end, this research adopts the ISA matrix derived from the IPA, a tool
enabling organizations to identify areas needing improvement and those excelling,
fostering a competitive edge. The study’s focus is the Carnival of Podence, drawing
numerous visitors to a village in Northern Portugal. This sustainable festivity bears
immense significance for Podence, driving benefits like job creation, combating rural
exodus, and preserving cultural and natural heritage.
The results of the ISA matrix allowed to identify that the attributes reception/
hospitality, local gastronomy, and surrounding/social environment are of extreme
importance for visitors and are aspects where the organization of the carnival
performs well and should keep the good work. These attributes should, there-
fore, be considered as opportunities to achieve or maintain the competitiveness of
organizations.
In addition, it was concluded that the dissemination of the festivity attribute should
have more attention by the organization, since it is considered extremely important
for the visitors, but they are dissatisfied with its performance. So, this attribute can
be considered the main weakness of the organization of this festivity.
On the other hand, the organization should not put much effort on the attributes
festivity-related leisure activities, place and promotion of the festivity through
souvenirs, and global level of importance/satisfaction, since that these are attributes
that are not very important for visitors.

Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the financial support of UNIAG, R&D unit funded
by the FCT—Portuguese Foundation for the Development of Science and Technology, I.P. under
the projects UIDB/04752/2020 and UIDP/04752/2020.

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Chapter 23
Nutrition Software to the Management
and Support of Health and Wellness
Tourism: An Approach

Tiago Veiga, Sandro Carvalho, João Carlos Silva, and João Vidal Carvalho

Abstract Nutrition is a complex field that assesses the relationship between foods,
their nutritional composition and their impact on health and disease. In Portugal,
there are around 4000 nutritionists, with 90% employed or self-employed. These
professionals work in large collective catering groups and sport, with a growing
focus on sports. This proposal aims to develop a nutrition management platform
that increases efficiency by visualising and making decisions based on data. The
platform will facilitate communication and interaction between citizens, encourage
sports practice and promote tourism through events promoting health and well-being,
as well as the local gastronomy. This approach will enable the promotion of tourism
based on people’s health and quality of life, aiming to improve the nutrition of the
general population.

23.1 Introduction

Nutrition is an area of health that is dedicated to assessing the relationships between

foods, their nutritional composition and their impact on health and disease. It is a
complex area that contains a lot of information and variables that the professional
uses to make the best decision for their patient.
According to the Order of Nutritionists [1], there are about 4000 nutritionists in
Portugal, of which 385 are linked to the National Health Service. It can therefore be
deduced that 90% of nutritionists are employed or self-employed. It is also reported

T. Veiga · S. Carvalho · J. C. Silva (B)

Ai, Polytechnic Institute of Cávado and Ave—IPCA, Barcelos, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Carvalho
e-mail: [email protected]
J. V. Carvalho
CEOS.PP, ISCAP, Polytechnic of Porto, 4465-004 Sao Mamede de Infesta, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 291
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_23
292 T. Veiga et al.

that these 90% work in the area of large collective catering groups and currently in
areas related to sport, which has shown great growth.
However, all that is involved in the area is a set of information (data) specific
and organised for a given context that can give meaning and relevance, allowing the
professional to understand and use it in decision making.
This data processing can greatly benefit from the technological evolution seen
in recent years, particularly in terms of applications dedicated to data management
and processing, whether web or mobile applications. Indeed, technology has been
instrumental in areas such as tourism [2, 3], health [4, 5] and well-being [6].
This proposal aims to develop a nutrition management platform that allows profes-
sionals to increase their efficiency by visualising and making decisions based on the
data presented. The platform is intended to facilitate communication and interaction
between citizens and encourage them to practice sport in the community, promoting
tourism through events. These events consist of physical activities that promote the
improvement of people’s health and well-being, as well as the promotion of activities
related to nutrition. In fact, it will allow the contact of the practitioners with health
professionals (in this case nutritionists), who will be able to analyse and explain to
them the results obtained, as well as strategies to be adopted to improve possible
problems found [7].
This approach will enable the promotion of community tourism [8], in this case
more specifically based on people’s health and quality of life, as well as gastronomy,
seeking an improvement in the nutrition of the general population.

23.2 State of the Art

This section summarises the area of nutrition, its importance, the subtypes within
nutrition and how it has evolved.

23.2.1 Nutrition

Nutrition is an area of health that is dedicated to assessing the relationships between

food, its nutritional composition and its impact on health and disease. With the
increase in the average life expectancy of the population and the increase in the
elderly age group in Portugal, a good diet becomes essential as it helps to improve
health, such as the prevention of a series of diseases (chronic and non-chronic). These
diseases can range from hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases to cancer.
According to the Order of Nutritionists [9], cerebrum-cardiovascular diseases are
responsible for 30% of all deaths in the country. In fact, hypertension affects about
36% of people and the prevalence of diabetes is about 10%. This profile, in the
medium and long term, imposes a greater financial strain on the National Health
Service (NHS).
23 Nutrition Software to the Management and Support of Health … 293

A study by the OECD [9] (Fig. 23.1) shows that Portugal is one of the coun-
tries with the highest percentage of overweight/obesity in adulthood compared to
the countries under study. This is a serious problem that can lead to the diseases
mentioned above.
In childhood, according to statistics from COSI Portugal [10], there was a decrease
in overweight (including obesity) children aged 6–8 years between 2008 and 2019.
The indicators in Fig. 23.2 are able to show perspectives based on different studies
across an age range.
It is possible to observe that at ages between 6 and 8 years old there has been a
decrease over 11 years, but that it is still high and this goes on to the following ages,
with overweight (including obesity) in the 15-year age group, coming in agreement
with the previous statistics, in which we saw the adult phase, we found ourselves as
one of the largest countries with overweight/obesity.

Fig. 23.1 Measurement of overweight (including obesity) in adults, by gender, 2019

Fig. 23.2 Prevalence of childhood underweight, overweight (inc. obesity) and obesity
294 T. Veiga et al.

23.2.2 Subtypes of Nutrition

The area of nutrition is large and is composed of some subtypes, dividing the way
each information is treated to help the professional.
Within the scope of nutrition there are several areas of activity, such as Clinical
Nutrition; Collective Food and Catering; Community Nutrition and Public Health,
among others.
According to a survey carried out in 2019 by the Order of Nutritionists [11], the
area with the highest professional performance is Clinical Nutrition with 61.5%
(Fig. 23.3). Clinical Nutrition is the area dedicated to both food correction and
education and to the treatment and monitoring of specific pathologies and conditions.
As shown in Fig. 23.3, Clinical Nutrition is the area with the highest employability
in nutrition. It should be noted that this was already the case in 2015 and has increased
until 2019. This allows more room for a diverse range of platforms and tools to solve
existing problems in the area.
Investing in nutrition and food education is a long-term investment for a better
quality of life. This idea reinforces once again that the investment of platforms to
support professionals can become an asset for them.
All the data presented above are intended to show the feasibility of the proposal
to create a Nutrition Consultation Management platform. The platform is intended
to target nutrition professionals who work on their own or for companies. Based on
Fig. 23.4, we can see that more than half of the professionals working in the Clinical
Nutrition sector correspond to the private sector.
The main objective of the platform will be to respond to the needs that the area
of Clinical Nutrition brings, from the management of consultations, food planning,
recording of measurements taken, sending emails, creating customised templates,
etc.

Fig. 23.3 Comparison of occupancy of nutrition areas in 2015 compared to 2019

23 Nutrition Software to the Management and Support of Health … 295

Fig. 23.4 Sector of occupation of nutritionists

23.2.3 The Application of Technology in Nutrition

Technology has evolved very significantly in recent years. This evolution ranges
from sensors for monitoring people’s parameters to applications dedicated to their
treatment. The field of nutrition has also taken advantage of the benefits brought by
technology.
In this section, we will show some existing programmes in the market to support
Clinical Nutrition, the capabilities they provide and small comparisons between them.
Within this business area it is possible to find some solutions already implemented,
such as Nutrium [12], Softdiet [13], Sanut [14], Avanutri [15], among others.
Table 23.1 compares some existing applications with the proposal presented.
(The acronym “des” corresponds to the description of “Unknown”. A search for
functionalities was carried out among the applications, but it was not possible to
verify whether the application performs this functionality or not).

23.3 Proposed Solution

Based on the study carried out in the previous sections, a nutritional software is
proposed to help professionals in the field of Clinical Nutrition to perform existing
tasks more efficiently, as well as to assist in decision making.
296 T. Veiga et al.

Table 23.1 Comparison of functionalities between applications

Proposed solution Nutrium Softdiet Sanut
Appointment Management X X X X
(Scheduling, creation, modification
and cancellation of appointments)
Personal patient registration by the X X X X
user
Recording and personal history of X X X X
patient measurements by the user
Creation of customised templates for X Des Des Des
consultation records
Patient progress statistics X X Des X
Creating food plans X X X X
Creating personalised templates for X Des Des Des
food plans
Calculation and recommended daily – Des Des X
doses in the plans
Food plans sent by email X Des X Des
IOS and Android patient app – X X Des
User application X X X Des
IOS and Android user app – X X Des
Chat between user and patient – X X Des
User statistics (enquiries made X X Des Des
weekly, monthly. New clients,
objectives met, etc.)
Database with food composition – Des X X
Recipe book at the patient’s disposal – X Des X
Export of user data X Des Des X

23.3.1 Objectives

This software designed for Clinical Nutrition aims to develop functionalities previ-
ously studied based on previous applications and the knowledge of professionals in
the field.
The software will respond to the following needs: management of the scheduling
of appointments; personal registration of the patient by the nutritionist; registra-
tion and personal history of the patient by the nutritionist; statistics of the patient’s
progress; Consultation Management; Food Plan Management; creation of templates
for consultations and food plans; dashboard for the nutritionist.
23 Nutrition Software to the Management and Support of Health … 297

23.3.2 Architecture

For the construction of the proposed platform, a microservices architecture was

chosen [11, 16]. This type of architecture has received increasing attention, and
more companies are starting to develop applications with this architecture. Examples
include Amazon, Netflix, LinkedIn, Spotify, among others.
The characteristics that this architecture provides and that justify its choice were
(1) organisation of the system around the business; (2) automatic deployment; (3)
endpoint intelligence; (4) decentralised control of languages and data.
The nutritional software will be divided into modules. These modules served
to separate the development and logic by business areas. The user module will be
responsible for the creation and validation of a user application. The scheduler module
will be responsible for the user schedule. The application user will be capable to
manage your consults (Ex: Create or Cancel a consult). The patient module will
be responsible for the user to manage your patients. Register theirs personal and
medical information. The consult module will be responsible for the user to manage
the patient consults. Register their achievements and metrics. Evaluate their goals
and adjust if necessary. At some point, depending of the number of consults the user
will be able to see a progress journey of a patient. The food plan module will be
responsible for the user-patient food plans. The user can personalise food plan for
each patient. When the food plan is finalised, then a mail will be sent to the patient.
The extract module will be responsible for extract the application information, for
example, export consults, users, etc. The module will be responsible for consume
and populate specific logic of each module to feed dashboard to the user and user
patient. This module will be responsible for consume and populate specific logic of
each module to feed dashboard to the user and user patient. The gastronomy module
will help the food plans module to create the best plans promoting the gastronomy
of certain region, promoting tourism in that region (Fig. 23.5).

23.3.3 Technology

For the development of this software, which will be subdivided into Frontend and
Backend. At the frontend level, ReactJS [17] will be used. ReactJS is a JavaScript
framework that is used for the development of interfaces or web pages. It consists
of building components that can be reused anywhere on the page. This will allow
reusing components increasing the speed of development of the platform.
On the backend, NestJS [18], a framework based on NodeJS, will be used. It
can be fully compatible with TypeScript, which allows elements such as Object-
Oriented Programming (OOP), Functional Programming (FP) and Functional Reac-
tive Programming (FRP). Nest provides an out-of-the-box application architecture
that allows developers and teams to create highly testable, scalable, loosely coupled
and maintainable applications.
298 T. Veiga et al.

Fig. 23.5 Architecture of the solution

23.4 Discussion

Based on the initial study, it was possible to verify that overweight (including obesity)
in Portugal is very high. In fact, a 2019 study shows a value of overweight (including
obesity) in adults, by gender, of 67.6% (against 59.6% of the OECD average20).
According to statistics from COSI Portugal [10], there was a decrease in over-
weight (including obesity) in children aged 6–8 years between 2008 and 2019 (37.9%
in 2008 to 29.6% in 2019 for overweight and 15.3% in 2008 to 12.0% in 2019 for
obesity), which shows a favourable outlook. However, in the 15-year age group,
considering overweight (including obesity), Portugal (22%) is one of the largest
countries with overweight/obesity (18.3% OECD27), 2017–2018.
A 2019 study shows that Clinical Nutrition is the most utilised sub-area of Nutri-
tion, with 61.5%, followed by Collective Food and Catering (18.9%) and Community
Nutrition and Public Health (10.3%). Clinical Nutrition showed an increase of 9.5%
between 2015 and 2019, with its majority use in the private sector (66.7%). The main
objective of the platform will be to respond to the needs that the area of Clinical
23 Nutrition Software to the Management and Support of Health … 299

Nutrition brings, from the management of consultations, food planning, recording

of measurements taken, sending emails, creating customised templates, etc.
A study was made to find some solutions already implemented, such as Nutrium,
Softdiet, Sanut, Avanutri, among others. Based on this study it was concluded that
none of the applications includes all the desired functionalities, validating the need
for the presented solution. The solution presented has been well criticised by the
nutritionists participating in the study. In addition to the purely nutritional issue, it is
also intended to develop the area of tourism, more specifically health and wellness
tourism, promoting events and using the application to perform the nutritional anal-
ysis of the participants, improving their diet and, at the same time, boosting tourism
in the region where the event takes place, promoting their gastronomy.

23.5 Conclusion

The concern for a healthy lifestyle has led to a significant increase in sports practice.
Accompanying this increase is also the concern with food itself, with an increasing
demand for monitoring people’s daily diet. In this sense, nutritionists play a funda-
mental role in monitoring people, identifying their wrong eating behaviours and
creating plans to greatly improve the quality of people’s diets, thereby improving
their health.
The emergence and widespread use of technology, from sensors for monitoring
people’s parameters to applications for their treatment and analysis, contribute signif-
icantly to helping improve the care provided by nutritionists and the monitoring of
plans by people themselves.
This article studies the main existing solutions, identifies the shortcomings and,
based on this study, proposes a solution to solve the problems encountered.
In addition to the component directly linked to nutrition, the proposed solution
aims to contribute to facilitate communication and interaction between citizens and
encourage them to practice sport in the community, to share experiences related to
nutrition and, through the creation of events, to promote tourism related to well-
being, quality of life and gastronomy. Apart from the information related with the
nutrition component, the platform will allow the contact of the practitioners with
health professionals, who will be able to analyse and explain to them the results
obtained, as well as strategies to be adopted to improve possible problems found.
This approach will also enable the promotion of a type of tourism based on
people’s health and quality of life, driving forward a shared economy. The platform’s
importance in weight loss and healthy lifestyle promotion is evident through contact
with people. It also plays a crucial role in tourism, as proposed events attract a wide
range of people to the regions they occur in, publicising, for example, its gastronomy.
The platform is currently in development phase, with the first results obtained shown
in this proposal paper.
300 T. Veiga et al.

Acknowledgements This work is financed by Portuguese national funds through FCT—Fundação

para a Ciência e Tecnologia, under the project UIDB/05422/2020.

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Chapter 24
Backpackers’ Space–time Behaviour
in a World Heritage City—Porto

Márcio Ribeiro Martins , Rui Augusto da Costa ,

and Adriana Fumi Chim-Miki

Abstract Urban tourism is one of the most popular forms of tourism, but it
remains an understudied phenomenon, particularly in terms of tourists’ spatiotem-
poral behaviour. The aim of this research is to analyse the spatiotemporal behaviour
of the backpacker tourists in an urban destination classified as World Heritage. Data
collection was done through a questionnaire survey (n = 292) and a GPS App to
track backpacker tourist movements (n = 82) during a visit day to Porto, Portugal.
All the thematic cartography was developed with QGIS 3.2.0 software. A map with
the movements performed by all backpacker tourists; a map with the intensity of the
backpacker movements (passages by area, 50 × 50 m) and a map with the distri-
bution of the total length of stay by area (50 × 50 m), allowed the identification of
the main hotspots as well as the non-visited territories in Porto urban area. Relevant
contributions for destination managers are presented and discussed.

M. R. Martins
Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
R. A. da Costa (B)
Department of Economics, Management, Industrial Engineering and Tourism, University of
Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
M. R. Martins · R. A. da Costa · A. F. Chim-Miki
Competitiveness and Public Policy, GOVCOPP, Research Unit Governance, Aveiro, Portugal
A. F. Chim-Miki
Federal University of Campina Grande, Campina Grande, Brasil
M. R. Martins
CITUR, Guarda, Portugal

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 303
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_24
304 M. R. Martins et al.

24.1 Introduction

The aim of this research is to analyse the spatiotemporal behaviour of the back-
packer tourists in an urban destination classified as World Heritage. Where tourists
go?, what they do?, how long they stay in the visited attractions?, what means of
transport do they use? or which routes do they choose to take? are some of the
many questions that research on the spatiotemporal behaviour of tourists has been
exploring and answering. According to the literature, research focusing on tourists’
spatiotemporal behaviour can give numerous theoretical and managerial contribu-
tions, influencing destination planning and management [2, 19], developing support
and transport infrastructures, developing tourism products, marketing strategies and
commercial viability of tourism activities and the improvement of destinations image
[4, 46]. Studying tourists’ space–time behaviour can also promote the dispersal of
tourists within a region, contributing to generate and redistribute tourism income in
the local economy, to manage traffic flows and reduce the negative environmental
impacts of tourism [27]. Therefore, give relevant contributions to the management
of social, environmental and cultural impacts of tourism activity [4, 46], namely
in urban destinations. In urban destinations with problems related to over tourism
and gentrification, such as Barcelona, Venice or Lisbon, can also contribute to a
greater dispersion of tourists and to identify the main hotspots, developing effective
measures to better manage visitor flows and limit access to specific urban areas [1].
This research was one of the first to study the spatiotemporal behaviour of tourists
in Portugal using GPS technology (GPS app). The literature review focuses on back-
packer tourism and backpacker tourists and tourists’ spatiotemporal behaviour. After
the description of the methodology used in the data collection and in the construc-
tion of the thematic cartography, the analysis and discussion of the results obtained is
carried out. Important contributions for those responsible for destination management
are presented and discussed in the conclusions.

24.2 Literature Review

24.2.1 Backpacker Tourism

In the context of travel among young people, backpacker tourism has assumed rele-
vance and is considered by Cohen [10] as one of the predominant trends of contem-
porary tourism, evidenced by the increase in the number of young people travelling
annually across the planet [11]. Martin and Costa [33] highlight the lack of consensus
and inconsistencies between scholars due to the lack of a uniform criterion for oper-
ationalising the definition of backpacker. For this research “Backpacker tourism
comprises the activities carried out by a complex and heterogeneous group of trav-
ellers, consisting predominantly of young people who travel for longer periods than
usual and with flexible and informal travel itineraries” [29], p.1). Backpackers are
24 Backpackers’ Space–time Behaviour in a World Heritage City—Porto 305

frequently described as predominantly young travellers, with an emphasis on meeting

other travellers and with independent and flexible travel arrangements. They have
a preference for longer holidays and are more likely to stay in budget accommoda-
tion. Several segments have been identified in the literature (see, for example, [33]
however, for operationalisation reasons, and following the [48], p. 1) a backpacker
is “a person who spends one or more nights in a backpacker’s house or hostel”.
All tourists are driven by one or more motives when planning and undertaking
their trips. In their book “The Psychology of Leisure Travel”, [34] states that motiva-
tion is the ultimate guiding force, characterised by internal motives of a psycholog-
ical nature, which explains individual actions. Therefore, backpacker tourists are a
heterogeneous market [28, 44]. Oliveira-Brochado and Gameiro [39] have concluded
that there is an emerging diversity and growth in the heterogeneity of backpackers’
preferences, who are known as tourists who enjoy different types of experiences
during their visits. Backpacking is thus a heterogeneous phenomenon in terms of
motivations and meanings. One of the main reasons for travelling backpacker style
is to build a new temporary identity while travelling, to be more courageous and
independent [9, 16, 38]. Several studies also highlight the cultural knowledge as
one of the most important motivations for backpackers to travel, with an emphasis
on contact, knowledge and understanding of the visited cultures, history and local
societies [8, 26]; and the exploration of other cultures associated with increasing
knowledge [23, 24, 41]; the search for authenticity is further noted by Gibson and
Connell [21].
Therefore, it is expected that this market segment, known for appreciating different
types of experiences during their visits, will look for cultural attractions and activi-
ties in the visited destinations, such as museums, artistic and monumental heritage,
cultural activities associated with intangible heritage, such as music, gastronomy and
wines, among others.
Backpackers often seek greater contact with what is local or typical of the cultures
of visited destinations and try to experience local life experiences [9].

24.2.2 Tourists’ Spatiotemporal Behaviour

If in the past, several researches on the spatial and temporal behaviour of tourists
have been carried out in a multi-destination context, i.e. of several destinations, more
recently, the tourist movements in the perspective of intra-destination trips, especially
in urban destinations, have become of interest to several researchers [5, 7, 20, 31,
47]. But as Hunt and Crompton (2008) point out, most tourist trips are not made to
a single attraction in the destination, so it is essential to understand the movements
made by tourists in a multi-attraction destination, or in other words, how tourists
consume the urban space they visit, from attraction to attraction and from activity to
activity [4].
Some researchers have also analysed the spatial and temporal behaviour of visitors
in enclosed spaces with defined boundaries, i.e. intra-attraction level, where tourist
306 M. R. Martins et al.

behaviour is much more controllable [50], such as sports events [43], festivals [53],
zoos [51], among others. Others explore more the methodologies and the reliability of
the data collection methods. As mentioned by Ferrante et al. [19], the spatiotemporal
behaviour of tourists has been analysed from different perspectives, considering the
scale of analysis of the movements performed (inter-destination, intra-destination or
intra-attraction), the geographical scale of the visited area and the main determinants
of tourist mobility. Regarding the main determinants of tourist mobility, Grinberger
et al. [22] emphasise those who have focus on destination choices, on tourist expe-
rience, on tourist segmentation and on destination consumption by tourists, also
referring to several other factors, such as the cultural origin of tourists [13], tourists
visiting the destination for the first time and repeaters [6, 17], special interests of
tourists [18], the first and last day of visit [35] and the sociodemographic character-
istics of tourists, such as age, gender, income and education [4, 30]. Other research
focuses on tourist satisfaction [4], the impact of distance travelled from the country of
origin [3] and environmental sustainability [14, 15]. Therefore, with few exceptions
[30–32] no research has yet addressed the spatiotemporal behaviour of backpackers
during their visit to an urban World Heritage destination.

24.3 Methodology

Data collection was done through a questionnaire survey (n = 292) and a GPS App
to track backpacker tourist movements (n = 82) during a visit day. In this analysis,
it was used the data from the questionnaires of visitors who agreed to have their
movements tracked [30, 33]. To identify the exact movements and routes followed
by the participants, it was used a GPS app available on the market and free of charge
(i.e. Open GPS Tracker). The GPS app recorded the distance (km), the time (min), the
speed (km/h), the position (latitude and longitude) and the direction of movements.
Data collection was carried out in 2017, between July 16 and December 11, in several
hostels located in Porto, Portugal. The historic centre of Porto was classified in 1996
by UNESCO as a World Heritage site. Porto as a destination offers a wide array of
wine tourism experiences, shopping, sightseeing and pleasure tourism experiences
[32] and is the main gateway to the north of Portugal where several attractions/
destinations can be found: Douro Valley (UNESCO World Heritage), several cities
such as Braga, Viana do Castelo and Guimarães (UNESCO World Heritage), National
and Natural Parks such as Gerês and Alvão, Foz Côa Archaeological Park (UNESCO
World Heritage), among others [12]. The georeferenced data were analysed using
QGIS 3.12.2 software, a free and open-source geographic information system (GIS).
The spatial and temporal analysis of backpacker tourist movements was carried out
through i) the production of a map with the movements made by all the tourists tracked
(Fig. 24.1; ii the production of a map of the intensity of the backpacker movements,
through the accounting of their passages by area (50 × 50 m as suggested by Shoval
[45] and iii) the production of a map with the distribution of the total length of stay
of backpackers by area (50 × 50 m).
 24 Backpackers’ Space–time Behaviour in a World Heritage City—Porto
307

Fig. 24.1 Backpacker tourist movements tracked in the urban centre of Porto [30]
308 M. R. Martins et al.

24.4 Analysis of Results and Discussion

24.4.1 Sociodemographic

Of those who answered the questionnaire (n = 292), only 82 backpackers (28%)

agreed to successfully track their movements during a day’s visit to the city of Porto.
Of these, 39 are female (47.6%) and 43 (52.4%) male, mostly single (70.7%) or in a
relationship without marriage (22%), having a high level of education (approximately
83% have a higher or postgraduate education), and working full-time (50%) or part-
time (9.8%), although the percentage of students is still relevant (29.3%). Being
a group of young tourists, with an average age of 26.6 years, annual incomes are
relatively high: of the 68 tourists who answered this question, 48.5% stated that they
earn an income of more than 20 thousand euros per year. Regarding nationality, the
vast majority come from European countries (68.3%) with Germany being the most
represented country, followed by countries from America (23.2%) and East Asia and
Pacific (8.5%) where Australia stands out.
Many backpackers who agreed to do GPS tracking with their smartphone are
long-term backpackers (25.6%) and Flashpackers (25.6%). They are followed by
global nomads with 17.1% and short-term backpackers with 12.2% (see [30] for
more details). The remaining sub-segments have little representation. Given the
great diversity of backpacker sub-segments and the small number of individuals
belonging to them, it was considered pertinent to group them into the following
typologies, according to [33] proposal: short-term backpackers (n = 39) which also
included Party backpackers and Study backpackers, long-term backpackers (n = 8)
which also included backpackers who are doing volunteering, Gap Year Backpackers
and University Gap Traveller; technological backpackers (n = 21) which included
Flashpackers and Holiday Backpackers; and more travelled backpackers (n = 14)
who correspond to Global Nomads.

24.4.2 Spatiotemporal Analysis

Figure 24.1 shows all the routes traced in the most central parishes of the municipality
of Porto. Backpacker movements reveal a distribution of tourists through the main
streets of the city, with a higher concentration in the most central areas, where the
main attractions are located, namely in the parishes of Santo Ildefonso, Vitória, Sé,
São Nicolau, Cedofeita, Miragaia and the parish of Santa Marinha in Vila Nova de
Gaia.
Comparing the routes network with the main attractions of the city, there is a
greater incidence of movements in the D. Luís bridge, the Sé do Porto, the Infante
house, the Palácio da Bolsa, Ferreira Borges Market, São Bento Station, Bolhão
Market, and the gardens of the Palácio de Cristal. Porto is known for its rich heritage,
and therefore, its visit is based on the visit to monuments, as demonstrated by Espelt
24 Backpackers’ Space–time Behaviour in a World Heritage City—Porto 309

and Benito [17]. The focus of tourist concentration is undoubtedly the Praça da
Liberdade/Aliados where the Nice Way hostel is located, accommodation of many
participants in this research (Figs. 24.1 and 24.2). The most distant parishes from the
historic centre reveal a decrease in the tourist movements density, with the parishes
located on the northern edge of the municipality having a reduced number of visits, or
even none, as is the case of Aldoar. As it happened in Lisbon, in Caldeira’s research
[4], also in Porto seems to be a coincidence in the distribution of the network of routes
“which becomes more open as we move away from the city centre to its periphery
and from there to the metropolitan area” (p. 267).
In addition to the number of tourist attractions not being very relevant in areas
further away from the historic centre of Porto, the public transport network, espe-
cially the Metro, does not guarantee the same accessibility to the whole city. As
there is an interrelationship between the mode of transport and the spatial extent of
tourists’ visits [27], it is not difficult to explain a higher intensity of visits in areas
served by metro stations. The urban layout of the classified area, with medieval char-
acteristics, is marked by very narrow and irregular streets that lead tourists to two
wider areas: the Praça da Liberdade/Aliados and Praça da Ribeira. When tourists
have not explored the more winding streets of Sé, they follow Rua Mouzinho da
Silveira or Rua das Flores, which are the main access routes between downtown
and Ribeira. The high concentration of attractions in this area also leads to tourists
travelling the same streets several times throughout the day, contributing to increased
congestion. The concentration of movements/tours in the main streets is a trend in
monumental cities [17]. These researchers also suggest that the edges or peripheral
streets of historic centres and the connection nodes are logically related since the
most frequent routes have origins in the main nodes [17], p. 57). Therefore, nodes
and attractions located on these routes are more likely to be visited than those located
off the main routes. It is therefore crucial, to ensure and facilitate sustainable mobility,
that planning and territorial management measures are applied to contribute to the
dispersion of tourists. The provision of an efficient public transport system that serves
the entire municipality of Porto with the same level of accessibility could contribute
to a greater dispersion of the accommodation offer and the location of new attractions
or relocation of some existing ones.
Another aspect to consider when analysing the movements and routes taken by
tourists (Figs. 24.1 and 24.2) is the emergence of possible conflicts with residents,
since both locals and tourists share the same spaces. The morphology of the historic
centre of Porto, marked by the existence of narrow streets with steep slopes, and
the presence of Douro River, represent a morphological barrier making it difficult
for tourists to disperse, favouring the existence of conditions for the emergence of
overcrowded areas. This can result in more noise, more waste production and greater
congestion of public transport.
Regarding the time spent in each parish by the tracked tourists (Fig. 24.3), it
coincides with the distribution of the routes taken by them (Fig. 24.1). Zuzanek
(1980) cited by Fennell [18 p. 815] defines time budget as “a method of measuring
the duration and sequence of activities performed by an individual during a specific
period of time, usually 24 h”. In this research, the time budget corresponds to the time
 310
M. R. Martins et al.

Fig. 24.2 Intensity of backpacker tourist movements—num. of passages per area in the World Heritage area of Porto [30]
24 Backpackers’ Space–time Behaviour in a World Heritage City—Porto 311

that tourists have available to devote to their visit, and as it is not an unlimited resource,
it must be well used. As the city of Porto, namely its historic centre where the largest
concentration of attractions is located, has a relatively small area, it is not necessary
to travel long distances to visit it. Therefore, walking is the most popular means of
locomotion among those who visit the city, which is why local authorities responsible
for managing tourism activity should be aware, as tourists come into direct contact
with the life and cultural aspects of residents and influence the city’s economy, culture
and environment [52]. As most of the time budget dedicated to visiting the city is
concentrated in a relatively small area (former parishes of Santo Ildefonso, Sé, São
Nicolau and Vitória), characterised by its narrow streets and irregular orography,
the increasing number of visitors will contribute to the overcrowding of these areas,
contributing to the emergence of problems in terms of the quality of visits and possible
conflicts between residents and tourists. It is therefore important to provide the city
with infrastructures suited to the needs of those who visit it on foot and to promote
an adequate distribution of visitors.
Figure 24.2 can be observed a higher incidence of movements in the parishes of
the historic centre classified by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, along Praça da
Liberdade, Aliados, Rua Mouzinho da Silveira and Rua das Flores. These streets are
an important circulation corridor to access the Ribeira do Porto, not forgetting the
corridor connecting the Ribeira square, D. Luís bridge and the Cais de Gaia. The Sé
Cathedral and the D. Luís bridge, together with the Cais de Gaia, also reveal a large
number of backpacker passages. Other secondary host spots are the garden of the
Palácio de Cristal, Rua de Cedofeita and Rua de Miguel Bombarda (art galleries)
and the well-known Boavista roundabout where the emblematic Casa da Música is
located.
The places where backpackers spent more time correspond, in general, to the
places with the highest intensities of passages (Fig. 24.3): Aliados, Praça da Liber-
dade, Rua Mouzinho da Silveira, Rua das Flores and Ribeira do Porto. Occasionally,
there are high lengths of stay in some places close to some attractions and accom-
modation. Among the attractions, the following stand out: Sé Cathedral, São Lázaro
Garden, São Bento Station, D. Luís Bridge, Misericórdia do Porto Church, Clérigos
Tower, the Gardens of Palácio de Cristal, Porto and Gaia riverside, Bom Sucesso
Market and Casa da Música. Occasionally, there are small territories with average
stay times of more than 31 min, scattered throughout the city and not coinciding
with the location of attractions. These areas correspond mainly to places where
cafés, restaurants or hostels are located where breaks for meals, drinks, rest, among
others, justify higher average stops. In addition, places close to some viewpoints,
Casa da Música and the Gaia River also have higher averages (Fig. 24.3).
Most backpackers visiting Porto made stops of less than 5 min, in line with the
results obtained by Yun et al. [52] where 98% of the stops made by the individuals
lasted less than three minutes. Backpackers use the main city streets to move between
attractions, revealing a low utilisation of their time budgets when visiting attractions,
apart from Casa da Música. The city streets were thus used for circulation without
significant stops or experiences [52].
 312
M. R. Martins et al.

Fig. 24.3 Total length of stay of backpackers in the World Heritage area of Porto [30]
24 Backpackers’ Space–time Behaviour in a World Heritage City—Porto 313

24.5 Conclusions

Literature reveal that backpackers appreciate different types of experiences during

their visits, looking for cultural attractions and activities such as museums, artistic
and monumental heritage, cultural activities associated with intangible heritage, such
as music, gastronomy and wines, among others. This research shows that in an urban
context backpackers have a preference for visit the main monuments located in the
historic centre, using the main city streets to move between attractions. Backpackers
have a low utilisation of their time budgets when visiting attractions, preferring to
walk around. It is interesting to note that the longest average stay times do not coincide
with the location of attractions. Backpackers spend more time in cafés, restaurants or
close to hostels for meals, drinks or rest. In addition, places close to some viewpoints,
the Casa da Música and the Cais de Gaia also have higher averages of length of stay.
This research can give important practical contributions do Porto Destination
Management Organization (DMO). As walking is the most popular means of loco-
motion among those who visit the city, local authorities should pay special attention
to the tourism impacts in the resident’s day life and in the influence of tourists in the
city’s economy, culture and environment. As most of the time budget dedicated to
visit the city is concentrated in a relatively small area (former parishes of Santo Ilde-
fonso, Sé, São Nicolau and Vitória), characterised by its narrow streets and irregular
orography, the increasing number of visitors will contribute to the overcrowding of
these areas, and to the emergence of problems related with visitors’ satisfaction and
possible conflicts between residents and tourists. It is therefore important to provide
the city with infrastructures suited to the needs of those who visit it on foot and to
promote an adequate distribution of visitors.

Acknowledgments This work is financed by National Funds through FCT - Foundation for Science
and Technology, I.P., under project Refa UIDB/04470/2020 (https://doi.org/10.54499/UIDB/04470/
2020).

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Chapter 25
Environmental Corporate Social
Responsibility (ECSR) in a Price-Set
Competition Between Private
and State-Owned Hotels

Fernanda A. Ferreira , Flávio Ferreira , and Oana R. Bode

Abstract Environmental corporate social responsibility (ECSR) has emerged as a

crucial concept in the business world, reflecting a growing recognition of the profound
impact of corporate activities on the environment. We will study a model in which two
hotels with different objectives must take decisions on environmental CSR policies
and on room rates, considering the separation between ownership and management.
We will discuss two cases: (i) the SO hotel takes the leader position; (ii) the FP hotel
takes the leader position. The study was conducted using game theory techniques.
The results allow us to conclude that by adopting environmental CSR, hotels are
improving social welfare. In the case that SO hotel acts as a leader, we prove that
both hotels adopt environmental CSR, whereas in the case of FP hotel acting as
a leader, only the SO hotel (follower) adopts environmental CSR. In both cases,
environmental CSR improves social welfare.

25.1 Introduction

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) can make a significant contribution to a respon-

sible and sustainable development of tourism. According to the definition of the
European Commission, CSR is “a concept whereby companies integrate social and
environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their
stakeholders on a voluntary basis”. We point out that CSR measures are voluntary
and should therefore exceed legal regulations.

F. A. Ferreira (B) · F. Ferreira

Development and Innovation (CiTUR), Centre for Tourism Research, Polytechnic Institute of
Porto, School of Hospitality and Tourism Applied Management Research Unit (UNIAG), Rua D.
Sancho I, 981, 4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
F. Ferreira
e-mail: [email protected]
O. R. Bode
Faculty of Business, Babes-Bolyai University, Horea Str., No. 7, 400174 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 317
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_25
318 F. A. Ferreira et al.

Environmental corporate social responsibility (ECSR) encompasses the ethical

and voluntary initiatives undertaken by corporations to address their environmen-
tal impacts and contribute positively to sustainability. It involves the integration
of eco-friendly practices and strategies into core business operations, with a focus
on reducing greenhouse gas emissions, conserving natural resources, and mitigat-
ing environmental risks. As consumers, investors, and stakeholders demand greater
accountability from companies, ECSR has become a vital aspect of a firm’s reputation
and competitiveness.
A culture of corporate social responsibility (CSR) involves actively contributing to
the well-being of the community. This is achieved by conducting business in a manner
that generates shared value for society through ethical practices, as highlighted by
studies such as those by Latapí Agudelo et al. [1] and by Sharma [2]. This can
be accomplished through particular steps that prioritize social responsibility [3].
Enacting corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives opens the door to attaining
sustainability, generating value, and gaining a competitive edge [4, 5]. Furthermore,
it serves as a potent instrument for shaping societal perspectives, enhancing quality of
life, influencing public perception of a brand, and functioning as a robust marketing
tool [2]. This is especially pronounced within the hospitality sector, where a spectrum
of stakeholders hold the belief that this industry bears a responsibility to yield benefits
due to its financial successes [6]. Hence, hospitality enterprises are progressively
dedicating resources to corporate social responsibility (CSR) endeavours, with the
dual objective of cultivating robust stakeholder connections and enhancing their
operational outcomes [7, 8].
CSR was first implemented in the tourism sector in the late 1990s by interna-
tional hotel corporations. The literature on CSR has grown appreciably in recent
years [9]. Kaur et al. [10] analysed the literature published on the role of CSR in the
restaurant sector from 2004 to 2021. Many international hotel chains have integrated
CSR measures, such as Marriott International with the program “Spirit to Serve Our
Communities” or NH Hotels’ “Street Children”. Today, many hotel chains publish
annual CSR reports on their websites (e.g. Accor, Hilton Hotel Corporation, Inter-
Continental Hotels, NH Hotels, Club Méditerranée, etc.), as mentioned in [11].
Notably pivotal for the industry’s competitiveness, CSR has already demonstrated
favourable impacts on corporate standing, fostering brand favouritism, and elevat-
ing customer confidence and affiliation with the organization [12, 13]. Companies
engaged in corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives are acknowledged for
receiving support from customers, both directly and indirectly, as evidenced by their
perceived service quality [14]. Nonetheless, the domain of CSR in the hospitality
sector remains inadequately explored, presenting substantial potential for expansion
and advancement [12, 15]. As elucidated by Xu et al. [16], the expenses associated
with integrating sustainable practices and policies within companies have the poten-
tial to erode their dedication to sustainability. Qian et al. [15] have affirmed that
the commitment of high- and mid-tier hotels to CSR practices led to their greater
engagement with this philosophy, in contrast to low-tier or budget hotels. According
to Gutierrez-Martinez and Duhamel’s study [17], the integration of sustainability
practices within the hospitality industry hinges on leaders’ capacity to design sys-
25 Environmental Corporate Social Responsibility (ECSR) … 319

tems, foster dedication, and synchronize interests and objectives in harmony with
sustainability principles.
The implementation of the “3Rs” (reduce, reuse, and recycle) within the envi-
ronmental strategy holds a significant position within companies operating in the
hospitality sector. This has been highlighted by researchers such as Chen and Peng
[18] as well as Ioannidis et al. [19]. Embracing these principles can offer notable
advantages to their overall performance and achievements. In relation to measuring
sustainable performance metrics within the hospitality sector, Franzoni et al. [20]
focus on the environmental aspects. They highlight the following indicators: Carbon
dioxide (.CO2 ) emissions; energy consumption per guest night; renewable energy
generation; water consumption; plastic usage; environmental certification; and use
of certified eco-friendly cleaning products. Implementation of environmentally con-
scious corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives has a direct impact on the
dedication and regard towards the tourism sector, as indicated by studies by Bogan
and Dedeoglu [21] and Han et al. [22]. In essence, these initiatives contribute to the
advancement of corporate sustainability, nurturing the holistic welfare of the society
in terms of social, economic, and environmental dimensions, both presently and in
the prospect. This, in turn, facilitates the progression towards more enduring com-
munities and enhanced well-being, aligning with the concept of sustainable living
[23].
As Lewis [24] highlighted, in the realm of hospitality, corporate social responsibil-
ity (CSR) assumes significance by motivating organizations to contribute positively
to society. This not only yields favourable outcomes from a business perspective but
also leads to advantageous results such as positive media coverage, enhanced pub-
licity, and increased societal esteem. Corporate social responsibility (CSR) holds
special significance in the hospitality sector due to its historical association with sig-
nificant environmental effects stemming from factors such as energy and water usage,
food wastage, and the utilization of disposable products, among others. Notably, the
hotel industry by itself presently contributes to approximately 1.% of the world’s
carbon emissions, with this contribution anticipated to rise in tandem with industry
expansion.
Ferreira et al. [25] studied the effects of CSR on the strategic choice of pollution
abatement and on the timing of the government’s commitment to the environmental
tax policy, in the hospitality industry (see also [26]). Hirose et al. [27] consider a
model in which two firms choose whether to adopt environmental CSR policies and
then face a sequential price-setting competition. In this paper, we apply the model
described by Hirose et al. [27] to hospitality industry, and we consider one for-price
hotel and one consumer-friendly one, instead of two private companies.
The remained of the paper is organized as follows. In Sect. 25.2, we describe the
model. In Sect. 25.3, we study the case in which the SO hotel acts as the leader. In
Sect. 25.4, we study the case in which the FP hotel acts as the leader. Conclusions
are presented in Sect. 25.5.
320 F. A. Ferreira et al.

25.2 Description of the Model

In this paper, we establish a market competition between one state-owned (SO) hotel
H1 and one for-profit (FP) hotel . H2 . The owners of the SO hotel aim to maximize
.
social welfare, whereas the owners of the FP hotel aim to maximize its own profit.
Furthermore, the owners of each hotel commit to donating a monetary amount for
environmental improvements. However, each hotel has a manager who decides the
room rates that maximize its net profit (the profit after subtracting the cost of dona-
tion).
The inverse demand function is linear, given by

. pi = 1 − qi − γ q j , (25.1)

where.qi is the quantity (occupancy) of hotel. Hi and. pi is the room rate, with.i = 1, 2,
i /= j, and .γ ∈ (0, 1) is a measure of the degree of the differentiation of the hotels’
.
rooms or services. The common marginal cost is constant and normalized to zero.
Hotel . Hi ’s profit is given by
.πi pi qi . (25.2)
Assumption 1 For simplicity, we assume .γ = 0.5.
The owners of hotel . H1 ’s payoff is .π1 = p1 q1 , the owners of hotel . H2 ’s payoff
is social welfare (hotels’ profits plus consumer surplus minus the loss from the
externalities), and management’s payoff is

. Vi = πi − θi βqi , (25.3)

where .βqi is the level of pollution emitted by hotel . Hi , and .θi (≥ 0) is an internal
emission price, representing the degree of environmental CSR and determined by
the owners of hotel . Hi .
Social welfare .W is defined by

. W = π1 + π2 + C S − β(q1 + q2 ), (25.4)

where consumer surplus CS is given by

2( 2 )
CS =
. p1 − p1 p2 + p22 + 1 − p1 − p2 . (25.5)
3
We will study and discuss two cases:
1. The SO hotel takes the leader position.
2. The FP hotel takes the leader position.
The proposed methodology consists in modelling the non-cooperative competition
using game theory concepts. In each case, the model is a three-stage game.
In the first case, the game runs as follows:
25 Environmental Corporate Social Responsibility (ECSR) … 321

• In the first stage, both hotels choose, simultaneously, the degree of ECSR.
• In the second stage, SO hotel sets its room rate.
• In the third stage, FP hotel selects its room rate.

In the second case, the game runs as follows:

• In the first stage, both hotels choose, simultaneously, the degree of ECSR.
• In the second stage, FP hotel sets its room rate.
• In the third stage, SO hotel selects its room rate.

For each model, we derive the explicit equilibrium values of degree of environ-
mental CSR and room rates, and we also compute the corresponding hotels’ profits
and social welfare. We show that the second mover may earn higher profits than the
first mover, which is different than the result obtained in (Hirose, et al., 2017). In the
case that SO hotel acts as a leader, we prove that both hotels adopt environmental
CSR, whereas in the case of FP hotel acting as a leader, only this leader hotel adopts
environmental CSR. In both cases, environmental CSR improves social welfare.

Assumption 2 In order to have interior solutions, we assume .709/1950 < β <

2755/4888.

25.3 SO Hotel Acts as the Leader

In this section, we analyse a marketing competition modelled by the following three-

stage game:

• In the first stage, both hotels choose, simultaneously, the degree of ECSR.
• In the second stage, SO hotel sets its room rate.
• In the third stage, FP hotel selects its room rate.
Starting from the last stage, the FP hotel . H2 chooses the price . p2 that maximizes
its objective function .V2 . By solving .∂ V2 /∂ p2 = 0, we get

1 + p1 + 2βθ2
. p2 = . (25.6)
4
In the second stage, SO hotel . H1 sets its room rate . p1 that maximizes .V1 . Putting
(25.6) into .V1 defined by (25.3), and solving .∂ V1 /∂ p1 = 0, we get

5 + β(7θ1 + 2θ2 )
. p1 = . (25.7)
14
Putting (25.7) into (25.6), we get

19 + β(7θ1 + 30θ2 )
. p2 = . (25.8)
56
322 F. A. Ferreira et al.

Finally, in the first stage, both hotels choose, simultaneously, the degree of ECSR
θ and .θ2 that maximizes, respectively, .W and .π2 . Putting (25.7) and (25.8) into
. 1
(25.2) and (25.4), we obtain
(5 + β(7θ1 + 2θ2 )) (5 − β(7θ1 − 2θ2 ))
. 1 π = , (25.9)
168

(19 + β(7θ1 + 30θ2 )) (19 + β(7θ1 − 26θ2 ))

π =
. 2 , (25.10)
2352

2755 − 2β(357θ1 + 354θ2 + 2044) − β 2 f (θ1 , θ2 )

. W = , (25.11)
4704

where . f (θ1 , θ2 ) = 637θ12 − 28θ1 θ2 − 1960θ1 + 724θ22 − 2128θ2 .

⎧ ∂W
⎨ ∂θ1 = 0
By solving the system . we get the Nash equilibrium1
⎩ ∂π2
∂θ2
= 0,

1950β − 709 5β + 7 5(28β + 3) 15(5β + 7)

. 1θI = , θ2I = , p1I = , p2I = .
1267β 181β 181 362

The resulting profits are

5(3 + 28β)(407 − 485β) 65(7 + 5β)

πI =
. 1 , π2I = .
98283 32761
So, we obtain the following result.
Proposition 1 If the SO hotel assumes the role of the leader, then both hotels adopt
ECSR.
Furthermore, it is easy to see that
⎧
⎨ > 0, 1950
709
<β< 15
41
.π1 − π2I
I
⎩
< 0, 15
41
<β< 407
485

So, we obtain the following result.

Proposition 2 If the SO hotel assumes the role of the leader:
• For low levels of pollution emitted by the hotels, there exists a first-mover advan-
tage.
• For high levels of pollution emitted by the hotels, there exists a second-mover
advantage.

1 Throughout the paper, we use the notation superscript . I to refer to the SO hotel leader case.
25 Environmental Corporate Social Responsibility (ECSR) … 323

Thus, we can say that, in a situation where hotels are emitting only a small amount
of pollution, being the first hotel to take certain actions or make specific changes can
provide a competitive edge or benefit; in the context of hotels generating significant
pollution, there is a strategic benefit for a business or entity that responds or acts later
in addressing the pollution issue, rather than being the first one to do so.
Let’s delve into the potential impacts on social welfare brought about by ECSR.
From the results above, social welfare .W I is given by

65, 485β 2 − 214, 118β + 122, 269

. WI = .
196, 566

Without ECSR, social welfare .W I,N is given by

2755 − 4088β
. W I,N = .
4704

We obtain .W I − W I,N > 0, for all .β ∈ (709/1950, 2755/4888). This leads to the
following proposition.
Proposition 3 If the SO hotel assumes the role of the leader, ECSR improves social
welfare.
In the model considered, with the SO hotel assuming the role of the leader, when
hotels actively engage in practices that prioritize environmental sustainability and
take responsibility for their impact on the environment, they contribute to the well-
being and betterment of society as a whole.

25.4 FP Hotel Acts as the Leader

In this section, we analyse a marketing competition modelled by the following three-

stage game:

• In the first stage, both hotels choose, simultaneously, the degree of ECSR.
• In the second stage, FP hotel sets its room rate.
• In the third stage, SO hotel selects its room rate.

Starting from the last stage, the SO hotel . H1 chooses the price . p1 that maximizes
its objective function .V1 . By solving .∂ V1 /∂ p1 = 0, we get

1 + p2 + 2βθ1
. p1 = . (25.12)
4
In the second stage, FP hotel . H2 sets its room rate . p2 that maximizes .V2 . Putting
(25.12) into .V2 defined by (25.3), and solving .∂ V2 /∂ p2 = 0, we get
324 F. A. Ferreira et al.

5 + β(2θ1 + 7θ2 )
. p2 = . (25.13)
14
Putting (25.13) into (25.12), we get

19 + β(30θ1 + 7θ2 )
. p1 = . (25.14)
56
Finally, in the first stage, both hotels choose, simultaneously, the degree of ECSR
θ and .θ2 that maximizes, respectively, .W and .π2 . Putting (25.7) and (25.8) into
. 1
(25.2) and (25.4), we obtain
(19 + β(30θ1 + 7θ2 )) (19 − β(26θ1 − 7θ2 ))
π =
. 1 , (25.15)
2352

(5 + β(2θ1 + 7θ2 )) (5 + β(2θ1 − 7θ2 ))

. 2π = , (25.16)
168

2755 − 2β(354θ1 + 357θ2 + 2044) − β 2 g(θ1 , θ2 )

. W = , (25.17)
4704

where .g(θ1 , θ2 ) = 724θ12 − 28θ1 θ2 − 2128θ1 + 637θ22 − 1960θ2 .

⎧ ∂W
⎨ ∂θ1 = 0
By solving the system . we get the Nash equilibrium2
⎩ ∂π2
∂θ2
= 0,

532β − 177 285β + 28) 2(19β + 26)

θII =
. 1 , θ2I I = 0, p1I I = , p2I I = .
1267β 362 181

The resulting profits are

(205 − 247β)(28 + 285β) 14(26 + 19β)

πII =
. 1 , π2I I = .
98283 98283
So, we obtain the following result.
Proposition 4 If the FP hotel assumes the role of the leader, then only the SO hotel
(follower) adopts ECSR.
Furthermore, it is easy to see that
⎧
⎨ > 0, 1950
709
<β< 49
361
∨ 4
1950
<β< 2755
4888
.π1 − π2I I
II
⎩
< 0, 361
49
<β< 4
11

2 Throughout the paper, we use the notation superscript . I I to refer to the FP hotel leader case.
25 Environmental Corporate Social Responsibility (ECSR) … 325

So, we obtain the following result.

Proposition 5 If the FP hotel assumes the role of the leader:
• For either low or high levels of pollution emitted by the hotels, there exists a
second-mover advantage.
• For pollution levels neither too low nor too high, there exists a first-mover advan-
tage.

Thus, we can say that, in a situation where hotels are emitting either low or high
amount of pollution, there is a strategic benefit for a business or entity that responds
or acts later in addressing the pollution issue, rather than being the first one to do so;
in the context of hotels generating neither too low nor too high amounts of pollution,
being the first hotel to take certain actions or make specific changes can provide a
competitive edge or benefit.
Let’s delve into the potential impacts on social welfare brought about by ECSR.
From the results above, social welfare .W I I is given by

361β 2 − 1184β + 676

. WII = .
1086

We obtain .W I I − W N > 0, for all .β ∈ (709/1950, 2755/4888). This leads to fol-

lowing proposition.
Proposition 6 If the FP hotel assumes the role of the leader, ECSR improves social
welfare.
In the model considered, with the FP hotel assuming the role of the leader, and
as was already the case in the previous section,nn when hotels actively engage in
practices that prioritize environmental sustainability and take responsibility for their
impact on the environment, they contribute to the well-being and betterment of
society as a whole.

25.5 Conclusions

We examined a framework where both privately owned and state-owned hotels make
decisions regarding the implementation of environmental corporate social responsi-
bility. Subsequently, they engage in sequential competition within a context of price
competition. We analysed two scenarios: (i) where the SO hotel assumes the leader-
ship position, and (ii) where the FP hotel takes on the role of the leader. The findings
enable us to deduce that hotels enhance social well-being through the implementa-
tion of ECSR practices. If the SO hotel assumes a leadership role, we demonstrated
that both hotels embrace ECSR. However, if the FP hotel takes on the leadership role,
only the SO hotel (as the follower) embraces ECSR. In both cases, ECSR improves
social welfare.
326 F. A. Ferreira et al.

For future work, it may be interesting to study the situation of a market composed
of one SO hotel and several FP hotels.

Acknowledgements Fernanda A. Ferreira and Flvio Ferreira thank the Foundation for Science
and Technology (FCT, Portugal) for financial support by national funds FCT/MCTES to UNIAG
(UIDB/04752/2020 and UIDP/04752/2020).

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Chapter 26
Tourist Technology Satisfaction: Scale
Development and Validation

José Mendes , Inês Boavida-Portugal , and Teresa Borges-Tiago

Abstract E-tourism has revolutionized the way people plan and experience travel,
making it easier and more convenient to research and book trips, and enabling trav-
elers to share their experiences and connect with others in new ways. There is rich
literature concerning adopting and using information and communication technolo-
gies (ICTs), but the satisfaction achieved with these tools is still underexplored. In
this sense, the present study aims to present the development/adaptation of a scale that
evaluates subjective satisfaction of consuming with ICTs by responding to 5 items
on a Likert-type scale. A survey was applied, and the Information and Communi-
cation Technology Satisfaction Scale (TTSS) was (re)created, with an adaptation of
the items and the Life Satisfaction Scale. Participants included 598 individuals with
an average age of 43.38 years, having taken at least two leisure trips in the last five
years. The results reveal that most participants almost always used ICTs in their daily
lives and said they had taken at least one trip during the SARS-CoV-2 period. They
assured almost always use social networks during leisure trips and use dedicated
APPs. The results revealed that the scale developed is psychometrically robust for
assessing consumers’ subjective satisfaction with ICTs, and there is no gender vari-
ance. Technology providers face significant challenges in the face of the constant
innovation of technologies in tourism. The present instrument presents a practical
contribution to assessing subjective consumer satisfaction, assisting in developing
innovative technologies by portraying consumers’ satisfaction with the ICT solution.

J. Mendes (B) · I. Boavida-Portugal

Associated Laboratory Terra, Centre of Geographical Studies, Institute of Geography and Spatial
Planning, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
T. Borges-Tiago
Department of Business, University of the Azores, Ponda Delgada, Portugal

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 329
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_26
330 J. Mendes et al.

26.1 Introduction

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are a means of searching,

storing, processing, and presenting information electronically [1], rapidly asserting
themselves in the daily life of almost every individual and organization [2, 3]. Tourism
and hospitality were no exception, and in the last two years, the growth path was
increased due to the COVID-19 pandemic [4]. As a result, there is a plethora of
information and communication technologies applications in tourism and hospitality
that helps to automate and streamline processes [5], enhance the customer experi-
ence [6, 7], create new products and services [8], facilitate collaboration, and enable
data-driven decision-making [9].
Although ICT is an essential tool for tourists in planning trips and enhancing local
experiences, Roztocki and Weistroffer [10] noted that research on ICTs has focused
primarily on their diffusion and implementation. Moreover, Molina-Collado et al.
[4] highlighted that the relevance of technology in the tourism and hospitality field
attracted many researchers but still left some key issues less explored and pinpointed
customer satisfaction with the use of technologies as one of the existent gaps. This
gap has been previously addressed in the work of Gretzel and Stankov [11] from
the well-being perspective. Thus, after reviewing the most important works on ICT
adoption by tourists, this paper addresses this gap and proposes a scale that identifies
the critical factors that generate more tourist satisfaction when using ICT. This scale
provides tourism and hospitality firms with a tool for evaluating their digital tools
about “end-users” satisfaction, as well as guidance about which areas they must
improve if wanting to increase tourists’ engagement and service experience.

26.2 Literature Review

E-tourism, also known as electronic tourism or digital tourism, refers to the use
of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in the travel and tourism
industry [12]. It encompasses the entire process of planning, booking, experiencing,
and sharing travel experiences using digital platforms, such as websites, social
media, mobile apps, and other online tools. E-tourism and the Internet support the
interactivity between tourism enterprises and consumers, where e-tourism enables
the improvement of internal processes and establishes efficient links through ICT
innovations.
Thus, Kazandzhieva and Santana [13] presented in their study a complex concep-
tual framework for the e-tourism system and defined “e-tourism as a process of
digitalization of all managerial and business functions, services, and stages of the
value chain of the tourism system in order to increase the effectiveness in the inter-
actions between tourism companies, consumers, and public sectors, thus achieving
competitive sustainability.” This exponential growth of digital information in recent
years has spurred the use of information technology in travel [3], but the adoption
26 Tourist Technology Satisfaction: Scale Development and Validation 331

of technology in tourism and hospitality is not new [14]. Nonetheless, organizations

and tourist destinations have changed dramatically due to the digital revolution [15].
ICTs influence all tourism-related stakeholders leading them toward new opportu-
nities and challenges [12], enabling both the expansion of products and services
and easy access to information about tourist destinations for the consumer [16, 17].
Lee et al. [18] mention that ICTs have transformed the travel and leisure industry
worldwide, influencing tourism asymmetrically.
E-tourism has revolutionized the travel industry by making it easier and more
convenient for travelers to plan and book their trips online, from anywhere in the
world [19, 20]. It allows travelers to research destinations, compare prices and
services, book flights, accommodation, and other travel-related services, and share
their travel experiences with others through social media and online review plat-
forms [21]. Roztocki and Weistroffer [10] concluded that technology had a profound
impact on the tourism industry and that tourism businesses need to embrace tech-
nology and collaborate with technology companies to remain competitive and meet
the evolving needs of travelers. But the same authors highlighted that to pertain to
this successful path it was essential to analyze not only the adoption processes but
also the satisfaction with the technological tools adopted.
Several studies focus on assessment: satisfaction with ICTs as a work tool [22],
satisfaction with work [23–26], satisfaction with information [27], satisfaction with
life [28], satisfaction with the usefulness of ICTs [29, 30], and travel satisfaction
[31]. On the other hand, other studies evaluate user satisfaction [32], tourists [33,
34], and customers [35–39]. Calvo-Porral et al. [40] found that perceived control and
skill level are important factors that drive satisfaction. But the authors also noted that
the flow experience affects technology satisfaction in different contexts. A cross-
reference is made in the different works to the tourism businesses’ need to embrace
technology and collaborate with technology companies to remain competitive and
meet the evolving needs of travelers. Therefore, the trilogy tourism, technology,
and satisfaction have become more relevant as a field of study, as inferred by the
increasing references found (Fig. 26.1).
As noted in the previous figure, this trilogy only recently received attention.
In this sense, to better understand the relationship between satisfaction and ICTs,
we proceeded to a brief preliminary search in SCOPUS with the keywords “satis-
faction” and “information and communication technology” identifying 1.286 arti-
cles. Through a bibliometric analysis using the VOSviewer program, we obtained
Fig. 26.2.
The top image shows the map based on the co-occurrence of the data in the text,
divided into three distinct clusters: consumer (red), industry (green), and technology
(blue). Despite the differentiation between the clusters presented, they present a
complex network of interconnections. This may be because tourism is considered
an information-intensive sector, affecting the competitiveness of organizations and
destinations, allowing efficient cooperation for globalization [41–43].
The bottom image presents a map of keyword co-occurrence (minimum 10),
revealing that satisfaction has a link strength that is concentrated in the keywords
trust, loyalty, and usability. Through this figure, we can also see that in recent years,
332 J. Mendes et al.

Fig. 26.1 Evolution of the number of publications and citations after 1970

publications have focused on digital systems, citizen satisfaction, COVID-19, e-

health, motivation, and online learning.
This brief review has identified that most research has focused on the satisfaction
that technologies can provide to the user. Borges-Tiago et al. [44] showed that smart
technologies and ecosystems, value creation, shared economy, and tourism experi-
ence contribute to the rapid growth of smart tourism. Recently, Stankov and Gretzel
[11] argued that digital wellness attracts more and more consumers. The search for
well-being through tourism experiences has been the central goal of consumers [45],
where intelligent tourist destinations can enhance the tourist experience by offering
personalized products and services [46]. ICTs have been the subject of much research
on these technologies’ evaluation, influence, and impact on development and invest-
ment in economic activity and human development. However, no known instrument
measures user satisfaction with the use of ICTs, used daily by billions of people
around the world.
Most people express positive satisfaction with their work, and with the products
and services they receive, among others [47–49]. Satisfaction is positively related
to the experience of the meaning of life [48, 50, 51], that people who actively seek
meaning in life have greater satisfaction, however, the relationships of meaning-
seeking to experience and well-being are complex [50]. Studies by Gössling [52,
53] reveal that technologies and ICT innovation have made a strong contribution
to human development. In fact, studies reveal that ICTs play an important role
in tourists’ behavior and expectations when planning and making a leisure trip,
promoting the satisfaction of their tourist experiences [29, 54, 55]. From the perspec-
tive of Smith and Diekmann [56], hedonic and eudemonic well-being can be achieved
through tourism experiences. On the other hand, digital well-being has increasingly
attracted stakeholders in confronting technology-driven challenges, [11]. However,
26 Tourist Technology Satisfaction: Scale Development and Validation 333

Fig. 26.2 Bibliometric analysis of keyword occurrence (network and overlay visualization)

sound conceptualizations of digital well-being and better development of innovative

measurement approaches on how ICTs can be implemented to promote and measure
well-being in the increasingly technological tourism activity are needed [45, 57, 58].
In this sense, the present study, instead of focusing on “what” satisfies the
consumer the present study proposes the construction of a subjective evaluation
instrument on feelings of satisfaction with ICTs, applied in a context whose objective
is to evaluate the use of ICTs in the different stages of a leisure trip.
334 J. Mendes et al.

26.3 Methodology

This study aimed to create a tourist technology satisfaction scale (TTSS), which
measures the psychometric characteristics of tourist satisfaction with technology
when traveling. To accomplish this, the study followed a deductive scale development
procedure, which is a well-established method in scale development research [59].
This approach has been widely used in previous scale development studies and is
considered the standard for creating reliable tourism scales.

26.3.1 Procedures

A set of questions was constructed to assess subjective satisfaction with ICTs. The
questionnaire was administered to 20 individuals of both sexes with different literacy
levels to test the questions of the instrument. Afterward, the questionnaire was made
available through the platform ArcGIS Survey123 (allowing only one submission per
participant), disseminated through social networks, and made available by reading
a QR Code in some tourist spots on the island of São Miguel (e.g., Gorreana Tea
factory, considered one of the most visited tourist attractions), Lisbon, and Porto
airport. The inclusion criteria for the present study were (i) age 18 years or older,
(ii) having traveled at least twice in the past five years, and (iii) answering all the
questions (questionnaire without skip questions).

26.3.2 Participants

In this study, 607 individuals responded, and nine responses were eliminated for not
meeting one of the inclusion criteria. We validated 598 participants with a mean
age of 43.38 years, in which 58% claim to be male, 42% claim to be female. The
participants’ academic qualifications are mostly concentrated in higher education
(78.5%) and higher school (17.9%). Overall the participants under study perceive
that their economic income allows them to live very well (17.7%); it is enough to
live on (52%); it is less easy to live on their salary (23.9%); or it is very difficult to
live on their salary (6.4%).
Most of the study participants are from Portugal (54.8%) followed by Spain
(31.6%) and Brazil (4.2%). The UK, São Tomé and Príncipe, India, Switzerland,
Poland, Germany, USA, Italy, Belgium, Czech Republic, and Chile are the countries
with the lowest percentage.
26 Tourist Technology Satisfaction: Scale Development and Validation 335

26.3.3 Instruments

A sociodemographic questionnaire was designed to characterize the participants

(e.g., age, gender, education level, number of trips made in the last five years) and
exploration of the use of ICTs in a leisure trip (e.g., before, during, and after the trip).
Tourist Technology Satisfaction Scale (TTSS)—Taking into consideration the brief
literature review in this article, the development of the TTSS was rationalized by
taking into consideration the steps in the construction of a scale [59–61]. Five items
of the Satisfaction with Life Scale were adapted/created, making them accessible to
people of low cultural levels and reflected the general satisfaction with ICTs through
five questions on a Likert scale with five response options (1 = Strongly disagree, 2
= Disagree, 3 = Don’t disagree either agree, 4 = Agree, 5 = Strongly agree). Just
like the Life Satisfaction Scale, the TTSS has a minimum score of five points and
a maximum score of 25 points, indicating greater satisfaction with ICTs the higher
the score.
Life Satisfaction Scale (SWLS)—Having developed the TTSS by adapting the items
from the Life Satisfaction Scale developed by Diener et al. [62], it is important to
apply this scale to establish correlations between both scales. The SWLS was adapted
for the Portuguese population by Simões [63], and it is an instrument that measures
overall life satisfaction through five items on a five-point Likert scale (1) strongly
disagree to (5) strongly agree. In the present study, the SWLS scale presented a
Cronbach’s alpha considered good (α = 0.87). The higher the score, the higher the
life satisfaction.

26.3.4 Statistical Analysis

For descriptive statistics and exploratory factor analysis, we used the software
IBM SPSS for macOS, version 28 (Armonk, NY, USA), descriptive statistics were
analyzed and an exploratory factor analysis was performed and Cronbach’s alpha
was verified in order to assess the correlation between the items, thus gauging the
measurement of the theoretical construct. Spearman’s coefficient (− 1 ≤ RS ≤ 1) was
calculated because the assumption of normality of the variable under study was not
verified. IBM AMOS software for macOS version 28 (Armonk, NY, USA) was used
for confirmatory factor analysis with maximum likelihood estimation, evaluating the
global adjustment quality of the factor model by the Chi-square Test of Adjustment
(X 2 ), considering X 2 /g.l. less than 5 as an acceptable model. According to the indices
Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), and Root Mean Square
Error of Approximation (RMSEA). A good fit was considered when the indices were
close to the value of 1 and the RMSEA had reference values less than 0.05. Finally,
invariance was assessed for the variables’ gender and age class.
336 J. Mendes et al.

26.3.5 Supplementary Materials

The present study was submitted to the evaluation of the University of the Azores
ethics committee and obtained a positive opinion with reference number 30/2022.

26.4 Results and Discussions

When the participants were asked about the use of ICTs, social networks, and dedi-
cated Apps during the trip, through Fig. 26.3, it is possible to see that the participants
consider the use of ICTs and social networks (e.g., Facebook) as essential for the
trip. Dedicated Apps (e.g., Metro Lisbon) were considered by the participants as less
relevant.
Asked about the number of trips made in the last five years, the participants said
they had made an average of 8 trips (SD = 7.32), in which 66.9% of the participants
claim to have traveled at least once during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Considering
the minimum value is five points and the maximum value of 25 points for TTSS and
SWLS, participants showed satisfaction levels above the midpoint for both TTSS (M
= 18.93, SD = 3.49) and SWLS (M = 17.83, SD = 4.30).

Fig. 26.3 Percentage of tourists’ use of information technology

26 Tourist Technology Satisfaction: Scale Development and Validation 337

26.4.1 Reliability

A one-dimensional TTSS consisting of five items has a Cronbach’s alpha considered

acceptable (α = 0.80); however, Marôco and Garcia-Marques [64] argue that the
validity of this measure has been questioned, so they suggest composite reliability
analysis.

26.4.1.1 Construct Reliability

After analyzing whether the internal consistency of the items is a consistent manifes-
tation of the latent factor, we proceeded to calculate the composite reliability, with
⌃

appropriate construct reliability (FC = 0.81) for this study. Marôco [65] states that
⌃

in general construct reliability is considered appropriate when FC ≥ 0.7.

26.4.2 Exploratory Factor Analysis

In the principal components analysis, with Varimax rotation, the Kaiser–Meyer–

Olkin measure revealed homogeneity of the variables (KMO = 0.82) proving to be
adequate for the sample. Bartlett’s test of sphericity (X 2 (10) = 1,111,108; p < 0.001)
allowed us to verify that the variables are sufficiently correlated among the items.
All items show strong correlations (0.5 ≤ |r | < 0.75) to very strong |r | > 0.75 [66]
(Table 26.1).

Table 26.1 Item-total correlations of the satisfaction with tourist technology satisfaction scale
(TTSS)
Item description Item-Total
1. The information and communication technologies almost give all the 0.78
information I would have
2. The information and communication technologies are excellent 0.85
3. I am pleased with the information and communication technologies 0.86
4. So far, information and communication technologies have got a positive 0.72
influence on my life
5. If I could remove the information and communication technologies, I wouldn’t 0.62
remove almost anything
338 J. Mendes et al.

26.4.3 Confirmatory Factor Analysis

For the analysis of the adjustment quality index, Marôco (2021b) considers very
good adjustment when Goodness of Fit Index (CFI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI)
e Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) present reference values ≥ 0.8, indicating that values
close to 1 are revealed as perfect models. This author also argues that Root Mean
Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) has a good fit when [0.05; 0.08]; p ≥ 0.05.
On the other hand, the lower the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR)
better fit, with SRMR = 0 indicating a perfect fit. In this sense, the one-dimensional
structure of the TTSS model presents the quality of fit indices considered very good
(X 2 (5) = 20,948; p < 0.05, X 2 df = 4,190; CFI = 0.99; TLI = 0.97; IFI = 0.99; GFI =
0.99; RMSEA = 0.07, p = 0.10) and SRMR = 0.031. The weight of the regressions
and variances of all items are significant (p < 0.001).

26.4.4 Invariance Measurement

Confirmatory factor analysis allows you to assess the invariance of an instrument’s

structure and parameters across groups. By this means, categorical variables were
created to perform invariance tests for the sex variable (male–female) and the age
class variable that according to Gonçalves [67] is subdivided into Teenagers (18–20
years old), Young Adults (20–40 years old), Middle-Aged (40–60 years old), and
Elderly (more than 60 years old). We began the invariance test by fitting the confir-
matory factor analysis model in each group, assuming that the model demonstrates
adequate fit. We performed the tests for invariance considering the group ratings for
equality of item factor loadings (metric invariance) and equality of item intercepts
(scalar invariance) (Fig. 26.4).

Fig. 26.4 Confirmatory

factor analysis of the TTSS
model (X 2 (5) = 20,948; p <
0.05, X 2 df = 4,190; CFI =
0.99; TLI = 0.97; IFI =
0.99; GFI = 0.99; RMSEA
= 0.07, p = 0.10
26 Tourist Technology Satisfaction: Scale Development and Validation 339

26.4.4.1 Gender Invariance Analysis

The configurational model adjusted for sex shows very good fit X 2 (10) = 30,962; p =
0.001, CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.96; RMSEA = 0.059, 90% CI [0.036, 0.081] and SRMR
= 0.02. The fit is identical for the metric model X 2 (14) = 33,226; p = 0.03, CFI
= 0.98, TLI = 0.98; RMSEA = 0.027, 90% CI [0.027, 0.069] and SRMR = 0.03.
Taking into consideration the commonly used criterion ΔCFI ≤ 0.01 [68], test results
ΔX 2 and ΔCFI indicate a similar fit as a result of adding the equality constraints
(ΔX 2 = 2304, ΔCFI = 0.002) concluding the existence of metric invariance. We
then tested the scalar invariance in order to verify if the interceptions of the items are
invariant between the groups, verifying that the results of the scalar model X 2 (18)
= 45,907; p < 0.001, CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.97; RMSEA = 0.051, 90% CI [0.033,
0.070] and SRMR = 0.03, suggest scalar invariance (ΔX2 = 12,641; ΔCFI = 0.008).
Gender issues in ICT literacy have received attention over the years [69, 70] allowing
gender differences to be overcome [71].

26.4.4.2 Age-Group Invariance Analysis

Analyzed the adjusted configurational model for the age group, there was also a very
good fit X 2 (20) = 49,550; p < 0.001, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.95; RMSEA = 0.05, 90%
CI [0.033, 0.068] and SRMR = 0.07. The fit is identical for the metric model X 2 (32)
= 67,344; p < 0.001, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.96; RMSEA = 0.043, 90% CI [0.029,
0.058] and SRMR = 0.09. Taking into consideration the commonly used criterion
ΔCFI ≤ 0.01 [68], test results ΔX2 and ΔCFI indicate a less similar fit as a result of
adding the equality constraints (ΔX 2 = 17,794; ΔCFI = 0.005) verifying that metric
invariance is not sustainable.
We then tested the scalar invariance in order to verify if the interceptions of the
items are invariant between the groups, verifying that the results of the scalar model
X 2 (44) = 92,154; p < 0.001, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.96; RMSEA = 0.043, 90%
CI [0.031, 0.055] and SRMR = 0.09, suggest the assumption of non-invariance
(ΔX 2 = 67,344; ΔCFI = 0.012). Chen [72] mentions the difficulty of proposing
statistical standards to test the invariance measurement, suggesting that data should
be interpreted with caution when non-invariance is found because the fit is influenced
by several factors (e.g., sample size, model complexity). A study by Seguí et al. [32]
reveals that ICTs are used differently according to age, revealing that computer and
Internet use tends to be lower after the age of 50. However, these authors reveal that the
acceptance of mobile devices is negligible between younger and older generations.

26.4.5 Correlation Analysis

When checking the intensity of the association between SWLS and the variables
related to the use of technologies, low levels of intensity were found for the use of
340 J. Mendes et al.

technologies in daily life (RS = 0.16, p < 0.001), the use of social networks (RS =
0.14, p < 0.001), the use of dedicated apps (RS = 0.17, p < 0.001), and the different
Phases of the Trip (RS = 0.14, p < 0.001). A study by Jun et al. [28] reveals that high
smartphone use is significantly related to high levels of social support in families,
subsequently promoting levels of life satisfaction, corroborating the results of this
study. On the other hand, the existence of weak correlations between satisfaction
with ICTs in the different phases of the trip does not corroborate the study of Ferrer-
Rosell et al. [31] identifying a null or extremely weak relationship between these
two variables.
On the other hand, results confirm moderate levels of intensity between TTSS and
the variables use of dedicated apps (RS = 0.262, p < 0.001), use of social networks (RS
= 0.361, p < 0.001), and use of ICTs (RS = 0.326, p < 0.001). According to the brief
literature review in this article, ICTs have been analyzed from the perspective of the
satisfaction they can provide in various areas (e.g., work, personal, and professional
daily life, among others) and the impact of ICTs on human development. Note that
social networks are increasingly present in the daily lives of consumers to promote
products/services [73] and promote purchase intention [74].

26.5 Conclusions

Tourism and technology are interdependent since the advances in technology have
transformed the way people plan, book, and experience travel [6, 7]. The use of
technology has become essential in the tourism industry, as it has enabled tourism
businesses to improve efficiency, enhance the customer experience, and increase
revenue [3]. Moreover, the use of technology in the tourism industry can impact
customer satisfaction [31]. When technology is used effectively, it can enhance the
customer experience and increase satisfaction. However, when technology is used
poorly, it can have the opposite effect, leading to frustration and dissatisfaction.
Although these ideas found support in the literature, there was a gap in what concerns
its assessment. Thus, the present work attempts to develop a scale that assesses tourist
satisfaction with the adoption of technology during traveling. Acknowledging scale
development requires a rigorous and systematic approach to ensure that the resulting
scale is valid and reliable and measures the intended construct accurately, following
a deductive scale development procedure.
With all of these in mind, the results of the present study, aimed at investigating
the psychometric properties of an instrument (re)created to assess satisfaction with
ICTs, reveal adequate factor and confirmatory analysis. The ICTs applied to a sample
of 307 individuals who have made at least two leisure trips, signal that the instrument
assesses how satisfied individuals are with technologies overall. The importance of
this instrument is evidenced not only by the emergence of e-tourism and intelligent
tourism but also by the fact that so far no instrument evaluates the individual’s
satisfaction with information and communication technologies.
26 Tourist Technology Satisfaction: Scale Development and Validation 341

On the other hand, this instrument presents a practical contribution to the assess-
ment of consumers in the face of the constant development of technologies, which are
considered by various studies as a central point for digital well-being in tourist desti-
nations, with a positive impact of ICTs on the development and economic growth of
tourism activity [11, 45, 57, 58, 75, 76]. The ICTs are fundamental to increasing the
effectiveness of organizations and access to information, especially in a constantly
changing activity such as e-tourism. The present study allows us to better understand
how satisfied users are with ICTs. On the other hand, the results, by presenting gender
invariance, contribute to a better understanding of the “equality” in the use of ICTs
in consumers’ daily lives.

26.6 Limitations and Future Research

The present study contributes to the tourism literature by introducing a tourist tech-
nology satisfaction scale (TTSS), that is, robust, reliable, and valid. Nonetheless,
some limitations need to be addressed in future research. The participants in the
present study are mostly of Portuguese nationality. Future studies should consider
psychometric evaluation in other countries. Finally, it is necessary to conduct further
research on the antecedents and consequences of technology satisfaction. Further
studies could investigate the ICT satisfaction variable as a predictor, mediator, or
outcome variable with other technology-related variables, such as barriers, image,
usage, innovation, and others.

Declarations

Conflict of Interest The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

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Chapter 27
Dialogic Communication and Dialogic
Loop Principle in Official Websites
of Tourism—Hospitality

Adriana Oliveira and Ana Pereira

Abstract The websites assumed a crucial role, both in the way in which the tourism
sector began to spread the message, and in the way in which tourists began to choose
their tourist destination, namely a hotel establishment. Dialogical communication
allowed communication marked by interaction between organizations and publics.
In this article, we seek to answer the question: what is the degree of adoption of
the Dialogic Loop principle by Portuguese hotel websites? For this, the websites of
the eight finalist hotels of the Marketeer 2023 Award were analysed based on the
sixteen indicators that are part of the Dialogic Loop principle, considered the most
important in the dialogic dimension. The results allow us to conclude that there is a
trend towards the adoption of the Dialogical Loop principle, although it needs to be
worked on so that the adoption takes place in a more expressive way.

27.1 Introduction

Tourism has assumed a fundamental role in the social, economic and cultural develop-
ment of the country. Its affirmation strategy involved implementing a set of cohesive,
integrated and constant communication strategies. This strategy gains breadth with
the introduction of digital. Digital has given new forms and tools of communication
to the tourism sector. Tourism began to be able to communicate in a more direct,
constant, differentiated way. That is: it allowed disseminating an image marked by
interaction and action with its audiences [1]. Tourists now have access to information
about destinations or hotels even before starting the trip, allowing them to make a
more careful selection; that is: digital communication would have a revolutionary

A. Oliveira (B)
CEOS, ISCAP, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Pereira
ISCAP, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 347
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_27
348 A. Oliveira and A. Pereira

role in the way tourists began to travel [2]. In this context, communication began to
play a relevant role in the construction and dissemination of content to appeal to the
interest of different stakeholders and communicate destinations, particularly in the
context of tourism [3], where interaction between organization and public became
important. In this line of thought, dialogic communication, proposed by Kent and
Taylor [4], assumes itself as a master by allowing this direct exchange of ideas and
opinions allowing effective interaction [4, 5]. Five dialogic principles were proposed,
with the Dialogic Loop principle considered the most important [4]. In this sense,
the article we present seeks to answer the following research question: what is the
degree of adoption of the Dialogic Loop principle by Portuguese hotel websites? To
answer the question, the Dialogic Loop principle was analysed in the eight finalist
hotels of the 2023 Marketeer Award. The results show that there is a tendency to
adopt a significant number of indicators that are part of the Dialogic Loop principle.

27.2 Background

27.2.1 Contributions to the Contextualization of the Concept

of Tourism

Between the First and Second World Wars, tourism reached an exponent never seen
before [6]. The rapid economic and industrial recovery of Western Europe at the end
of the Second World War allowed an unprecedented growth in tourism activity. With
the globalization of economies and culture, the improvement of means of transport
and communication, it can almost be said that there are no longer places that do not
receive tourists [7]. Thus, when trying to define the concept of tourism, the literature
review suggests that, although it is not unanimous among authors, tourism can be
understood as a set of trips that is based on the absence of the place of residence for
a temporary period [8], tourism is understood as a social phenomenon of a voluntary
and temporary nature of individuals or groups of people who for reasons such as
health, culture, sport, leisure, leisure are predisposed to exchange their usual place
of residence for another for a period of time. Depending on the different definitions
of tourism, we conclude that in all of them there are two forms: emissive and recep-
tive. It can be regional or national, internal or domestic tourism and international or
foreign tourism. According to the tourist’s motivations, tourism can be characterised
as individual, couple or group tourism, and can be associated with a programmed,
spontaneous or improvised itinerary [9]. In view of the various authors explored, it is
possible to note the immense number of existing definitions of tourism, which high-
light the diversity of approaches in which the concept is explored, either as a social
practice or as an area of knowledge and study [10]. In this line of thought, it is also
worth mentioning that tourism can be classified based on the tourist’s objectives [11]
and that body and soul tourism can be an example, where the experience is centred
on the body and the health and well-being of the tourist. This is composed of health
27 Dialogic Communication and Dialogic Loop Principle in Official … 349

tourism and active tourism. Or even a tourism marked by motivations from the intel-
lectual, educational, material, business, environmental, social, ethnographic, rural or
astronomical point of view [11]. That is, approaching the conceptual framework of the
tourist sign allows us to perceive, among other particularities, knowledge, emotions,
reactions, sharing of experiences [3] can be considered some of the purposes of
tourism. As with the concept of tourism, the concept of tourist also refers to different
typologies characterized by the activities that each tourist practices, thus defining
the type of tourist. Thus, tourists can be categorized as Allocentric, Mesocentric
or Psychocentric. Allocentrics seek new realities, perceive travelling as a funda-
mental component of life. Mesocentrics travel individually to highly visited and
reputable places and have a more commercial relationship with the local population.
Psychocentrics are influenced by external factors such as social communication and
advertising campaigns, for example, sponsorships and advertisements of a tourist
destination [10, 12]. Taking into account these concepts becomes more pertinent
if we consider that the continuous development of new technologies, digital influ-
encers are currently an important source of communication and drive the spread of
information. Content creators gather large audiences composed of other individuals
predisposed to consume their content and let themselves be influenced. As for social
networks, they have played an important role in marketing strategies for the promo-
tion of tourist destinations, namely in the importance that the opinion of certain
content creators can exert on destinations, products and services. Therefore, this new
aspect of tourism promotion forces destinations to adopt new strategies to improve
image perception and influence the behavioural intentions of potential tourists. Thus,
a digital revolution has taken place, resulting in a set of opportunities and challenges,
particularly for the tourism sector [13], as can be read in the following section.

27.2.2 Dialogic Communication and Websites in the Tourism

Sector

With digital taking on a leading role in the context of organizations, digital communi-
cation has gained a prominent place and started to include in its actions the different
forms of communication, namely through the website, blogs, social networks, among
others [14]. These changes have allowed the existence of multidirectional communi-
cation, with audiences directly interacting with the content and even being protago-
nists in the construction of verbal and non-verbal content that has been disseminated
in the online context [14–16]. In this context, it can be said that communication has
taken on a dual role: building and disseminating content to appeal to the interest of
different stakeholders and communicating destination locations, particularly in the
context of tourism [3]. It can thus be said that the digital context would open up the
possibility for communication to take on a more social and participatory nature for
all stakeholders [17]. This line of thought refers to the relevance of the association
between the field of tourism and technology, showing that the aggregation between
350 A. Oliveira and A. Pereira

the tourism sector and technology would bring about changes in the dynamics of
communication, competitiveness, organization or even supply [18]. Thus, literature
has shown that consumers can use websites or social networks as a field to exercise
their communication, namely by sharing opinions, advice and experiences [19], and
comments will allow greater interaction between different stakeholders [20–22]. This
sharing can happen in different sectors, namely tourism, which is the central focus of
this research. In this line of thought, dialogic communication, proposed by Kent and
Taylor [4], is assumed as a master by allowing this direct exchange of ideas and opin-
ions [4] allowing an effective interaction between organizations and their audiences
[5]. The authors propose five dialogical principles, which are Dialogic Loop; useful-
ness of information; return visits; ease of interface; visitor retention. Among these
dialogical principles, the authors refer to the Dialogical Loop as the most important
principle of dialogical communication. The Dialogic Loop principle emphasizes the
concept of feedback as a way to build a solid relationship and dialogue between
the organization and its stakeholders. Therefore, websites should be designed and
created to provide a set of tools that allow this interaction, namely Chat [23]; space
for comments [4]; Forum [24]; sharing experiences of holidaymakers (texts) [25];
sharing experiences of holidaymakers (photos) [25]; possibility to send messages,
comments [26]; links and contacts to directly contact employees, departments of the
organization [27]; possibility to subscribe to newsletter [28]; possibility of transac-
tions, requesting services [29]; links to social networks [30]; texts of response to the
public [31, 32]; possibility to request information [33]; possibility for users to ask
questions [26]; Questionnaire (to give opinion on issues] [26]; engaging and interac-
tive online environment [23]; possibilities for community interaction [23]. That said,
it can be said that the image of the organization can be better developed and dissem-
inated using dialogic communication by allowing an image marked by interaction
and action with its audiences [1], namely in the tourism sector where digital commu-
nication would have a revolutionary role in the way tourists started to travel [2].

27.3 Case Study Official Tourism Websites—Hospitality

27.3.1 Research Objective and Methodology

The literature review that digital has introduced opportunities, challenges and even
transformations in the way tourists travel to organizations, namely in the tourism
sector [13]. In this context, dialogic communication has played a vital role in estab-
lishing a direct dialogue between tourism organizations and stakeholders [4, 34].
Among the dialogic principles, the Dialogic Loop stands out as the most important
of dialogic communication, being the focus of this research. Based on the literature
review, it was considered pertinent to formulate the following research question:
what is the degree of adoption of the Dialogic Loop principle by Portuguese hotel
27 Dialogic Communication and Dialogic Loop Principle in Official … 351

Table 27.1 Official tourism websites—hospitality

Organizations Websites
Dom Pedro Hotels & Golf Collection https://www.dompedro.com/pt/
NAU Hotels & Resorts https://www.nauhotels.com/pt/
Tivoli Hotels & Resorts https://www.tivolihotels.com/pt
Vila Galé Hotéis https://www.vilagale.com/pt
Pestana Hotel Group https://www.pestana.com/pt
Quinta do Lago https://www.quintadolago.com/pt/
The Editory Hotels (Sonae) https://www.editoryhotels.com/
SANA Hotels https://www.sanahotels.com/pt/

websites? To answer the question, the following specific objectives were formu-
lated: analyse the degree of adoption of the sixteen indicators by the organizations’
websites; identify which of the sixteen indicators is most adopted by the organi-
zations’ websites; identify which of the sixteen indicators is least adopted by the
organizations’ websites; identify which organization adopts the most indicators on
its website; identify which organization has the least adoption of indicators on its
website.
In this article, we highlight the results regarding the adoption of the Dialogic
Loop principles on the websites of the finalist hotels of the Marketeer Awards 2023.
Marketeer Awards is an initiative of Marketeer magazine and has been seeking, for
15 years, to recognize the brands, companies and personalities that make a difference
in Portugal in different areas. We chose to analyse websites because they play a
vital role in communicating with tourists and because they are understood to be an
instrument that synthesizes the company’s strategy effectively [35]. Thus, the sample
consists of the official tourism websites—hospitality—see Table 27.1.
As already mentioned, we sought to study the adoption of the Dialogical Loop by
testing sixteen indicators. These indicators are part of the Dialogic Loop, considered
the most relevant dialogism in the context of dialogic communication. Table 27.2—
can be read on the next page—shows each of these indicators and repeated references.
Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and frequency distribution, and the
results are presented in the next section.

27.3.2 Results

At this point, the results regarding the degree of adoption of the Dialogical Loop
principle [4] on the websites of Portuguese hotels finalists of the 2023 Marketeer
Awards are presented and analysed. In general, the data shows that the websites
of the hotels under analysis adopt the loop dialogue principle—see Table 27.3. Six
of the eight hotels under study adopt the dialogic principle in a homogeneous way
(63%). It should also be noted that only SANA Hotels, with 44%, do not show strong
352 A. Oliveira and A. Pereira

Table 27.2 Dialogic loop—sixteen indicators

Dialogic Indicators Authors
loop Chat Hinson et al. (2018)
Space for comments Kent and Taylor (2003)
Forum Kent et al. (2001)
Sharing experiences of holidaymakers (texts) Augusto (2015)
Sharing experiences of holidaymakers (photos) Augusto (2015)
Possibility to send messages, comments McAllister-Spooner
(2010)
Links and contacts to directly contact employees, McAllister-Spooner and
departments of the organization Kent (2009)
Possibility to subscribe to newsletter Karkin and Janssen
(2014)
Possibility of transactions, requesting services Feeney and Brown
(2017)
Links to social networks Fietkiewicz et al. (2017)
Texts of response to the public Reber and Kim (2006)
Possibility to request information Ingenhoff and Koelling
(2009)
Possibility for users to ask questions McAllister-Spooner
(2010)
Questionnaire (to give opinion on issues) McAllister-Spooner
(2010)
Engaging and interactive online environment Hinson et al. (2018)
Possibilities for community interaction Hinson et al. (2018)

Table 27.3 Frequency of indicators by Portuguese hotels

Portuguese hotels Frequency of indicators %
Dom Pedro Hotels & Golf Collection 10 63
NAU Hotels & Resorts 10 63
Tivoli Hotels & Resorts 10 63
Vila Galé Hotéis 11 69
Pestana Hotel Group 10 63
Quinta do Lago 10 63
The Editory Hotels (Sonae) 9 56
SANA Hotels 7 44

adoption of the dialogic principle (Dialogic Loop), followed by The Editory Hotels
(Sonae) with 56%—see Table 27.3.
Thus, it can be said that the websites of the finalist hotels of the Marketeer Awards
2023, in general, show evidence of adopting the Dialogic Loop principle, which is
27 Dialogic Communication and Dialogic Loop Principle in Official … 353

considered the most important in the context of dialogic communication [4]. By

adopting this principle, the websites are enabling more direct communication with
their stakeholders and thus responding more quickly to requests from the public who
visit them digitally [5].
With regard to the adoption of the 16 indicators that form part of the Dialogic
Loop principle—see Table 27.4, the data shows that of the 16, six are adopted by
the eight websites of the finalist hotels of the Marketeer Awards 2023 (Dom Pedro
Hotels & Golf Collection; NAU Hotels & Resorts; Tivoli Hotels & Resorts; Vila
Galé Hotéis; Pestana Hotel Group; Quinta do Lago; The Editory Hotels (Sonae);
SANA Hotels). And the six indicators adopted in their entirety are possibility to send
messages, comments; links and contacts to directly contact employees, departments
of the organization; possibility to subscribe to newsletter; possibility of transactions,
requesting services; possibility for users to ask questions; engaging and interac-
tive online environment—adopted 100% by all websites of the finalist hotels of the
Marketeer Awards 2023—see Table 27.4.
On the other hand, of the 16 indicators, five are not adopted by the websites of the
finalist hotels of the Marketeer Awards 2023 (Dom Pedro Hotels & Golf Collection;
NAU Hotels & Resorts; Tivoli Hotels & Resorts; Vila Galé Hotéis; Pestana Hotel
Group; Quinta do Lago; The Editory Hotels (Sonae); SANA Hotels). These indica-
tors are space for comments; Forum; sharing experiences of holidaymakers (texts);
sharing experiences of holidaymakers (photos); Questionnaire (to give opinion on

Table 27.4 Indicators used

Sixteen indicators Frequency of indicators %
Chat 7 88
Space for comments 0 0
Forum 0 0
Sharing experiences of holidaymakers (texts) 0 0
Sharing experiences of holidaymakers (photos) 0 0
Possibility to send messages, comments 8 100
Links and contacts to directly contact employees, 8 100
departments of the organization
Possibility to subscribe to newsletter 8 100
Possibility of transactions, requesting services 8 100
Links to social networks 7 88
Texts of response to the public 7 88
Possibility to request information 7 88
Possibility for users to ask questions 8 100
Questionnaire (to give opinion on issues) 0 0
Engaging and interactive online environment 8 100
Possibilities for community interaction 1 13
354 A. Oliveira and A. Pereira

issues)—see Table 27.4. It should also be noted that indicator possibilities for commu-
nity interaction are only used by one of the websites under study (Vila Galé Hotéis).
The other indicators that form part of the Dialogic Loop principle are adopted by
seven of the eight websites under study: links to social networks; texts of response to
the public; possibility to request information; chat. The analysis of the data allows us
to affirm that, in general, the adoption of the indicators that are part of the Dialogic
Loop principle is present on the websites. As this is one of the main dialogic prin-
ciples, the data allows us to state that the results are in line with what was said in
the literature review when it was stated that when this theme is adopted by organi-
zations there is an improvement in the organization’s image with the public [1], and
to a certain extent communication between organizations and the different publics
happens more directly and quickly, with greater interaction between the different
stakeholders [20–22]. In the next section, we present the main conclusions.

27.4 Conclusion

Tourism is today a fundamental sector of society in general, and of Portugal in

particular. The entry of digital in the field of tourism opened the possibility for
the sector to communicate in a more autonomous and distinct way with the tourist
and gave the tourist new ways of travelling [13, 14]. Dialogical communication
plays an even more relevant role here [4], as it allowed for effective interaction
between organizations and their audiences [5]. Among the five dialogic principles,
the dialogic loop puts emphasis on feedback has been defined as the most important
principle of dialogic communication the dialogic loop [4]. Based on this scenario,
this work formulated the following research question: what is the degree of adoption
of the Dialogic Loop principle by Portuguese hotel websites? To answer the question,
the Dialogical Loop principle was analysed in the eight finalist hotels of the 2023
Marketeer Awards. The analysis of the data allows us to conclude that in general there
is a strong tendency to adopt one of the dialogical principles and pillar of this study:
the Dialogical Loop. Of the sixteen indicators that form part of the Dialogic Loop,
ten are adopted by the eight websites of the finalist hotels of the Marketeer Awards
2023. There is therefore a tendency for the Dialogic Loop to be adopted by websites.
However, the data also allows us to conclude that websites still have work to do in
this field if they want to communicate with their audiences more effectively, because
5 of the indicators do not show any kind of adoption on websites of the finalist hotels
of the Marketeer Awards 2023 and thus compromise the full realization of dialogic
communication. Let’s remember that, in analysis, this is the main dialogic principle:
Dialogic Loop. We recognize that the sample is small enough to draw representative
conclusions, but we would like to stress that this work is only a contribution to future
work that we believe will be pertinent in a context marked by strong adherence to
digital by the public. Therefore, we believe it is pertinent to continue this line of
research and draw conclusions that are representative of the topic under study, both
in Portugal and at an international level.
27 Dialogic Communication and Dialogic Loop Principle in Official … 355

Acknowledgements This work is financed by Portuguese national funds through FCT—Fundação

para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P., under the project UIDB/05422/2020.

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Chapter 28
A Fuzzy ELECTRE Method to Model
the Risk in Credit Products for Financing
Tourism Experiences

Daniel García, Natalia Perez-Muñoz, Alejandro Peña ,

João Vidal Carvalho , and Lina Sepulveda

Abstract After the COVID-19 pandemic, the world began to value sensations and
emotions much more, and it has been the tourism sector that has become one of the
primary generators of sensory and emotional experiences in different tourist destina-
tions worldwide. In this sense, people began to demand new credit products to finance
tourism experiences; however, the international standards for credit risk manage-
ment (IFRS-9) are still adjusting their regulations to these new market segments.
In the scientific literature, we can observe a series of development trends aimed
at modelling credit risk management at an international level for non-traditional
credit segments, integrating machine learning concepts, which suggests a challenge
for financial organisations worldwide. In this article, a Fuzzy ELECTRE model is
proposed for the characterisation of portfolio provisions associated with credit risk
for financial products aimed at tourism, integrating in a single structure a series
of variables that describe the behaviour of the economy at the origin of travellers
(macroeconomic variables), as well as a series of variables associated with consumer
confidence when visiting a tourist destination. The proposed model made it possible
to establish a general methodology for the creation of risk scenarios for portfolio
provisions in financial products aimed at tourism, based on the characterisation of

D. García · N. Perez-Muñoz · A. Peña (B) · L. Sepulveda

Escuela de Administración, Universidad EAFIT, 055413 Medellin, Colombia
e-mail: [email protected]
D. García
e-mail: [email protected]
N. Perez-Muñoz
e-mail: [email protected]
L. Sepulveda
e-mail: [email protected]
J. V. Carvalho
CEOS.PP, ISCAP, Polytechnic of Porto, S. Mamede de Infesta, 4465-004 São Mamede de Infesta,
Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 357
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_28
358 D. García et al.

the variables described above as linguistic variables by integrating the criteria of

experts from both the financial sector and the tourism sector, thus aligning the port-
folio provisioning factors established by international IFRS-9 standards with the
particularities of the tourism sector, without affecting the capital requirements of
financial institutions.

28.1 Introduction

The impacts brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic at the global level made
people value sensations and emotions much more. In this sense, one of the sectors
of the economy that has positioned itself as one of the biggest generators of sensory
and emotional experiences worldwide has been the tourism sector. This is why many
travellers worldwide are beginning to demand credit services and products to finance
their tourism experiences. Despite the development of international standards for
credit risk management (IFRS-9), these standards are still in the process of developing
new methods and models for risk management to suit the particularities of the tourism
sector, which poses a challenge for financial institutions worldwide [35, 38].
After the global financial crisis of 2008, accounting researchers and regulators
started to be concerned that the Incurred Credit Losses (ICL) model was partially
responsible for increasing the severity of the economic crisis because it did not recog-
nise at the appropriate time and resources the incurred losses in banks. Therefore,
G20 leaders made a requirement to modify the International Accounting Standards
using more information available, introducing a new forward-looking principle-based
Expected Credit Loss Model (ECL model) [12]. With the ECL model, the Interna-
tional Accounting Standards Board (IASB) in 2014 issued the complete version of
Financial Instruments (IFRS-9) to replace the International Accounting Standard
(IAS 39), which was effective after 1 January 2018. These rules establish the port-
folio provisions that financial institutions must comply with to face a possible default
(Probability Default—PD) of their loan portfolio.
With the development of new financial products for different segments of the
economy, the IFRS-9 international standards have been incorporating models by
adaptation and learning, allowing portfolio provisions to be adjusted to the market’s
needs. Much research has focused on using artificial intelligence and machine
learning to predict the Probability Default (PD) in credit products. In their investiga-
tion, Moscato et al. [24] propose a model for evaluating social inclusion credits, using
machine learning techniques to fill in the lack of credit experience of credit applicants
and missing or uncertain information. This research shows that the combined use of
different techniques can generate better performance in the behaviour of the credit
portfolio. Another study that addresses the issue is the one proposed by Huang et al.
[17], where using neural networks seeks to solve difficulties in the credit evaluation
process of small and medium-sized companies in China in several economic sectors,
including the tourism sector. Both studies showed complex implementations, which
28 A Fuzzy ELECTRE Method to Model the Risk in Credit Products … 359

need a larger quantity of information to achieve a better performance estimating

losses for several economic sectors worldwide.
Another development trend focuses on using Bayesian models to connect aleatory
market’s variables with probabilistic models to support complex decisions. In this
way, Masmoudi et al. [23] proposed a Bayesian model that combines several factors to
calculate the Probability Default (PD) in a credit portfolio, finding that the economic
and political environment can influence the deterioration of a portfolio (macroeco-
nomic and consumer confidence variables). Habachi and Benbachir [16] proposed
a model for banking and non-banking companies to simplify the PD calculation
with a model based on linear discriminant analysis and expert judgments. However,
macroeconomic variables are triggers to increase or reduce PD. This development
trend shows how macroeconomic and consumer confidence (CC) variables can
significantly affect a financial institution’s loan portfolio, given market conditions.
For risk management in credit products destined to finance tourism at a global
level, a series of variables stand out that are critical for forecasting provisions and
the deterioration of the credit portfolio in general. For the particular case of tourism
credit, the macroeconomic (MC) variables of risk management at the origin of the
financial institutions from which the travellers originate stand out (Gross Domestic
Product (GDP), Inflation, Real Interest rate), as well as several variables associated
with the destination of travellers (Weather Risks, Exchange Rate) [20].

28.1.1 Macroeconomic Variables (MC)

• Gross Domestic Product (GDP). GDP shows trends in countries’ economies and
monetary measures of the market value of all final goods and services produced
and sold in a specific time [7]. In the context of traditional credits, Festić et al.
[11] showed in their work that growth in the GDP impacts the non-performing
loans (NPLs) in Central and Eastern Europe, while Naili and Lahrichi [25] found
how the GDP in emerging markets in the Middle East and North Africa impacted
the NPLs.
• Inflation. Inflation is a general increase in the prices of goods and services in
an economy [2]. For this reason, Conto López et al. [6], in their research on the
Colombian market, found a direct impact of inflation in the NPLs. Khan et al.
(2020) also included this variable in their study in Pakistan banks.
• Real Interest rate. The real interest rate is the lending interest adjusted for inflation
as measured by the GDP deflator [36]. For the characterisation of this variable
in the context of credit risk, Viphindrartin et al. [37] examined the NPLs of rural
banks and macroeconomic factors in Indonesia, including the interest rate, while
Obiora et al. [26] show how the banking sector in Sub-Saharan Africa found that
an increasing real interest rate affected the risk of NPLs.
360 D. García et al.

28.1.2 Consumer Confidence Variables (CC)

• Weather and Political Risks. Weather and political risks are related to globalisa-
tion, climate change, unemployment rate, and political instability. The variables
constitute the consumer confidence variables (CC) against a tourist destination,
and these variables determine the travel decision to visit a tourist destination
and the attractiveness of a tourist destination based on safeguarding territory
sustainability and climate change [3, 13].
• Exchange rate. The exchange rate is the price of one country’s currency over
another [27]. Using a novel panel data set across 75 countries, Beck et al. [4]
found that the exchange rate effect in NPLs depends on the extent of foreign
exchange lending to unhedged borrowers, which must be high in countries with
pegged exchange rates. In Colombia, Ramirez and Ruiz [32] determined that the
exchange rate (Colombian peso in US Dollar) is a variable with a significant effect
on NPLs because it indirectly affects economic agents’ indebtedness.

To contribute to the literature focusing on the inclusion of macroeconomic and

confidence consumer variables (MCCC) in credit risk management based on expert
criteria, we proposed a model inspired on a Fuzzy ELECTRE method to define addi-
tional provision safety factors in small and medium financial companies (SMFCs)
issuing credit products for the financing of tourism experiences. The proposed model
integrates several MCCC variables into a single structure based on expert judgments
in finance and tourism in the Colombian market, setting up additional provisions
(security provisions) according to macroeconomic conditions beyond the models
proposed by the Financial Authority in Colombia (Superintendencia Financiera de
Colombia).
The proposed model made it possible to establish a general methodology for
the creation of risk scenarios for portfolio provisioning in credit products aimed at
tourism based on the characterisation of the variables described above as linguistic
variables, aligning the portfolio provisioning factors established by international
IFRS-9 standards with the particularities of MCCC variables in the origin and
destination of travellers, without affecting the capital requirements of a financial
institution.
This paper is organised as follows. In Sect. 28.2, the case of study is described,
ELECTRE model is explained, and the proposed model is described. Section 28.3
shows the analysis of the results, and Sect. 28.4 shows the conclusions and future
research lines.

28.2 Methodology

Provisions definition usually represents one of the biggest challenges due to its impact
on the financial balances in SMFCs versus risk hedging in credit products. In addition,
countries face economic dynamics that increase the challenge for the SMFCs, which
28 A Fuzzy ELECTRE Method to Model the Risk in Credit Products … 361

may occur where the economic environment can directly or indirectly impact the
credit portfolio. For credit products intended for tourism in SMFCs, we propose the
following methodology.

28.2.1 Case Study

For the analysis and validation of the proposed model, monthly data were collected
on MC variables (Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Inflation, Real Interest Rate), and
CC variables (Weather and Political Risks, Unemployment Rate, and Exchange Rate
(TRM)). These variables have a direct impact on the PD in credit products. The
data was obtained from the Central Bank of the Republic of Colombia [1]. Each
variable was organised in time series with a monthly frequency between September
2005 and April 2022. For GDP, annual information was selected between 1961 and
2021, including the monthly Consumer Confidence Index from Fedesarrollo between
January 2018 and April 2002. Based on the MCCC variables, seven finance experts
in banking and tourism were set up as decision-makers (DM) to describe several risk
scenarios according to the behaviour of a specific market and the particularities that
define an NPL.
MCCC variables were analysed for the Colombian market between 2001 and 2022
as a starting and ending point for trips, allowing us to understand the economic and
tourism risk in the country, and some of them would be correlated or a response to
monetary politics such as the interest rate which depends on the inflation rate. Other
variables, like the Exchange Rate, would have independent behaviour, and others,
like the Weather and Political Risks (Consumer Confidence), would have cyclical
behaviour. It is important to note that the period in which the variables that make
up the model were analysed (2001–2022) includes the impacts that the COVID-19
pandemic generated on the countries’ economies [31].

28.2.2 Theory and Definitions

28.2.2.1 Provisions

According to IFRS-9, provision for a credit product is defined based on the expected
credit losses (ECL). Provision can be described as follows [9]:

ECL = EAD* PD* LGD (28.1)

where PD: Probability Default is an estimate of the likelihood of a default over a

given time horizon (%); LGD: Loss Given Default is the amount that would be lost
in the event of a default (monetary); and EAD: Exposure At Default is the expected
outstanding balance of the receivable at the point of default (monetary).
362 D. García et al.

Table 28.1 Provision safety

Scenario % provision
percentages per risk scenario
AA 0.003
A 0.050
BB 0.100
B 0.250
C 0.500

Accounting international standard allows an organisation to select two approaches

to calculate credit risk provisions: simplified and general. Companies with simple
finance components define the simplified approach according to IFRS-5, while the
general approach is based on ECL, for which companies need to create internal
models [22]. It is important to note that the general approach defines provisions in
companies with high credit risk or countries with complex political and security
environments [5].

28.2.2.2 Safety Provision Factors

The international standard for provisions calculation IFRS-9 stipulates that under
certain MCCC circumstances, SMFCs must establish portfolio provisions to face
possible non-payment by the clients of their loan portfolios, using PD as a basis for
this. This regulation incorporates information about credit quality, including a series
of variable MCCCs that allow them to project their losses caused by a significant surge
in credit risk [18]. The standard establishes different portfolio provisions according to
different risk scenarios (AA, A, BB, B, C) for an SMFC. Generally, the risk scenarios
established by the IFRS-9 standard are based on the behaviour of CCAM variables
for a given country or region (Table 28.1).

28.2.3 Fuzzy ELECTRE Method with K-means Clustering

To define the provision factors in credit products for tourism in SMFCs based on
IFRS-9 standards, we propose a Fuzzy ELECTRE method with k-means clustering
methods to estimate provision factors for tourism credit products based on expert
judgement and the MFCC variables that describe the behaviour of a specific economy.

28.2.3.1 Fuzzy ELECTRE Method

The Elimination and (et) choice translating algorithm (ELECTRE) is a method that
originated from Roy in the late 1960s [15]. This method is based on the study of
outranking relations and uses concordance and discordance indexes to analyse the
28 A Fuzzy ELECTRE Method to Model the Risk in Credit Products … 363

outranking relations among the alternatives [30]. To integrate the criteria of financial
and tourism experts to the proposed model, MCCC variables were modelled using a k-
means clustering process [29]. The fuzzy sets for MCCC variables were represented
by the symbol “ ~ “ placed above each fuzzy set (FS), using triangular fuzzy numbers
denoted such us (l, m, u), where l is the smallest possible value, m is the most
promising value, and u is the most significant possible value that describes a fuzzy
event [34].
According to the structure of an ELECTRE method, this method assumes m alter-
natives (risk scenarios) and n decision criteria (MCCC variables) based on decision-
makers (DM). Each m-alternative is evaluated based on n-criteria, using Table 28.1
[8] (Table 28.2).
After the above, it calculated the relative weight vector for each criterion, which
will define the aggregated fuzzy importance weight (AFIW):
( )
w
~j = w j1 , w j2 , w j3 (28.2)
( )
lj mj uj
∑m , ∑m , ∑m
⌃

wj = (28.3)
j=1 l j j=1 mj j=1 uj

where
j = 1, 2, . . . , n, k = 1, 2, . . . , m
After the estimation of the AFIW matrix, we proceed with the estimation of the
decision matrix (X), which is denoted and defined:
⎡ ⎤
x11 x12 . . . . x1,n
⎢ x21 x22 . . . x2,n ⎥
X =⎢
⎣ ... ...
⎥ (28.4)
... ⎦
xm,1 xm,2 xm,n

Then, the normalised decision matrix (Matrix R) is calculated using the following
formula:
xi j
r i j = /∑ (28.5)
m
i=1 xi2j
⎡ ⎤
r11 r12 · · · r1n
ri j = ⎣ r21 r22 · · · r2n ⎦ (28.6)
rm1 rm2 · · · rmn

Thus, the AFIW and the Matrix R helped to construct the weighted normalised
decision matrix (Matrix V):

ṽi j = ri*j w̃ j (28.7)

364 D. García et al.

[ ]
~
V p = ṽi j m×n (28.8)

where p: limits of fuzzy numbers ( p = l, m, u).

p
To evaluate the model’s behaviour, we used the concordance (Ca1 ,a2 ) and discor-
p
dance indexes (Da1 ,a2 ). The first one represents the degree of dominance of MCCC
criteria with the five risk scenarios (Table 28.1), while the second one shows the
discrepancy between a a1 -MC condition and a a2 − MC condition among these risk
scenarios. El detalle del proceso puede ser encontrado en [8].

28.2.4 Materials and Methods

To analyse and validate the proposed model, the first step was the MCCC variables
selection. These variables were selected according to a panel of seven (7) experts in
finance and tourism and according to the risk associated with a credit product aimed
at financing travellers’ tourism experiences. In the second stage, we proceeded with
the clusterisation of MCCC variables using the k-means method.
The MCCC variables were obtained from official sources for the government
banking sector [1] between 1965 and 2022, guaranteeing a minimum of 5% in the
standard error considering the sample size. Subsequently, we proceed with a k-means
clustering analysis, dividing the data into seven (7) non-overlapping groups and
following five scenarios according to IFRS-9 standards (AA, A, BB, B, C). Each
scenario was set up, combining the labels that describe each fuzzy macroeconomic
variable. In this way, the best scenario was named by AA, while the worst scenario
is defined by the C letter.
In the third stage, a series of structured interviews was carried out with seven
(7) financial and tourism experts to determine each variable impact on NPLs. The
interview tool had 24 questions, which were grouped into 6 chapters. In each chapter,
one of the selected MCCs was evaluated in five (5) proposal risk scenarios, and the
questions allowed seven possible answers, according to Table 28.2. In this same stage,
we proceeded to characterise the answers of the decision-makers in a numerical way,
using the fuzzy Saaty scale [33].

Table 28.2 l-9 fuzzy

l m u
conversion scale
Extremely good (EG) 7.2 9 10.8
Very good (VG) 5.6 7 8.4
Good (G) 4.0 5.0 6.0
Medium bad (MB) 2.4 3 3.6
Bad (B) 1.6 2.0 2.4
Very bad (VB) 1 1 1
28 A Fuzzy ELECTRE Method to Model the Risk in Credit Products … 365

After the quantitative configuration of each scenario, the fuzzy ELECTRE method
was applied (Stage 4). First, the relative weight vector (wi j ) and the aggregated
fuzzy importance weight matrix (AFIW) were calculated according to Eqs. (28.2)
and (28.3). Then, the normalised decision (X ) and the weighted normalised decision
(Ṽ ) matrixes were built with Eqs. (28.5) and (28.7). The weighted normalised deci-
sion matrixes allowed to evaluate the dominance of a hypothetical post-COVID-19
scenario (P0 ) compared with the defined risk scenarios using the metrics described
in Eqs. (28.8, 28.9, and 28.10). The Po Scenario shows the MCCC conditions for the
Colombian economy after the COVID-19 pandemic (2021).

C(a1 , a2 ) ≥ C (28.9)

D(a1 , a2 ) ≥ D (28.10)

where C: The averages of C(a1 , a2 ). D: The averages of D(a1 , a2 ).

To evaluate model stability, we replaced the P0 reference scenario for each defined
risk scenario (AA, A, BB, B, and C). In this stage, we expect that AA scenario will
dominate the other scenarios, A will dominate BB, B, and C scenarios, BB scenario
will dominate B and C, B will dominate only C, and so on. Finally, we proceed to
estimate the provision percentage for Po reference risk scenario aligned to IFRS-9
standards and the risk scenarios defined for this study.

28.3 Analysis of Results

With the bibliographical search, in the Stage 1, MCCC variables selected for this
study were: GDP (C1), Inflation (C2), Real Interest Rate (C3), Consumer Confidence
Index (C4), Unemployment Rate (C5), and Exchange Rate (C6) Festić et al. [11];
Beck et al. [4]; Ghosh [14]; Dimitrios et al. [10]; Khan et al. [19]; Koju et al. [21];
Ramirez and Ruiz [22]; López-Espinosa et al. [22]; Viphindrartin et al. [37]; Naili
and Lahrichi [25]; Obiora et al. [26]; OECD [28]. After that, we grouped the data into
seven non-overlapping fuzzy groups with the data obtained from the Government
Republic Bank of Colombia and the k-means clustering method. According to the
data size for each MCCC variable, the standard error was below 5% (3.98%), showing
the significance of the data used to build the proposed model (First Stage).
In the second stage, and after the clusterisation process, we interviewed the DMs,
obtaining five (5) risk scenarios labelled AA, A, BB, B, and C based on IFRS-
9 standards (Table 28.1). The results showed that each scenario was configured
according to the intrinsic structure of MCCC variables and the characterisation made
by the DMs for each labelled scenario. To evaluate the Fuzzy ELECTRE model
at this stage, we included an additional scenario named (P0 ), which describes a
macroeconomic situation for a risk credit for a post-COVID-19 scenario (Table 28.2).
366 D. García et al.

Table 28.3 Setting up—qualitative risk scenarios

Criteria WC DM1 DM2 DM3 DM4 DM5 DM6 DM7
1 1 2 1 1 2 1
P0 PIB (C1) 1 G G G G G G G
Inflation (C2) 1 G G MB G G MB VG
Unemployment (C3) 1 VG G G G G VG VG
Consumer Confidence (C4) 1 G G VG G VG VG G
Interest Rate (C5) 1 VG G VG G G G G
Exchange Rate (C6) 1 VG VG VG G VG VG G
AA C1 1 G G MB VG VG VG VG
C2 1 VG G G VG VG G VG
C3 1 VG VG VG VG G VG VG
C4 1 VG VG VG MB VG VG VG
C5 1 VG VG VG VG VG VG VG
C6 1 VG VG VG VG G VG VG
BB C1 1 G G G G G G G
C2 1 G G MB G G MB VG
C3 1 VG G G G G VG VG
C4 1 G G VG G VG VG G
C5 1 VG G VG G G G G
C6 1 VG VG VG G VG VG G
C C1 1 MB MB G MB MB MB MB
C2 1 MB G MB MB G MB VG
C3 1 MB MB MB MB MB MB G
C4 1 G G VG VG G VG G
C5 1 G G MB MB MB MB MB
C6 1 G G VG MB VG VG G

Table 28.2 shows three benchmark risk scenarios (AA, BB, C) characterised by
expert judgement according to the fuzzy sets defining each MCCC variable. The
post-COVID-19 (Po ) risk scenario is highlighted, which shows a conservative risk
scenario for granting credit products requested by travellers in Colombia. This risk
scenario has a similar behaviour to the BB risk scenario, which will also allow
validation of the behaviour of the proposed model concerning the concordance and
discrepancy matrixes that make up the proposed model.
Table 28.3 shows the weighted normalised decision matrix (V1 ) (Table 28.3), as
well as its concordance matrix (Table 28.4) and the associated discrepancy matrix
(Table 28.5), which were obtained using Eqs. (28.8, 28.9, and 28.10).
In Table 28.4, the risk scenario post-COVID-19 (Po ) shows a clear dominance over
the BB reference risk scenarios. (C1,0,3 ), B (C1,0,4 ), ans C (C1,0,5 ), as shown by the
28 A Fuzzy ELECTRE Method to Model the Risk in Credit Products … 367

Table 28.4 Weighted normalised decision matrix (l)

Matrix V1—weighted normalised decision matrix
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
P0 0.0576959 0.04987566 0.0662328 0.07990148 0.06757855 0.08677888
P1 0.06538869 0.06777975 0.07623021 0.08571249 0.08347938 0.08972053
P2 0.0576959 0.06777975 0.07623021 0.08571249 0.06757855 0.08677888
P3 0.0576959 0.04987566 0.0662328 0.07990148 0.06757855 0.08677888
P4 0.0576959 0.04476021 0.03624059 0.07990148 0.06757855 0.08677888
P5 0.03974607 0.04476021 0.03624059 0.07990148 0.04107716 0.07795391

Table 28.5 Decision matrixes a Concordance matrix b Discordance matrix

Concordance matrix (C1) Discordance matrix (D1)
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
C1,0,1 0 0 0 0 0 0 D1,0,1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C1,0,2 1 0 0 0 1 1 D1,0,2 0 1 1 1 0 0
C1,0,3 1 1 1 1 1 1 D1,0,3 0 0 0 0 0 0
C1,0,4 1 1 1 1 1 1 D1,0,4 0 0 0 0 0 0
C1,0,5 1 1 1 1 1 1 D1,0,5 0 0 0 0 0 0

unit values taken for each criterion against the dominated scenarios, clearly show the
stability of the model against the assessment of a risk scenario. This stability is also
promoted by the discrepancy matrix, which clearly shows the discrepancy between
the characteristics defining the post-COVID-19 (Po ) risk scenario, as shown by the
unit values taken by each criterion against the AA (D1,0,1 ) and A (D1 , 0, 2) scenarios.
According to Tables 28.3 and 28.4a and b in Fig. 28.1, it can be observed that the
post-COVID-19 risk scenario (Po ) has a predominance by being located close to the
BB and B risk scenarios, which also validates the structure of the proposed model
against the fuzzy sets obtained from the clustering process based on the k-means
method.

Fig. 28.1 Fuzzy sets—risk scenarios

368 D. García et al.

Table 28.6 Provision percentages—risk scenarios

CDv Average Rating Scenarios Category
0 0 0 1 AA
1 10.926 10.925812 2 A
2 11.185 22.3703704 3 BB
2 10.667 21.3333333 4 B
2 9.926 19.8518519 5 C

Table 28.6 shows the values achieved by the proposed model against the classifica-
tion of risk scenario Po . Here, it can be seen in the first column (CDv—concordance
discordance Values) that the dominated scenarios reached a value of 2, given the
coincidence of the concordance and discrepancy matrixes for these scenarios. The
average column shows the average of the criteria that are dominated by the Po risk
scenario according to the scale of values established by Saaty (Table 28.2). In this
way, the product between the average and rating columns will allow to determine
the risk scenarios among which the post-COVID-19 (Po ) scenario is located and will
also allow the estimation of additional portfolio provisions for this scenario.
According to Tables 28.5 and 28.6, the factor for the additional portfolio provision,
or security portfolio provision (P f ), can be estimated as follows:

(0.100)∗ 22.370 + (0.250)∗ 21.333

Pf = : P f = 0.1732 (28.11)
(22.370 + 21.333)

Equation (28.11) shows that, under an economic scenario such as the one described
in the Po , the portfolio provisions that banks that grant credit products to finance
tourism experiences must have, in addition to the provisions established by the IFRS-
9 standard, establish an additional provision of close to 17.32% for each of the loans
granted for tourism in order to achieve a safety margin that allows them to operate
under a particular risk scenario.

28.4 Conclusions and Future Work

The proposed model allowed the establishment of portfolio provisions and the port-
folio provisions established by IFRS-9 for credit products intended to finance both the
sensory and emotional experiences of travellers in different destinations worldwide.
To this end, this model integrated into a single structure a series of MCCC variables
as linguistic variables, which integrated qualitative information from experts from
both the financial and tourism sectors and which reflect in one way or another the
behaviour of the economy of the travellers’ place of origin and destination.
In the context of the IFRS-9 international standards that define the provisions
for the credit portfolios of a financial institution, the model established a series of
28 A Fuzzy ELECTRE Method to Model the Risk in Credit Products … 369

additional provisions or security provisions in addition to those established by the

standard, given the particularities of these new credit products aimed at the tourism
sector. Likewise, through the discrepancy and concordance matrixes, it was possible
to validate the sensitivity of the model in the estimation of these security provisions,
taking into account different risk configurations for the reference risk scenario Po .
As future work, the researchers propose to integrate a learning model that allows
the model to configure itself automatically, including MCC variables that impact
different markets in an international context, internal politics about their credit port-
folios and clients’ characteristics, differentiated values reflecting the importance of
the assessment criteria, differentiated values reflecting the expertise of the experts,
as well as APIs to access to public information in the web. In this sense, the proposed
model can be used by legal authorities to adjust and promote temporary regulations
according to economic conditions, looking for suitable coverage tools in the presence
of an increase of NPLs.

Acknowledgements This work is financed by Portuguese national funds through FCT—Fundação

para a Ciência e Tecnologia, under the project UIDB/05422/2020.

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Chapter 29
How Wine Information Seeking
and Event Participation Impact
Knowledge and Determines
the Purchasing Behavior?

Elvira Vieira, Ana Pinto Borges, Paula Rodrigues, Svitlana Ostapenko,

and António Lopes de Almeida

Abstract How knowledge impacts purchasing behavior is a matter of extensive

investigation, but the research on the interplay between the self-reported wine knowl-
edge and information seeking is scarce. Present research contributes to filling the
gap within the understanding how self-reported wine knowledge and information
seeking impacts wine purchase behavior. Based on the analysis of 1314 valid ques-
tionnaires administered to the participant of wine event “Essência do Vinho” held in
Porto, Portugal between 23 and 26 of February 2023, partial least squares (PLS) path
analytical technique was employed. We confirm that more knowledgeable consumers
are less price sensitive and rely more on their knowledge and subsequent appreciation
of place of origin of the wine at the moment of purchase. Meanwhile limited wine
knowledge is a constraint in wine consumption, as it makes consumers more insecure
in making their own choices and relying more on value for money appreciation, price
and recommendation factors. We conclude that stimulation of information seeking
and participation in the wine events is key in increasing wine expertise that impacts
appreciation of the place of origin and subsequent willingness to pay. Thus, promoting

E. Vieira
Applied Management Research Unit (UNIAG), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança,
Portugal
IPVC—Polytechnic Institute of Viana do Castelo, Viana do Castelo, Portugal
E. Vieira · A. P. Borges (B) · S. Ostapenko · A. L. de Almeida
ISAG—European Business School, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
Research Centre in Business Sciences and Tourism (CICET—FCVC), Porto, Portugal
A. P. Borges · P. Rodrigues
Research Centre in Organizations, Markets and Industrial Management (COMEGI), Porto,
Portugal
P. Rodrigues
Lusíada University, Porto, Portugal

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 373
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_29
374 E. Vieira et al.

awareness and expertise among consumers is the key to increasing competitiveness

of the wine sector.

29.1 Introduction

Wine’s socioeconomic importance is well-known. There has been a campaign in

Portugal in the 30 s of the last century—“Drinking wine is giving bread to a million
Portuguese” reflecting the importance that the wine sector has for the national
economy. In addition to its economic role, wine is also a culturally emblematic
agricultural product, rooted in history and in eno-gastronomic customs and tradi-
tions [1, 22]. More recently, wine, vineyards and production itself have also found
a new dimension of importance in tourism. The development of wine tourism had a
growing expression in the various wine regions of the country, attracting more and
more tourists looking to learn about the wines, landscapes and traditions and people.
According to data from the Institute of Vine and Wine [19], national wine produc-
tion yielded to the 14 wine regions of Portugal, in the 2021–22 harvest, a total of 7.4
million hectoliters (a growth of 14% compared to the previous year). Only five of
these regions: Douro, Lisbon, Alentejo, Minho and the Tagus, represent 80% of the
total production [18]. These figures make Portugal one of the main wine producers
(10th place in the world ranking) and one of the largest exporters—3.2 million hecto-
liters, representing a value of 941.5 million euros [18, 19]. Although the weight of
exports is very significant (43% of production), domestic consumption is on the rise
accompanying tourism activities increase.
Since the late 1990s, wine tourism has grown in popularity [1]. It is one of the
most significant marketing opportunities for wine growers and the tourism sector
[31]. Within this context, studying consumer behavior is crucial since it may make
a substantial contribution to the creation of a successful strategy [27].
How knowledge impacts purchasing behavior is a matter of extensive investigation
[1, 5, 7, 8, 10, 29, 30, 34]. However, the research on the interplay between the
self-reported wine knowledge and information seeking is scarce [10]. Some more
specific questions still remain unanswered. Namely, how the wine knowledge and
expertise is formed—does wine information seeking and wine event participation
impact positively the self-accessed expertise evaluation and subsequent purchasing
behavior? Thus, with present research we aim to fill this gap and analyze the influence
of wine info searching and wine event participation on self-reported expertise and
its subsequent impact on factors of purchase behavior.
We address a very specific public of the Essence of Wine (Essência do Vinho)—the
most prestigious wine event in Portugal and takes place every year in the city of Porto
since 2004, more specifically, at the Palácio da Bolsa. It brings together national and
international producers, professionals from the wine sector and the general public
who come to the event for a variety of reasons, from curiosity to business [9].
Dedicated to wine tourism, the program has dozens of activities, and the event is
designed to offer a unique experience to all participants [9]. It is unrivaled opportunity
29 How Wine Information Seeking and Event Participation Impact … 375

to discover some of the best Portuguese wines and explore the richness and diversity
of its wine regions, and Essência do Vinho is a must for any wine enthusiast and just
curious visitors to increase their knowledge and interest in wine [9].
This year, 2023, from 23 to 26 February, the 19th edition of this unique event
took place, and it brought the world’s wine tourism industry to Portugal, combining
it into a professional fair [33]. More than 3000 wines were tasted and represented
by around 400 producers [9, 33]. Essência do Vinho is a multicultural event, where
participants from different parts of the world coming together in the same space and
generating an important economic and social impact in the city of Porto.
Thus, we address a very specific public that is drawn to the wine event, therefore
making it possible to evaluate different levels of expertise, the role of wine seeking
information and wine event participation in its formation and its subsequent outcomes
in the form of wine purchasing behavior.

29.2 Wine Expertise and Purchase Behavior

Consumer knowledge impacts information search, information processing and

decision-making regarding various products, wine inclusively [10]. And on the other
hand, it is observed that limited wine knowledge represents an obstacle for wine
consumption [1, 30]. Wine knowledge is positively reflected in wine spending and
the frequency of wine consumption, as well as the practice of wine tourism [1, 11].
The promotion and positioning of an ultra-peripheral wine region benefits greatly
from wine education and wine tourism [2]. Wine education influences consumers
with low wine consumption rates and has a beneficial effect on a consumer’s interest
in wine [28]. Expertise leads to higher search activity [29, 30]. But does the higher
search activity reflect in the self-reported expertise and subsequent purchase behavior
based on the recognition of the country of origin and region?
Wine’s reputation is important to the wine consumers with a high level of self-
reported expertise [7]. Namely, country of origin and region (AOC) are an indicator
of quality [5]. Geographical certification and origin are the primary determinants of
wine prices [12]. Wine can be categorized as credence good since it lacks readily
comparable characteristics, which is one reason why a wine region is significant to
buyers [23].
Consumers may draw conclusions about a wine’s quality based on the infor-
mation from the bottle and its label, such as price, grape variety, vintage, alcohol
content, wine style, vineyard, brand name or awards [6]. But for a product like wine,
the place of origin (country or region) is one of the most crucial selection factors
based on country perception and associations [32]. It is a defined differentiator for
wine perceived quality and a factor influencing customers’ attitudes, preferences and
willingness to pay more for a product [6, 24]. Geographical origin is important for
triggering consumers’ emotional response and purchase intent [21], and it influences
the value of the wine consumption, making the wine’s country or region of origin, the
most trusted indicators [23]. Therefore, making the place of origin the key point in the
376 E. Vieira et al.

Fig. 29.1 Conceptual model

differentiation strategies for wine firms that aim for increasing purchase intention [3,
6]. Thus, the country of origin and region play an important role in purchase intent,
especially in the willingness to pay higher prices for it, but what increases the level
of importance of these factors to consumers. What is the role of expertise within
purchase behavior, and how participation in wine events and information seeking
contribute to this?
Within this context specifically the self-reported knowledge is relevant, the way
that expertise is perceived by own individuals [10, 30]. Therefore, we evaluate the
self-reported level of the expertise based on the assessment of individual interest and
knowledge of wine. The following hypothesis are formulated (Fig. 29.1).
H1: Wine info seeking impacts wine expertise.
H2: Wine event participation impacts wine expertise.
H3: Wine expertise impacts wine purchasing behavior.

29.3 Methodology

29.3.1 Study Design

Quantitative methodology was chosen, and the data gathered through the question-
naire applied to the public at a wine even “Essência do Vinho” (19th edition), held
in Porto in Palacio da Bolsa between 23 and 26 of February 2023. A convenience
sampling technique was used resulting in 1314 valid responses.
First, descriptive statistic is elaborated in order to present sociodemographic
characteristics of the participants, followed by analysis of wine info seeking, wine
event participation, wine expertise and wine purchase behavior. Furthermore, to test
the established hypothesis, we employ partial least squares (PLS) path analytical
technique [26] to test our hypotheses.
29 How Wine Information Seeking and Event Participation Impact … 377

29.3.2 Sample

The sample consists of 1314 responses gathered along 4 days of the event (23–26 of
February 2023). Among the respondents 55.7% are male, 47.8% are single, 74.1%
have at least a bachelor’s degree, and 79.1% are professionally active. The average
age of the sample is 37.4. The event was held in the city of Porto and brought
46% of participants that are outside of the Metropolitan Area of Porto and abroad,
highlighting the importance of the Essência do Vinho in the context of tourism
development and socioeconomic impact of the city (Table 29.1).

29.4 Results

More than half of the sample consists of the participants who actively seeking infor-
mation about the wine by acquiring publications and consulting internet sites special-
ized in wines, likewise participating in wine events, namely in wine fairs, visiting
cellars and wine tastings. Attending a wine workshop or course has less adherence,
but still, it is frequently and very frequently attended by 36% of the respondents.
Predominantly, the participants reveal high interest in wine—85.5% is interested
and very interested. Knowledge is less reported, only 16.1% consider themselves as
great connoisseur, and 44,.1% as a connoisseur.
At the moment of purchase, the highest appreciation as important and very impor-
tant is value for money, and 86.1% of respondents provided this evaluation. Recom-
mendation is the following factor that is considered as important and very important
by 80.7% of respondents. Followed by region (76.6%), origin (country) (74,.3%),
price (70.2%), certification (62.8%), brand (56.4%) and packaging (bottle/label)
(51.2%) (Table 29.2).
The PLS method was conducted in two stages. Initially, we evaluated the model’s
reliability and validity, followed by an assessment of the structural model (Chin
2010). To determine the statistical significance of the path coefficients, we adhered
to the guidelines outlined by [15] and utilized a bootstrapping procedure with 5000
bootstrap samples. The model’s reliability and validity were assessed by examining
internal consistency, convergent validity and discriminant validity. The results are
presented in Table 29.3. The construct’s reliability was evaluated using Dijkstra-
Henseler’s rho (ρA) [17] and composite reliability (CR). The composite reliability
values indicated satisfactory internal consistency, as all values exceeded 0.7 [14]. In
terms of convergent validity, we identified one item from the “closest to the person”
construct that exhibited an indicator loading below the 0.7 threshold and subse-
quently removed it. However, all latent variables demonstrated adequate convergent
reliability, with their average variance extracted (AVE) values surpassing 0.5 [4].
Additionally, the model successfully demonstrated discriminant validity, as indi-
cated in Table 29.4, where the squared average variance extracted (AVE) values
exceeded the correlations shared by the corresponding paired constructs [17]. To
378 E. Vieira et al.

Table 29.1 Sample

Variables No.
Total sample 1314
Dates %
Feb 23 25.1%
Feb 24 24.4%
Feb 25 27.8%
Feb 26 22.7%
Sociodemographic characteristics of visitors
Gender %
Female 43.2%
Male 55.7%
I’d rather not say 1.1%
Average age 37.4
Marital status %
Single 47.8%
Married/non-marital partnership 41.5%
Divorced 9.4%
Widower 1.4%
Education %
Basic 1.8%
Secondary 24.1%
Bachelor 50.2%
Master’s or PhD 23.9%
Working conditions %
Self-employed 22.8%
Employee 56.3%
Student 11.5%
Unemployed 4.6%
Reformed 3.5%
Domestic 1.4%
Nationality %
Portugal 79.15%
Other 20.85%
Within other nationalities: %
Spanish 17.20%
USA 9.50%
Italy 8,80%
German 7.70%
France 5.10%
(continued)
29 How Wine Information Seeking and Event Participation Impact … 379

Table 29.1 (continued)

Variables No.
United Kingdom 4.70%
Others 47.20%
Residence %
Portugal 84.63%
Abroad 15.37%
Description of residence in Portugal %
Porto’s metropolitan area 63%
Other municipalities 37%
Residents outside of PMA and abroad 46%

further assess discriminant validity, we use the heterotrait-monotrait (HTMT) ratio

of correlations [17]. For structural models involving conceptually distinct constructs
recommend a threshold value of 0.85 [17].
All path coefficients yielded significant results at the 0.001 level, providing support
for H1 (β = 0.200, p < 0.001), H2 (β = 0.383, p < 0.001) and H3 (β = 0.221, p
< 0.001). The coefficient of determination, denoted as R2 or in-sample predictive
power [25], ranges from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating stronger explanatory
capabilities (Table 29.5). In this study, the constructs accounted for 29.9% of the
variance in wine expertise and 14.9% of the variance in wine purchasing behavior.

29.5 Discussion and Conclusion

Wine event as Essência do Vinho is a pillar stone in the development of wine interest
and expertise among consumers and one of the crucial elements in developing global
tourism activities, representing a unique marketing opportunity for participating wine
firms [31]. We found that there is a significant part of consumers that are drawn by
curiosity and leisure, representing potential new wine fans where this marketing
opportunity can take place. Nevertheless, more than half of the public reveal a
high level of interest and knowledge in wine, and attending this event can raise
its awareness about the Portuguese wine market.
Obtained findings contribute to the literature that reflects the importance of the
knowledge within purchasing behavior [1, 5, 7, 8, 10, 29, 30, 34]. But especially
it contributes to filling the gap within the understanding how self-reported wine
knowledge and information seeking is relevant to purchase behavior [10]. Namely,
we confirm that more knowledgeable consumers are less price sensitive and rely
more on their knowledge and subsequent appreciation of the place of origin of the
wine at the moment of purchase.
Therefore, indeed the place of origin is a strong factor of purchase intention [3,
6, 21, 23, 24, 32], especially when we are considering consumers with a high level
380 E. Vieira et al.

Table 29.2 Consumer behavior toward wine

Wine info seeking Frequently and very frequently %
Acquire publications specialized in wines 50.2%
Consult Internet sites specialized in wines 56.5%
Wine event participation Frequently and very frequently %
Participate in wine fairs 54.6%
Visit the cellars 58,3%
Participate in wine tastings 57.9%
Attend a wine workshop or course 36.0%
Expertise
Interest %
Very interested 48.6%
Interested 36.9%
Limited interest 12.6%
No interest 2.0%
Knowledge %
Great connoisseur 16.1%
Connoisseur 44.1%
Limited knowledge 33.0%
No knowledge 6.8%
Purchase behavior
When buying wine, the importance attributed to: Very important and important in %
Origin (country) 74.3%
Region 76.6%
Certification 62.8%
Brand 56.4%
Packaging (bottle/label) 51.2%
Price 70.2%
Value for money 86.1%
Recommendation 80.7%

of self-reported knowledge [10, 30]. Indeed, limited wine knowledge is a constraint

in wine consumption [1, 30], as it makes consumers more insecure in making their
own choices relying more on value for money, price and recommendation factors.
In the literature it is confirmed that expertise leads to higher search activity [29,
30], and we clearly see this interplay between self-reported interest and knowledge
and wine info seeking and wine event participation interplay. In this case, we see
that they impact how the expertise is perceived by the participant.
This highlights, from management and marketing perspective, that stimulation of
information seeking and participation in the wine events is key in increasing wine
29 How Wine Information Seeking and Event Participation Impact … 381

Table 29.3 Estimates of the measurement model parameters

Constructs/items Loadings Dijkstra-Henseler’s rho (ρA) CR (AVE)
Wine information seeking 0.841 0.923 (0.857)
Acquires specialist wine 0.917
publications
Access to specialized wine 0.935
websites
Wine event participation 0.886 0.917 (0.735)
Attend wine fairs 0.871
Visit a wine cellar 0.861
Participate in wine tastings 0.887
Attend a workshop or wine 0.807
course
Wine expertise 0.784 0.851 (0.741)
Rate your interest in wine 0.788
Rate your knowledge in 0.928
wine
Wine purchasing behavior 0.839 0.802 (0.758)
Country of origin 0.823
Region 0.853

Table 29.4 Discriminant validity assessment

Fornell-Larker criterion Heterotrait-monotrait ratio (HTMT)
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1. Wine 0.926
information
seeking
2. Wine events 0.529 0.857 0.455
participation
3. Wine 0.530 0.480 0.861 0.610 0.650
expertise
4. Wine 0.248 0.221 0.281 0.898 0.299 0.248 0.219
purchasing
behavior
Notes Diagonal elements in bold are the square root of AVE, which is the shared variance within
a construct. Off-diagonal elements are the correlations between constructs. To have discriminant
validity, diagonal values should be larger than off-diagonal values

expertise that impacts appreciation of the place of origin and subsequent willingness
to pay. Thus, promoting awareness and expertise among consumers is the key to
increasing competitiveness of the wine sector.
382 E. Vieira et al.

Table 29.5 Results of structural equation model test

Hypotheses Path Coeff t-statistic Confidence Supported
(β) interval
(95%)
H1 Wine → Wine 0.200*** 8.826 [0.181; Yes
information expertise 0.278]
seeking
H2 Wine event → Wine 0.383*** 11.482 [0.317; Yes
participation expertise 0.449]
H3 Wine → Wine 0.221*** 5.901 [0.132; Yes
expertise purchasing 0.267]

This research was applied to a wine event in Portugal that implies, on one hand,
that the public is more interested in wine than a general one and, on the other hand,
reflects a specific context; therefore, an extension of the research toward the general
consumer in different national contexts is required. Furthermore, methodological
framework accesses the impact of wine info seeking and wine events participation
on expertise; however the interaction between this construct is also an issue for
further exploration. Additionally, further research may address the segmentation of
the participant in the wine events based on the self-reported knowledge levels and its
subsequent purchasing behavior, what factors are more valued by different consumer
segments?

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT,
Portugal) for financial support by national funds FCT/MCTES to UNIAG (UIDB/04752/2020 and
UIDP/04752/2020).

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Chapter 30
The Role of Sociodemographic
Characteristics on the Journey
from Brand Experience to Brand Love
and Loyalty—Porto

Bárbara Santos, Margarida Carvalho, Paula Emer, Ana Pinto Borges,

Bruno Vieira, Amélia Brandão, and Elvira Vieira

Abstract Development of an emotional attachment to the brand is a key issue in

brand management, making constructs such as brand experience, brand satisfac-
tion, brand love, and brand loyalty one of the most addressed topics in marketing
research, specifically, the destinations brands, such as of city of Porto. Within this
debate, special attention is given to sociodemographic characteristics and the role they
have within this journey. Namely we address the impact of gender, age, educational
qualifications, marital status, and residence on brand experience, brand satisfaction,
brand love, and brand loyalty. Our findings indicate that these characteristics do play
the role. Positive brand experience-affecting factors include being female relative to
male, being older (the higher the impact), and being a tourist relative to not being
a tourist. Non-tourists (those who reside in Portugal or Porto) have an advantage
over tourists in terms of brand loyalty and customer satisfaction. Age and gender
have also shown importance. Marriage status and level of education were important
components of brand loyalty. Gender had no effect on brand love, but age (which

B. Santos · M. Carvalho · P. Emer · A. P. Borges (B) · B. Vieira · E. Vieira

ISAG—European Business School, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
Research Centre in Business Sciences and Tourism (CICET—FCVC), Porto, Portugal
A. P. Borges
Research Centre in Organizations, Markets and Industrial Management (COMEGI), Porto,
Portugal
A. Brandão
Faculty of Economics and CEF.UP, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
E. Vieira
Applied Management Research Unit (UNIAG), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança,
Portugal
IPVC—Polytechnic Institute of Viana Do Castelo, Viana do Castelo, Portugal

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 385
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_30
386 B. Santos et al.

rises with maturity), education level (which rises with credentials), and marital status
(being married or widowed) all had favorable impacts.

30.1 Introduction

Currently the development of an emotional attachment to the brand is a key issue

in brand management [9]. Brand love is a construct that describes the affective
feelings of a group of satisfied consumers [20]. In this context, destination brand
love addresses tourists’ long-term relationships with destination brands, as it leads
to favorable behaviors, such as raising loyalty to the destination, forgiveness for
negative experiences, and willingness to invest [5, 33].
Increasingly, consumers do not opt for the brand solely on the basis of its quality
and durability [24]. In contrast to utilitarian characteristics related to the specific
product or service, brand personality tends to serve a symbolic function [9]. The
consumer develops a love for the brand on the basis of a strong brand personality,
attributing to them and imbuing them with different personality characteristics [9].
To achieve destination’s brand love and loyalty there is journey that is a subject
of active investigation [24, 33] that this research intends to contribute. In specific,
within this journey to brand love and loyalty there is a call for further research
over the influence of sociodemographic variables on it [26, 32, 35, 14]. There are
contradicting findings in the literature, on the one hand their influence is considered
relevant, for instance especially in relation to gender [35], and on the other hand
showing that their impact is insignificant [25, 28]. In this regard, the question arises do
sociodemographic characteristics play the role in the evaluation of brand experience,
satisfaction, love, and loyalty? Thus, the objective of this study is to analyze the
journey to brand love and loyalty and the role of sociodemographic characteristics
on it.
As a scenery the case study of the city of Porto is chosen. It is the 2nd largest city
of Portugal that have evidenced touristic growth in the last decade, especially due
to the awards given to the city as “Best European Destination” in 2012, 2014, 2017
and 2022. This recognition contributed to the growing popularity of the city that
became one of the most desired destinations to visit [36]. On September 29, 2017,
the brand “Porto” was created, which was conceived by designer Eduardo Aires [2]
and recognized internationally in a short time. The factor of great importance of this
recognition is the level of expansion and visibility in which the brand places the city
to the world bringing recognition to the local culture and tourism.
30 The Role of Sociodemographic Characteristics on the Journey … 387

30.2 Brand Experience, Satisfaction, Loyalty, and Love

A destination or location brand can be defined as a way to communicate the unique

identity of a destination that contains a number of intangible and tangible elements
and distinguish it from competitors [7, 21]. In this regard, a brand of a destination
has two important functions: differentiation and identification. The brand image of
a tourist destination is one of those intangible elements, to which tourism marketing
has given monetary importance [31].
According to Alloza [4], the brand experience can be defined as the perception of
consumers, at each moment of the contact they have with the brand, whether in the
brand images projected in advertising, during the first personal contact, or the level of
quality in relation to the personal treatment they receive. Brand experience is created
when customers use the brand; talk to other people about the brand; and look for more
information, promotions, and events [6, 22]. Brand-related stimuli appear as part of
a brand’s design and identity (e.g., name, logo, sign), packaging, and marketing
communications (e.g., advertisements, brochures, websites), and in environments in
which the brand is marketed or sold (e.g., stores, events). These brand-related stimuli
constitute the main source of subjective and internal consumer responses, which is
referred to as the “brand experience” [12]. Thus, a brand experience is defined as
subjective, with internal responses of the consumer through feelings and sensations,
as well as behavioral responses through stimuli that relate to the brand and its entire
design.
Brand satisfaction is a desired outcome of brand experience. Satisfaction is defined
as a positive affective reaction to a result of a previous experience further impacting
subsequent purchases, completing a cyclical pattern and forming a long-term rela-
tionship of loyalty [3, 11, 16, 24]. According to Sadeque et al. [33] satisfaction with
the various points of the city is a fundamental pillar in the development of the city’s
brand love.
Consumers perceive the objects they love as being integrated into their identity
[1]. Brand love is a type of relationship that consumers establish with brands, encom-
passing multiple cognitive, affective, and behavioral elements revealing the degree
of emotional passion and attachment that a satisfied consumer has for a particular
brand [9, 10, 19, 20, 24, 33].
One of the lines of research affirm that satisfaction is an antecedent of loyalty,
as increase in satisfaction leads to increases in brand loyalty [11, 18, 34]. Loyalty
represents a deeply held commitment to product/service preference consistently in
the future [13].
Brand loyalty is seen as an outcome of brand love [20], reflected in positive word-
of-mouth, active commitment, and willingness to pay a higher price for the chosen
brand [24], ultimately leading to enhanced economic, competitive, and strategic
advantages and increased brand profitability [29, 30].
388 B. Santos et al.

30.3 Methodology

30.3.1 Questionnaire Description

The questionnaire consists of two main parts: sociodemographic characteristics

(gender, age, nationality, education, and marital status) and the four dimensions
of the brand (brand experience, brand satisfaction, brand loyalty, and brand love). It
was also asked if the respondents were a tourist in the city of Porto.
To measure brand experience, 6 items extracted from Brakus et al. [12], adapted
to the study context, were used. Brand loyalty was measured using six items adapted
to the study context by Morrison and Crane [29]. Brand satisfaction was measured
using five items from scales developed by Garbarino and Johnson [17], Martensen
and Grønholdt [27], Devaraj et al. [15], and Jamal and Goode Mark [23]. To assess
brand love, we used six items from the reduced scale by Bagozzi et al. [8]. A 5-point
Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree) was used on all scales.
The data was collected through a face-to-face survey carried out during the month
of April 2023 in the reference areas of Porto (São Bento, Aliados, Trindade, Boavista,
and Bolhão); the anonymity of the participants was guaranteed, obtaining 212 valid
responses.

30.3.2 Data Analysis

The sample profile and the descriptions of the scale items were determined using
descriptive statistics. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was employed to calculate
internal consistency reliability. When is at least 0.70, an instrument is regarded as
having adequate reliability. We used principal component analysis with varimax
rotation to evaluate the 24 scales’ statements. In order to verify the factorability and
sufficiency of the analysis, the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) test of sample adequacy
and Bartlett’s test of sphericity were applied. In order to explain how sociodemo-
graphic factors affect the four categories, we additionally employ a linear multiple
regression analysis. We make use of SPSS (version 29) for the analysis.

30.4 Results

30.4.1 Sample Description and Constructs

The details of the sample are shown in Table 30.1. From the sample of respondents,
the majority were female (60.4%), with higher education (75.5%), single (78.3%),
Portuguese nationality (97.2%), and with an average age of 30.6. It was also found
that 39.6% of respondents were doing tourism in the city of Porto.
30 The Role of Sociodemographic Characteristics on the Journey … 389

Table 30.1 Sociodemographic characteristics

Variable Description %
Gender 1-Female 60.4%
2-Male 39.6%
Age Age 30.6*
Nationality 1-Portuguese 97.2%
2-Other 2.8%
Educational qualifications 1-Elementary studies 1.9%
2-Secondary studies 22.6%
3-Degree or master’s/PhD degree 75.5%
Marital status 1-Married/non-marital partnership 19.3%
2-Divorced 2.4%
3-Single 78.3%
Tourist in the city of Porto? 1-Yes 39.6%
0-No 60.4%
* Note the value corresponds to the average age of the sample

In relation to the analysis of the psychometric properties of the constructs, it is

possible to observe that all measures used in this research had adequate internal
consistency (see Table 30.2). On a 5-point scale from low to high, these mean scores
suggest that it was relatively high and slightly above the neutral midpoint of 3.00.
Table 30.3 specifically described the items, mean, and standard deviation of the
brand experience, brand satisfaction, brand loyalty, and brand love constructs. As it is
possible to observe, in brand experience construct, the item “Transport is important
in the destination-brand experience” stands out with the highest mean value of 4.69.
This construct is also the one with the highest average and it is important as well to
emphasize the items “Attractions are important in the destination-brand experience”,
“Customer service is important in the destination-brand experience”, and “My stay/
visit to the city of Porto is or was positive” featuring mean values of 4.58, 4.57, and
4.56, respectively. Looking at the brand satisfaction construct, the affirmation “I will
recommend (friends, family, …) To visit Porto” is highlighted by the sample with an
average of 4.70. Furthermore, in terms of the brand loyalty also with a mean value
of 4.70 the item “I will revisit the city in the future” is highly emphasized by the
sample. Finally, in the construct brand love, the items “The destination brand makes

Table 30.2 Descriptive

Variables Mean (SD) Cronbach’s alpha
statistics for study variables
Brand experience 4.52 (0.15) 0.793
Brand satisfaction 4.23 (0.32) 0.862
Brand loyalty 4.32 (0.31) 0.743
Brand love 4.03 (0.46) 0.943
390 B. Santos et al.

me feel good” and “I feel a deep affection for the destination brand” are the most
cited with mean values of 4.16 and 4.15, respectively.
The exploratory factor analyses were performed for each scale, through a principal
component analysis and a varimax rotation. All constructs have shown eigenvalues
over Kaiser’s criterion of 1 and explain above 48%. A loading of 0.40 was applied
as the cut-off for inclusion. All items were included in the constructs.
The sociodemographic factors that have an impact on the four constructs are
shown in Table 30.4. Being a female relative to a male, being older (the higher the
impact), and being a tourist relative to not being a tourist are all factors that positively
affect brand experience. Non-tourists (those who live in Portugal or Porto) have a
positive influence on tourists in terms of brand satisfaction and brand loyalty. Age
and gender also demonstrated significance. The degree of qualifications and marital
status were also significant factors in brand loyalty. According to this model, gender
had no bearing on brand love, but age (which increases with adulthood), degree of
education (which increases with qualifications), and marital status (being married or
widowed) all had positive effects.

30.5 Discussion and Conclusion

Following the suggestion of Christino [14], Loureiro et al. [26], Rahman et al. [32],
and Verma [35] we have explored the impact of sociodemographic characteristics
on the constructs of brand experience, brand satisfaction, brand love, and brand
loyalty. To begin with, based on the results we see that city of Porto provides positive
experiences with high levels of satisfaction; therefore the intentions to recommend
the city and repeat the visit received the highest scores. But the positive experience
has the highest average, that is reflected in the brand loyalty that is the second highly
evaluated item; meanwhile satisfaction received less average value that the brand
loyalty. These findings are in line with the literature highlighting the importance of
brand experience for brand loyalty [3, 6, 11, 16, 22, 24]. However, from our study we
cannot conclude that loyalty is seen as an outcome of brand love [20], as interestingly,
the average for brand love is lower than the other constructs.
On the other hand, we confirm that sociodemographic characteristics play the role
on the evaluation of brand experience, satisfaction, love, and loyalty corresponding to
Verma [35] and contradicting indicated by Mishra and Prasad [28], Kumar et al. [25].
Curiously, being a female has an impact on brand experience, satisfaction, and loyalty,
but not brand love. Older age has shown impact on all constructs, reflecting a more
effective relationship with the destination image. Higher degree of qualifications and
being married brought more brand love and loyalty. Non-tourist respondents revealed
a more emotional connection with a city’s brand, as long as tourist evidenced positive
experience.
From a marketing perspective, the core fans of the city’s brand are older, married,
and higher educated segments of residents, as they reveal more affective relationship
30 The Role of Sociodemographic Characteristics on the Journey … 391

Table 30.3 Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) and factorial analysis of Porto
brand
Item Mean Std. dev Loading* (factorial
analysis)
Brand experience
My stay/visit to the city of Porto is 4.56 0.68 0.706
or was positive
Attractions are important in the 4.58 0.65 0.796
destination-brand experience
Accommodation is important in 4.47 0.69 0.714
the destination-brand experience
Transport is important in the 4.69 0.58 0.692
destination-brand experience
Customer service is important in 4.57 0.64 0.672
the destination-brand experience
I am satisfied with the various 4.23 0.73 0.625
elements (attractions,
accommodation, transport, and
customer service) in the
destination-brand experience
Brand satisfaction
Overall, I’m satisfied with the 4.37 0.70 0.829
destination brand
When I compare the brand with 4.25 0.74 0.845
other destination brands, I’m very
satisfied with the Porto brand
The quality of the destination 4.06 0.78 0.858
brand is always excellent
The brand’s value for money 3.74 0.89 0.652
exceeds my expectations
My decision to choose this 4.25 0.80 0.783
destination brand is the right one
I will recommend (friends, family, 4.70 0.60 0.666
…) to visit Porto
Brand loyalty
I will revisit the city in the future 4.70 0.60 0.827
I feel emotionally attached to the 4.45 0.89 0.847
destination brand
Satisfaction influences my loyalty 4.45 0.74 0.911
to the destination brand
If my satisfaction decreases on 3.86 1.12 0.924
future visits, so does my loyalty to
the destination brand
I feel confident in the destination 4.33 0.76 0.941
brand
(continued)
392 B. Santos et al.

Table 30.3 (continued)

Item Mean Std. dev Loading* (factorial
analysis)
I feel committed to the destination 4.08 0.91 0.880
brand
Brand love
I feel a deep affection for the 4.15 1.04 0.827
destination brand
I miss the destination brand if I 3.85 1.08 0.847
don’t visit for a long time
The destination brand is a 4.11 0.92 0.911
marvelous brand
The destination brand makes me 4.16 0.90 0.924
feel good
The destination brand makes me 4.05 0.94 0.941
very happy
I love the destination brand 3.85 1.14 0.880
The identification of the latent constructs: factorial analysis
Loading*
Statements Brand Brand Brand Brand love
experience satisfaction loyalty
Eigenvalues/rotation sums squared 2.962 3.619 2.932 4.748
loadings
Variance (%) 49.36 60.32 48.86 79.13
KMO test 0.779 0.853 0.761 0.906
Bartlett test (sig) 316.836 522.077 341.261 1093.225
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Note * Extraction method: principal component analysis. Rotation method: varimax with Kaiser
normalization; ** The results of KMO and Bartlett tests confirm the factorability and the adequacy
of the analysis
Brand Experience, Brand Satisfaction, Brand Loyalty, and Brand Love

indicating the need on improving satisfaction, love, and loyalty dimension for tourist
participants.
Therefore, we provide a contribution to the marketing theory on an ongoing debate
of the journey to brand love and loyalty and the role of sociodemographic characteris-
tics on it demonstrating that they do play the role. From the managerial perspective,
these findings confirm the necessity for destination managers to adapt communi-
cation and provided offer depending on different segments visitors accounting for
sociodemographic characteristics.
Further research should explore that the impact of the impact of experience and
satisfaction is significant on brand love and subsequent brand loyalty, accounting for
sociodemographic characteristics.
30 The Role of Sociodemographic Characteristics on the Journey … 393

Table 30.4 Econometric model—sociodemographic variables as predictors of brand experience,

brand satisfaction, brand loyalty, and brand love
Variables Brand experience Brand satisfaction Brand loyalty Brand love
Gender 0.300* 0.180** −0.023* 0.351
Age 0.020** 0.109** −0.210** 0.006**
Educational 0.198 0.136 0.260** 0.069*
qualifications
Marital status 0.021 0.215 0.205** 0.177**
Tourist 0.225* −0.149** −0.167* −0.291**
Constant 0.566*** 0.185*** 0.279*** 0.299***
R2 0.343 0.411 0.390
ANOVA test 12.304*** 14.760*** 13.682***
Notes The beta value is for the step at which the variables were entered. Significant at: * p < 0.10
level;** p < 0.05 level; *** p < 0.01

Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT,
Portugal) for financial support by national funds FCT/MCTES to UNIAG (UIDB/04752/2020 and
UIDP/04752/2020).

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Chapter 31
Perception of Risk and Identification
of Security Measures When Visiting
Cultural Heritage

Jorge Marques and Fátima Matos Silva

Abstract The perception of safety is essential during tourist visits to historical

monuments, whether they are built architectural heritage, civil, military, vernacular,
or archaeological. This perception of security helps to guarantee, on the one hand, the
physical integrity of visitors and, on the other hand, the preservation of different types
of heritage. Many places visited have unique architectural characteristics, especially
in the case of old buildings where architectural barriers and limited accessibility
are more evident, with particular emphasis on castles, forts, fortresses, and archae-
ological heritage. Accidents in these places are relatively frequent, mainly related
to falls by visitors. In this context, this article intends to address, in an introductory
way, the need to study the perception of risk associated with visiting historic sites, to
identify weaknesses and opportunities, and to enable the implementation of coherent
strategies and actions to limit the risk of accidents, thus increasing the safety of visi-
tors. A theoretical framework on the risk associated with visiting cultural heritage
is presented, and the methodological procedures that will be developed in a more
comprehensive research project on the subject are identified.

This work was supported by the FCT—Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P. [Project
UIDB/05105/2020].

J. Marques (B) · F. M. Silva

REMIT—Research on Economics, Management and Information Technologies, Department of
Tourism, Heritage and Culture, University Portucalense, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
F. M. Silva
e-mail: [email protected]
F. M. Silva
CITCEM—Transdisciplinary Research Centre «Culture, Space and Memory» (FCT R&D Unit
4059), Porto, Portugal
J. Marques
CEGOT—Centre of Studies in Geography and Spatial Planning, University of Coimbra, 3004-530
Coimbra, Portugal

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 395
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_31
396 J. Marques and F. M. Silva

31.1 Introduction

When visiting any historical or archaeological monument, visitors are generally

exposed to various potential hazards, such as falls or accidents involving pavements,
structures or equipment installed in these places. Added to this is the fact that many of
the sites visited have unique architectural characteristics, especially in the case of old
buildings where architectural barriers and limited accessibility are more evident, with
particular emphasis on castles, forts, forts, fortresses, and archaeological heritage.
Thus, there is still a long way to go about the safety of visitors, as accidents, such as
falls, have been relatively frequent in recent years.
Many places have adopted some security measures to minimise these risks, such as
installing fences and security barriers, placing signage signs, and performing regular
maintenance on the structures. In addition, it is vital that tourists are informed about
the risks involved in visiting these places and that they follow the safety instructions
provided by the officials responsible for maintaining the site. However, these security
measures still need to be improved, adding to the fact that they are only sometimes
used consistently in all places.
On the other hand, the security issue is also crucial from the perspective of
preserving cultural heritage insofar as the actions of visitors can cause damage,
whether intentional or not. For example, the tendency to touch objects on display or
access unauthorised places can lead to problems in terms of security, both for the
visitor and the property.
Therefore, to guarantee greater security for visitors and the protection of cultural
heritage, it is essential to apply more appropriate security measures, such as installing
clear signs, physical barriers, and monitoring plans (in person or by video surveil-
lance). It will also be necessary for visitors to be more aware of safety rules and
proper behaviour during the visit. In summary, the safety of tourists when visiting
different types of cultural heritage depends on adopting adequate security measures
and making tourists aware of the risks involved in visiting these places.
In this context, this article intends to introduce, in an introductory way, the percep-
tion of the risk associated with visiting historical places and outline a methodological
plan that allows the identification and implementation of coherent and homogeneous
strategies and actions to limit the risk of accidents, thus increasing the safety of
visitors, on the one hand, and of heritage on the other.

31.2 Theoretical Background

The socioeconomic development of societies, the improvement in the quality of life,

the increase in free time, and the consequent greater access to travel and leisure activ-
ities are just some of the factors that have contributed to the development of tourism
on a global scale. However, this growth and new trends in demand require balancing
the dynamic tension that characterises the relationship between tourism development
31 Perception of Risk and Identification of Security Measures When … 397

and the protection of the cultural landscape [18] since tourism can negatively impact
natural and cultural resources. Therefore, monitoring cultural heritage is essential to
ensure the sustainability of regions [6].
The preservation of archaeological and heritage sites is of great importance since
they are non-renewable resources that must be protected to ensure their sustain-
ability for future generations [10]. New approaches advocate the involvement of
local people in the development of heritage management plans, as they increase
residents’ awareness of their value and contribute to the sustainable protection of
heritage [15, 22]. They also stress the need to consider the tourist experience in
heritage management “to achieve the objective of sustainable heritage tourism” [12,
269]. Although natural and cultural resources are the main attractions of a territory
and the basis of its competitive advantage and endogenous growth, it is essential to
consider how resources are incorporated into qualified tourism products to satisfy
the needs and expectations of tourist demand, especially in terms of activities and
cultural experiences in world heritage destinations [14]. Thus, it is essential to have
satisfied tourists and involved stakeholders to achieve sustainability in these heritage
sites [9].
Responsible tourism is essential, and the correct use of heritage is the best guar-
antee of its conservation [23]. Accessibility to heritage sites is considered a way
to promote sustainable heritage management. The concept of universal accessibility
is generally characterised by physical and architectural aspects—spatial accessi-
bility—but it goes much further since it also concerns the accessibility of informa-
tion, social, intellectual, and emotional components [19]. It means that everyone,
with or without special needs, must be able to participate in all activities that include
products, services, or information. Universal accessibility implies elements such as:
(i) clarity of access information (e.g. signage); (ii) physical and architectural aspects
with different adaptations; (iii) various levels of information and various forms of
communication, including virtual accessibility [1, 13, 20] based on various aspects,
such as cognitive and intellectual aspects, at different stages of life of each type
of audience [21]. The promotion of accessible and sustainable cultural tourism can
be carried out by implementing a study organised innovatively through “pioneering
services, products and technical processes” [2, 277].

31.2.1 Risk Perception

With the increase in tourism, there have also been more significant concerns related
to security issues [4]. Attention to this topic increased significantly after the 11
September 2001 attacks on the Twin Towers. Since then, studies on risk percep-
tion have focused mainly on issues related to terrorism, natural disasters, political
instability, epidemics and pandemics, crime, and local violence [7, 8, 17].
Since the safety factor is challenging to quantify, if not impossible, it becomes
inevitable to associate the concept of risk perception with the concept of safety of
a destination [11]. Although the perception of risk may always exist during tourist
398 J. Marques and F. M. Silva

activity, each visitor sets his/her limit regarding the actions he is willing to carry
out, considering his assessment of the level of risk [3, 5]. In this context, how tourist
destinations manage effectively, the perception of security associated with their terri-
tories will influence the perception of risk and, in turn, the motivation and process
of choice on the part of tourists [4].
Over the last few decades, topics related to the perception of risk and the safety
of destinations have been widely studied. In one of the first works carried out in this
area, Roehl and Fesenmaier [16] concluded that the perception of risk by leisure
tourists is mainly related to the equipment, the trip, and the destinations. They also
concluded that the perception of risk is influenced by the demographic characteristics
of tourists and, as such, differs from person to person [16]. Cui et al. [4] carried out
a literature review on the subject and identified that the perception of risk in tourism
can be analysed according to three different perspectives:
(1) The perspective of subjective feelings, which is related to the physical
characteristics and the psychological processes of tourists;
(2) The perspective of objective assessment, which includes physical, infra-
structural, economic, social, psychological, and temporal risks and those related
to the opportunity cost;
(3) The perspective of raising awareness about the potential impacts or negative
consequences that may occur during a trip.
In this context, Cui et al. [4] concluded that the perception of risk and the respec-
tive risk assessment are influenced by subjective factors (intrinsic characteristics of
tourists) and objective factors (possible consequences and negative impacts that may
occur during a trip). More recently, Seabra and Korstanje [17] identified the three
main theoretical approaches that encompass studies on risk perception:
(1) The demographic approach, based on factors such as age, gender, and level of
education, among others;
(2) The psycho-sociological approach, based on factors such as personality,
character, and cultural differences, among others;
(3) The critical perspective approach crosses the perception of risk with ideological
issues.
Although there is research in risk perception, more attention should be paid to
issues related to the perception of risk and security in a more specific context related
to the cultural heritage of tourist interest. The literature in this area needs to be more
robust. Regarding the security associated with tourism, the literature often takes
us to factors related to crime, conflicts between the local population and visitors,
terrorist attacks, wars, and social upheavals. The specific issue of visitor safety in
spaces with reduced or limited universal accessibility has not received due attention
from academia or public and private agents associated with cultural and natural
spaces. Despite the increasing number of accidents with tourists during visits to
walls, towers, and other historical monuments, actions to limit and reduce the risk of
accidents continue to have little expression. Thus, scientific research applied to this
area is justified to overcome these limitations.
31 Perception of Risk and Identification of Security Measures When … 399

31.3 Method and Data Collection

The methodological design proposed here is based on qualitative, quantitative, and

mixed approaches, depending on their adequacy to the various lines of research
envisaged.
More specifically, the intention is to carry out:
(1) A systematic review of the literature on the subject of risk perception and safety
issues during visits to cultural heritage;
(2) Prepare technical sheets based on direct observation in order to inventory the
state of the cultural heritage, by sampling, concerning the implementation of
security measures;
(3) Develop a survey questionnaire for visitors to cultural heritage in order to assess
the perception of risk during the visit;
(4) Identify a set of proposals to be implemented in cultural heritage to increase
risk perception and security levels.
The research project adopts several methods, combining quantitative and qual-
itative techniques, various data collection techniques, and analysis of primary and
secondary data and encompasses three main phases:
(1) Development of the conceptual framework;
(2) Empirical study;
(3) Dissemination of results.
Firstly, the development of a conceptual framework will be defined with a system-
atic review of the literature on the main concepts to be analysed: (i) risk perception;
(ii) security associated with the heritage; (iii) universal accessibility and sustain-
ability of heritage; (iv) collective memory. Thus, several topics will be reviewed:
cultural heritage and security, cultural heritage and risks, universal accessibility, and
routes and networks.
The empirical study begins with defining the territorial context and identifying
the primary tourist-cultural resources. This selection of the elements to be studied
will be made by sampling the different types of cultural heritage, emphasising the
built architectural heritage.
Geographic Information Systems (GISs) will produce an inventory of tourist-
cultural resources in an integrated database, allowing a better interpretation of the
decision-making process. The empirical study continues with assessing the risks and
safety of the cultural heritage.
Intensive fieldwork is expected to be carried out to assess the risks and safety of
cultural resources, which will allow the preparation of a document with guidelines
on the issues in question. This investigation will be based on sheets adapted for the
purpose and elaborated after a meticulous analysis of the essential types of cultural
heritage. These are sheets with specific fields for each component of the different
spaces that comprise the cultural resources under study. They provide results in
percentages of compliance with the degree of security for each specific space and a
general percentage.
400 J. Marques and F. M. Silva

At the same time, a study will be carried out on physical accessibility, but also,
with particular emphasis, on information (such as signage) and communication
accessibility, as well as on information accessibility and virtual accessibility.

31.4 Conceptual Model

The literature review will contribute to developing a conceptual model of the specific
areas to be analysed to achieve the main objective of this project. This model supports
identifying central concepts and ideas in an integrated and collective structure to
define additional steps until the proposal of specific results.
Through the analysis of Fig. 31.1, it is possible to understand that there are
nine central concepts/ideas that must be evaluated: GIS analysis, tourist routes,
tourist experience, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), universal accessibility,
risk perception, identification of security measures, solutions to mitigate the risk,
solutions to increase security.
These central concepts will be evaluated through an empirical study, which will
be the next step in developing this investigation. The empirical study will identify
the primary cultural heritage resources with tourist visitation.

Risk
perception
Identification
Universal
of security
accessibility
measures

Sustainable Solutions to
development mitigate the
Goals (SDG) risk
Cultural
Heritage

Cultural Solutions to
Tourist increase
routes security

Tourist
GIS analysis
experiences

Fig. 31.1 Conceptual model for cultural heritage risk perception and security measures
31 Perception of Risk and Identification of Security Measures When … 401

It is also expected to produce a complete territorial analysis and maps of the main
attractions and tourist resources. Geographic Information Systems (GISs) will be
used to produce an inventory of tourist resources in an integrated database, allowing
a better interpretation of the data and benefit the decision-making process. This
analysis will clarify the visitor’s experience and meanings, contributing to the design
of cultural, natural, and archaeological routes associated with safety and risk models.
An analysis of the accessibility of cultural resources will also be carried out.
With the information produced, it is expected to develop a set of actions, namely: (i)
highlighting the development of cultural and archaeological routes whose degree of
risk and safety and also accessibility are acceptable or in need of improvement; (ii)
a proposal for the implementation of new tourist experiences and the development
of information aimed at the local community, stakeholders, and the general public
who wish to know about the topics in question.
The results result from the interaction and combination of all the data acquired
with the research carried out in the previous tasks.
Each territory has specific characteristics that allow it to distinguish its product
from the rest and create its own identity, considering the proposal of activities
for everyone. In this context, there will be a methodology with four phases to be
developed:
1. Treatment and analysis of existing and compiled data;
2. Development of the diagnostic report;
3. Cnstruction of the digital catalogue of equipment and cultural products;
4. Proposal for thematic routes.
In addition to the proposals for implementing accessible cultural routes, recom-
mendations, evaluation, and adaptation measures will be suggested so that tech-
nicians have support and a guide/manual of good practices to follow when
implementing solutions.

31.5 Conclusion

The sustained development of any structure, society, or nation is based on the knowl-
edge that is acquired through education, training, and research, which is why it is
fundamental for development to value people while institutions are valued. A sharp
critical sense and a good knowledge of reality are also necessary, a clear definition
of strategies that allow the construction of the necessary scenarios for the develop-
ment of projects to adapt different types of buildings to new functions, namely the
visitation space.
From a heritage perspective, security is understood as the whole series of actions
explicitly addressing the building, collections, and people, with the ultimate objective
being the protection of cultural assets. However, the physical safety of visitors must
receive greater attention, especially in contexts that represent a higher associated
risk. In this way, security systems must be implemented that also include the external
402 J. Marques and F. M. Silva

relations of the spaces that can be visited with their primary partners (for example,
firefighters and the police). In addition to the collection, they must protect their
visitors and staff, other property, and reputation. Visitable heritage must therefore
have the necessary security conditions to guarantee the protection and integrity of
visitors, the respective staff, facilities, and cultural assets incorporated therein.
A Security and Emergency Regulation should be drawn up, in which the rules
and procedures related to security should be analysed in more detail. Safety stan-
dards must be established after assessing the needs of each situation, considering the
different spaces, equipment, and human resources.
It is essential, however, to point out, and going beyond the competencies of a
Risk and Safety Prevention Plan, that in addition to physical intervention projects in
the space, conceptual and dissemination projects must also be thought of, which are
fundamental to the development of all cultural tourism activities.

Acknowledgments This work was supported by the UIDB/05105/2020 Program Contract, funded
by national funds through the FCT I.P.

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Chapter 32
Visiting Porto Through the Eyes
of Eugénio de Andrade

Ana Ferreira and Marta Villares

Abstract Eugénio de Andrade would have celebrated his 100th birthday on January
19 this year. To honour this greatest poet of the Portuguese language, we intend to
show the importance of his literary production in publicising and promoting different
Literary Tourism offers in Porto. In this paper, we seek to reflect on the opportunity
to use the poetic text as a source of information for getting to know the territory. The
main goal is to promote literary tourism in the city of Porto through reading, textual
interpretation and exploration of places, resulting in a proposal for a literary route
as a tourism product in the city of Porto, based on excerpts from the work “Porto, os
sulcos do Olhar”. Firstly, we clarify the relevance of this research through our biblio-
graphical research. Next, we emphasise that the diversity of the offer is a fundamental
asset for tourism development, given that the valorisation of a destination’s tourism
depends largely on the diversity and authenticity of its products. The methodology
followed will be based on a review of the available bibliography in order to help
consolidate the idea that Eugénio de Andrade, one of the greatest contemporary
Portuguese-language poets, gives us a vision of the city of Porto through his writing,
which could be a decisive tool in affirming and promoting literary tourism in the city.

32.1 Introduction

The literary text, whether in prose or poetry, allows us to observe in the writer’s report
the territory where the narrative takes place, its physical characteristics and human
occupation. In other words, it presents us with the organisation of places at a particular

A. Ferreira (B) · M. Villares

School of Hospitality and Tourism, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Vila do Conde, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Villares
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Ferreira
CiTUR Researcher (Center for Tourism Research, Development, and Innovation, Lisbon, Portugal

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 405
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_32
406 A. Ferreira and M. Villares

period in time. The text also provides a comparison between the places described,
many of which have been transformed, disappeared or are merely fictionalised, and
those that exist today, giving visitors/tourists a personalised view of this territory as
an individual experience.
Porto is one of the Portuguese cities that has most distinguished itself over the
years by inspiring writers to the point of making it the landscape of their works.
We would like to highlight Eugénio de Andrade, not only for his contemporaneity
(the author would have celebrated his 100th birthday this year) but, above all, for
the greatness of his work, which not only exalts the city of Porto but also highlights
many of the great national writers who have praised Porto throughout the ages.
This is the city we want to show tourists; a favourite tourist destination, which
still retains the identity traits that allow us to revisit it through the eyes of an artist
who, with his sensitivity, shows us his city, a city of poets and writers.
The methodology followed was based on a review of the available bibliography in
order to build the idea that literary tourism can and should be encouraged, since the
exaltation of local identity is a differentiating factor in the tourism offer and literary
routes are a crucial tool for dynamising and promoting this type of tourism.

32.2 Literature Review

32.2.1 Literary Routes as Literary Tourism Tools

Literary Tourism
Considering literary tourism as the travelling of people motivated by their love of
reading, this branch of tourism that unites travel and literature is increasingly signif-
icant, given that travelling, which for years was only an adventure confined to intel-
lectuals and lovers of literature, has become a new branch of tourism all over the
world, literary tourism.
In fact, “literary tourism, cultural tourism directly associated with visits to places
recognised for their relationship with literary works and/or authors, has been occu-
pying an increasingly important place in the world of tourism and is currently
expanding greatly, both in Portugal and in other countries” [6].
In fact, the concept of literary tourism has gradually established itself, expanding
the opportunities for those who like to discover what exists in the places to which
literary texts refer, in other words, “travelling to places famous for associations with
books or authors” (Squire 1993, p. 5 in [8]).
Nowadays, Portugal also has its own niche of literary tourists and Porto, a city
that has seen the birth, death and/or served as the setting for the works of so many
artists and writers, has, over the decades, been a means of literary inspiration and
a place of production for a large number of creators. Accordingly, we dare say that
Porto is now a city that can play a decisive role in the development of literary tourism
in Portugal.
32 Visiting Porto Through the Eyes of Eugénio de Andrade 407

In the words of António [7], Eugénio de Andrade is Porto, and Porto is Eugénio
de Andrade. This paper is therefore a short essay to show how his work can be a
motivation for travelling through the city and to the city.
Literary Routes
To make a tourist destination stand out means associating it with a specific value,
different from the rest, which is why, as Ferreira (2021, p. 7) says, “the creation
of a unique and attractive image is a decisive tool for identifying a destination and
differentiating it from others, because in order to be competitive, a destination must
be able to offer an experience that distinguishes itself from competing destinations,
rather than attracting and satisfying its visitors”.
In this sense, literary routes act as an irresistible invitation, showing the real
territory described by the authors and allowing the tourist/visitor to transpose their
imaginary experience of reading into the real context, as they “allow the visitor to get
to know the city as a material reality, as a space that allowed the writer to build and
develop a scenario for the narrative, giving the tourist the possibility of observing
the city in another way, that is, walking through the streets, observing the specific
particularities of the city that they would not have access to by simply observing the
geographical reality, without a literary route or itinerary” (Ferreira 2021, p. 102).
In fact, since “literary routes seek to establish a relationship between various
places, landscapes or attractions associated with a writer or poet” [5], p. 25, they are
designed both for the individual who already has prior knowledge of the work(s),
and for the individual who has not yet learnt about the work(s) to which they refer,
thus arousing the desire to get to know the work(s) on which that particular itinerary
is based.
In this sense, literary routes represent a valuable and strategic tool for promoting
and differentiating Porto as a destination, attracting an audience eager to immerse
itself in the literary wealth the city offers.

32.2.2 Visiting Porto Through the Eyes of Eugénio de

Andrade

Eugénio de Andrade and the City

Eugénio de Andrade lived in Porto for over fifty years, a city he developed an enor-
mous passion for, which he reflected in several of his works. In fact, a large part
of his work celebrates Porto, leaving us his testimonies of life in the city, a city to
which he himself attributes different physiognomies when he says that “the Porto of
Fernão Lopes is almost legendary: heroic and honourable; that of Camilo, grotesque
and dramatic; that of Garrett, ironic, picturesque and sentimental… The virile city
of Fernão Lopes is still that of Herculano, Ramalho, Jaime Cortesão and Miguel
Torga; Raul Brandão, Pascoaes and Agustina are, in some way, the continuation of
Camilo’s pessimism; Garrett leaves, desiccated, his impenitent humour completely
408 A. Ferreira and M. Villares

lost, a whole tone that from Júlio Dinis and António Nobre comes to flow into so
much narrow-mindedly regionalist and depressing loa” [1].
In the author’s words, Porto is presented as a city “bathed in a melancholic baroque
acidity, reflected by the waters of the river” [2], p. 149, showing his sensitivity to
the city. António [7] states in his article on Eugénio de Andrade that the poet, when
wandering around the city, resembles an artist, only with one difference: the poet has
the ability to paint pictures with words. In fact, Eugénio de Andrade is delighted by
the play of colours and lights that the city reflects throughout the day, as he himself
says: “And when the sun, even when cooled, shines through the windows, the city’s
thousand and one skylights, trapezes and belvederes fill the twilight with sparkles—
Porto then looks like it was painted by Vieira da Silva: it’s more imaginary than real”
[1, 4].
Eugénio describes the city in its unique combination of physical, human and
social elements. As Oliveira [7] points out, the poet highlights “the negrillo trees of
Cordoaria, the linden trees of the Palácio, the magnolias of S. Lázaro, the jacaranda
and the glaucous cedar of Largo do Viriato [1] and also the seagulls of Cabedelo, the
birds that entered his house and ended up entering his poetry, the peach tree and the
loquat tree of Rua Duque de Palmela that knocked on his window pane inviting him
to share his solitude, participate in his life as if they were members of his family”.
The power of poetry can, of course, be analysed from multiple angles, but in
this work we will focus on the aspect related to the city of Porto and the daily life
of its residents, perceiving the contrasts in the landscape and the ways in which its
inhabitants appropriate the territory.
Our aim is to carry out a somewhat innovative exercise for the city, based on the
poetry of Eugénio de Andrade. To this end, this work is based on the work Porto os
Sulcos do Olhar which, as the title suggests, presents us with the writer’s view of the
city of Porto, highlighting not only its physical and human landscape, but also the
way in which the city involves us, through the writer’s creative message.
Porto, Os Sulcos Do Olhar: A Tour Through the City
Published in 1980, this work, which is part of the “Essays and other texts” section,
includes photographs by Dario Gonçalves and watercolours by Júlio Resende that
illustrate Eugénio’s text, whose source of inspiration is the city of Porto.
When referring to the poet, Eduardo Lourenço emphasised that “he is the privi-
leged inhabitant of his own poetry” [3], so by designing the itinerary “Eugénio de
Andrade, getting to know Porto through the poet’s words” we are sure to be able to
offer the visitor/tourist a unique journey through the city, a true experience of the
inhabitant of the territory.
In fact, our poet lived the city with such intensity that the whole text is centred
around his journeys within the city, allowing us not only to get to know it, but also
to feel the pulse of life within it. With him we hear the birds, “morning stubble of
sparrows” [4], we see the trees “I am sometimes surprised, moved by a fig tree that
drops branches into the street from the top of the old walls; or by some sunflowers
that are in bloom in the neighbour’s yard; or, in a tiny garden, by some jacaranda
trees that I didn’t even suspect existed two, three steps from my house (…) and in
32 Visiting Porto Through the Eyes of Eugénio de Andrade 409

fact they are there, in Campo 24 de Agosto”. Andrade [4] and we get to know the
true soul of the city, which he considers to be its heart: “It is said, and I believe it, that
it is in Ribeira that the heart of the town beats. Here you can still hear it beating as
it did at the time of King João I, or his son Henry, who also travelled here to collect
men, ships and money for his companies” [4], in an unparalleled urban arrangement,
because in his words “everyone knows that in Porto, between the Cathedral and the
Ribeira, the houses jostle each other like circus acrobats” [4].
Beyond places and their elements, squares, streets, buildings and gardens are not
just places of reference, they are living organisms themselves. The poet brings the
elements to life (in other words, gives them another life).
For the poet, even when the places are real and the objects represent the real,
objective world, they provoke emotions in him and, therefore, he shares affections
with these objects and establishes an emotional relationship with them, going so far
as to give names to the trees he liked best, saying that “giving trees people’s names
is not just an English thing” (Os sulcos do olhar, p. 44). Oliveira [7] points out that
“Eugénio named a magnolia tree in the S. Lázaro garden after his mother (Maria dos
Anjos) and the huge plane tree at the entrance to the garden after Walt Whitman”.
The Literary Tourist Guide.

32.3 Methodology

The aim of this paper is to present a literary itinerary for the city of Porto, based
on the contribution of Eugénio de Andrade’s poetry. Therefore, a bibliographical
review was carried out centred on two fundamental concepts: literary tourism and
literary itinerary, as well as the life and work of the writer Eugénio de Andrade.
Regarding the writer, given that this year marks the centenary of his birth, we also
carried out some fieldwork in terms of attending conferences and visiting the exhi-
bitions open to the public this year, highlighting “Eugénio de Andrade—A arte
dos versos”, an exhibition marking the author’s centenary and featuring unpublished
documentation organised from the Eugénio de Andrade Foundation’s collection, and
“Poesia a 100 Eugénio”, a painting exhibition made up of works from Eugénio de
Andrade’s collection and other unpublished works inspired by the poet’s work and/
or figure. Afterwards, we selected the work Porto, os Sulcos do Olhar and, based on
it, we designed a proposal for a literary route through the city of Porto, which we
developed in digital format, building a StoryMAP using the ArcGIS software.
410 A. Ferreira and M. Villares

32.4 Literary Route: Eugénio de Andrade, Getting to Know

Porto in the Poet’s Words

The proposal is simple: to travel through the city of Porto through the eyes of one
of the leading contemporary writers—Eugénio de Andrade—and, at the same time,
discover and experience the atmosphere, the landscape, the people, the colours, the
gardens and the typical sounds of the city that inspired the cultural legacy he left
us, while allowing visitors/tourists and even residents to create an imaginary of the
locals’ identity.
As an itinerary that aims to show visitors/tourists the city of Porto through
Eugénio’s eyes, the route we are presenting—Eugénio de Andrade, getting to know
Porto in the words of the poet (Fig. 32.1)—is intended to guide a tour of the city in
an east–west direction, in a route lasting approximately 6 h.
As this is a full-day programme that can be carried out independently, we have
created a digital route in ArcGIS that visitors/tourists can access via the link: https://
arcg.is/4Kef0, which will be made available to the various tourist agents. However,
we believe that, in order to enhance the experience, this route could be organised by
tourist guides. Participants will receive an information brochure with the route plan
and, whenever there is an excerpt to be read along the way, the guide can give the
opportunity to a participant who wants to do so. The route should start at around 9am,
with breaks for lunch and morning and afternoon snacks, and should end when all
the stages have been completed. It is also recommended that the itinerary be carried
out in small groups in order to provide a unique and personalised experience. The
guide can also suggest some gastronomic experiences at the planned breaks in the
route, so that the tourist feels they are following a complete itinerary of authentic
cultural experiences.
The visit begins at point A (Fig. 32.1), Rua Duque de Palmela, the author’s first
home when he moved to Porto in 1950 for professional reasons. The tour continues
to Campo 24 de Agosto (point B), the square that owes its name to the Liberal
Revolution of 24 August 1820, which took place in Porto, marking the end of the
absolutist monarchy in Portugal. After touring the garden and reading the passage
“….—I don’t like cities. That’s why I’m sometimes surprised, moved, by a fig tree
that drops branches into the street from the top of the old walls; or by some sunflowers
that are in bloom in a neighbour’s yard; or, in a tiny garden, by some jacaranda trees
that I didn’t even know existed two or three steps from my house…”. And in fact
there they are, in Campo 24 de Agosto …” [4]. We then went to the Public Library
(point C). This is where the documents belonging to the largest religious and private
libraries are archived, as well as collections of great value, including manuscripts and
reserves, such as the collection of musical manuscripts, the Azevedo and Vitorino
Ribeiro Funds, the collection of old maps and plans, collections of correspondence
and manuscripts belonging to various writers and personalities, including Eugénio
de Andrade and the so-called Autograph Museum, made up of the collections of
various writers and artists, and the remarkable collection of periodicals.
 32 Visiting Porto Through the Eyes of Eugénio de Andrade

Fig. 32.1 Literary route: “Eugénio de Andrade, getting to know Porto in the poet’s words.”. Source Own elaboration
411
412 A. Ferreira and M. Villares

Opposite the Public Library is the Jardim de São Lázaro (point D). Inaugurated
in 1834, this is the oldest public garden in the city of Porto. With its romantic layout,
it enfolds us with the shade of its large magnolias and the colour of its camellias. It
was designed by João José Gomes, Porto’s first municipal gardener, and still has its
original layout. The sculptures scattered around the garden, by artists such as Soares
dos Reis and Henrique Moreira, stand out. Here we remember the excerpt: “Towards
S. Lázaro, the streets are filled with silence. The footsteps of those returning home
late are rare, even the lightest can be heard in the distance. In the middle of the
night, the rustling of the garden has the clarity of a very young heart. Apart from the
magnolias, there are no trees with leaves. The benches are deserted
– The little masons who warm themselves in the sun here at lunchtime must have
fallen asleep in some corner of those houses in the process of being built, which
are everywhere” [2].
“…… that huge plane tree, which at the entrance to the garden of S. Lázaro
became more beautiful the older it got, he called it Walt, Walt Whitman, the poet”
[4].
We head towards Batalha and then down Rua 31 de Janeiro to Praça da Liberdade.
In the background, on the left-hand side, we find São Bento Station, completed at the
beginning of the twentieth century and considered one of the most beautiful railway
stations in the world. The walls of the atrium are covered with around 20,000 tiles
by the ceramist and sculptor Jorge Colaço.
In Praça da Liberdade (point E), we highlight the equestrian statue of King Pedro
IV, a ten-metre-high monument made of bronze in 1862. In the sculpture, the monarch
shows the Constitutional Charter to the people. Here we can hear the poet say that
“the city is often swept by a blind fog, only when you are very close to things you
notice them. You passed Praça da Liberdade without even seeing the small magnolia
tree covered in lunar whiteness. “Freedom deserved a square the size of a man’s
heart”, says a friend of mine, measuring the square with heroic eyes from the days
when he and other students opposed the police armed only with their own youth”.
A square the size of the world”, I say as if echoing him, “if man isn’t blind to those
snowy petals” [4].
In front of São Bento station, we arrive at Rua das Flores (point F), about which
Eugénio says that “it is a street worthy of Florence, this one, which in the sixteenth
century was called, with some pomp, Rua de Santa Catarina das Flores; …” [4].
After appreciating the emblematic façade of the Congregados Church, we head
towards the Cathedral of Porto (point G).
A national monument, the Cathedral is one of the city’s most beautiful monuments.
Its construction began in the twelfth century and throughout history it has undergone
a number of reconstructions, bringing together different styles. Mostly Baroque, the
structure of the façade and the body of the church are Romanesque in style and the
cloister and chapel of St John the Evangelist are Gothic. Inside, the large columns
add to the feeling of altitude in the central nave. The decoration is very sober, and
the walls are bare, except for the high altar and some Baroque-style chapels.
32 Visiting Porto Through the Eyes of Eugénio de Andrade 413

The cloister dates back to the fourteenth century and is decorated with tiles illus-
trating biblical passages. From the cloister you can enter the Chapter House, where
the “cathedral treasure”, a collection of religious jewellery objects, is on display.
We then continue towards the Fernandina Wall (point H). Completed by King
Ferdinand (from whom it took its name), it was built between 1368 and 1437 with
funds from the wine tax and had a length of 3000 steps and an average height of
30 feet. It was garrisoned with battlements and reinforced by numerous cubicles
and square towers. We are in one of the two sections, located next to Rua Arnaldo
Gama, called Trecho dos Guindais. The other section is located next to the Escadas
do Caminho Novo, called Trecho do Caminho Novo.
After appreciating the landscape and listening to Eugénio’s passage “I saw those
walls crumble over the river—the waters of September were calm, and successive
(…) I saw those Walls. They were thick, cold bronzes. They collapsed when I looked
at them” [4] and we continue to the Guindais Lift, which takes us to Ribeira. This
tour allows us to confirm the landscape so well described by the poet: “everyone
knows that in Porto, between Sé and Ribeira, the houses jostle each other like circus
acrobats” [4].
In Ribeira, where “the heart of the city of Porto beats”, according to Eugénio
(1980, p. 60), “the great bridge over the river comes to meet you. Look at the water
where the boats pass, dark, dense, rumoured with lilies or nocturnal birds” [4], p. 123.
There is no shortage of typical restaurants with traditional delicacies and dishes
that are the motto for stopping for lunch in this unique place on the banks of the
Douro and considered a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.
We then continue to the tram stop. The tram is a masterpiece of the city. Its history
dates to 1872, when the first line of “American cars” opened in Porto. Line 1, which
connects the historic centre to Foz, allows you to appreciate the unparalleled beauty,
architecture and landscapes. On the other side of the river, you can see Cabedelo,
“where the seagulls linger”.
Eugénio refers to this short trip by saying that “all the splendour on the way to
Foz is a cat in the sun, or even less” [4]. The last stop is in front of the Eugénio de
Andrade House and Foundation. Here we have the opportunity to get to know the
author better and hear more of his story. The olive tree we see in front of the house is
the most authentic portrait we can get of the author, as it was planted there as a gift
for his 80th birthday, at his request. While he was recovering in hospital, he asked
his friends to give him a present, which consisted of planting a plane tree, an olive
tree or a weeping tree in the triangle of dark earth in front of his house on Passeio
Alegre, and planting a hedge of sweet, musical white hawthorn flowers around it.
We end our journey with a walk to Foz while we enjoy the palm trees of Passeio
Alegre, so well described in his books, and the almost hidden sunlight that reflects
on the waters.
414 A. Ferreira and M. Villares

32.5 Final Considerations

In the introduction of this paper, we presented the premise that Eugénio de Andrade’s
literary work could be used to support a tourism initiative. The examples we have
presented allow us to conclude that using this type of strategy is not only appropriate
but can also be another opportunity to boost tourism activity, enhancing it in the eyes
of the public.
In the particular case of Porto, os sulcos do Olhar, the city is presented in a way
that allows us to (re)understand its physical heritage, the habits and customs of its
inhabitants and necessarily the interaction between natural and human elements.
As a result, this proposal for a literary route provides an innovative, unique and
unrepeatable tourist offer, since much of what is on offer will be the result of each
visitor/tourist’s own sensitivity to the poet’s words.
This work contributes to reinventing tourism proposals and, territorially,
contributes to Porto’s more consistent commitment to literary tourism. It also repre-
sents a tribute to Eugénio de Andrade, for the fact that his writing allows us to retrace
routes and access the heritage of a local community.

References

1. Andrade, E.: A cidade de Garrett. Fundação Eugénio de Andrade (1993)

2. Andrade, E.: Daqui houve nome Portugal: antologia de verso e prosa sobre o Porto (Vol. 24).
Oiro de Dia (1983)
3. Andrade, E.: Poesia, Assírio & Alvim (2017)
4. Andrade, e Gonçalves, D.: Porto. Os sulcos do olhar. O Jornal (1980)
5. Carvalho, I., Baptista, M.: Turismo literário e redes de negócios: passear em Sintra com os Mais,
Universidade de Aveiro (2009)
6. Neves, A.: Viagem pela literatura... E pelos espaços do mundo (ir) real. Dinâmicas de Rede no
Turismo Cultural e Religioso: II Jornadas Internacionais de Turismo, vol. 2 (2010)
7. Oliveira, A.: O Porto é só uma maneira de me refugiar na tarde (2012). disponível em
https://recil.ensinolusofona.pt/bitstream/10437/4615/1/o_porto_e_so_uma_maneira_de_me_r
efugiar_na_tarde.pdf. [consultado em 28 July 23]
8. Smith, Y.: Literary tourism as a developing genre: South Africa´s potential. [PhD Thesis],
University of Pretoria (2012)
Chapter 33
The Perception of Tourists Regarding
the Importance of Influencers in Shaping
the Image of a Tourist Destination: The
Case of Melgaço (Portugal)

Gysele Xavier, Sónia Nogueira , and Laurentina Vareiro

Abstract In today’s digital world, certain individuals possess the ability to convey
a message to others, commonly known as influencers, with the power to inspire
and influence their respective followers. This study aims to assess tourists’ percep-
tion of the importance of influencers in shaping the image of a tourist destination,
specifically in Melgaço, Portugal. The study seeks to understand the factors that
motivated tourists’ most recent visit to the Melgaço region, gauging the degree of
influence exerted by influencers in the decision to visit and their impact on tourists’
purchasing behavior in the region. Data were collected through an online question-
naire survey conducted between December 2021 and January 2022, and data analysis
was carried out using SPSS software. The analysis compared three generations (X,
Y, and Z) and revealed that the user-generated content (e-WOM) is not yielding the
desired effects concerning the Melgaço region, neither in terms of motivation for
visiting nor in the perception of the Discover Melgaço brand. These findings may
justify a greater focus on digital marketing efforts and the role of influencers in the
region.

G. Xavier
Instituto Politécnico do Cávado e Ave, Barcelos, Portugal
S. Nogueira
Universidade Portucalense - REMIT, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
L. Vareiro (B)
Instituto Politécnico do Cávado e Ave and UNIAG, Barcelos, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 415
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_33
416 G. Xavier et al.

33.1 Introduction

We live in a digital world that is constantly evolving at a rapid pace. Nowadays, almost
everyone is familiar with social media, even if they do not have exact knowledge
of how to use it, with some individuals being more active in this medium than
others. In this new world, referred to by [1] as the “digital ecosystem” due to the
sheer volume of information available, choosing valuable information is not an easy
task. Consequently, companies present themselves to the world through the eyes of
individuals who possess the ability to convey a message to others—these are the
so-called influencers whose primary purpose is to influence and inspire others [1],
also known as digital opinion leaders—DOLs [2].
Opinion leaders inspire society through social media when it comes to consumer
decision-making. Followers are enticed by the way of life, experiences, and knowl-
edge gained from the referenced brands. They follow individuals with similar inter-
ests [3]. For this study, we unify all the concepts of DOL, opinion leaders, and
bloggers and refer to them as influencers. Given the increasing relevance of influ-
encers among their followers and the relationship that is created and expanded with
each posted content, this theme assumes itself as a new niche to be explored for
promoting a tourist destination [4].
This research aims to understand the concept of influence marketing and influ-
encers themselves, seeking to comprehend how they directly impact the creation of
the image of tourist destinations. The research focuses on Melgaço, a municipality
located in northwest Portugal integrated into a protected area (Peneda-Gerês National
Park). In this context, this study aims to provide practical insights into understanding
the best practices for promoting tourism in protected areas using an important tool
for the future economic development of the country. The research problem guiding
this study is: What is the impact of influencers on shaping the destination’s image?
A case study of the Discover Melgaço brand.
The intention is to understand the digital impact on tourism, reflect on influencers,
and to what extent their influence affects the choice of a tourist destination. Further-
more, it aims to verify if this impact truly occurs in the promotion of the studied
destination. Therefore, this article is structured in five parts. Initially, it provides a
theoretical framework for the topic, followed by the methodology and the results
obtained, and finally, the conclusions.

33.2 Literature Review

The development of e-commerce in tourism has sparked interest in online loyalty

in this sector [5]. The promising long-term relationship between consumers encom-
passes marketing and management in tourism, noting that in e-commerce, consumers
can switch websites with a single click [6]. Currently, consumers prefer to read
33 The Perception of Tourists Regarding the Importance of Influencers … 417

content that people share; their experiences are changing marketing, becoming a
way to reach the target audience and wielding significant influence [7].
These individuals are known as Digital Opinion Leaders (DOLs), reaching a large
number of people through various media channels. Nowadays, with the evolution
of social networks, companies select these influencers to promote their brands to
followers, often achieving better results than traditional advertising campaigns [2].
The study by [8] aids in understanding potential influencers from the perspective
of online marketing and through the analysis of social networks (SNAs—Social
Network Analyses). These significant actors have the potential to spread a message
to society and influence consumer behavior, including e-word of mouth (e-WOM)
communication. The identification of these actors and their selection are undeniable
and open up new possibilities for a brand’s relationship with its target audience [8,
p. 347].
Consumers absorb product or experience references through e-WOM. Companies,
aiming to monitor, control, and influence e-WOM content, support and create brand
communities for their users [9]. However, given that e-WOM information is based
on credibility, too much content provided by the company itself can create insecurity
in consumers who may feel deceived [9]. Currently, this social media influence is
a marketing tool that uses individuals to shape consumer perceptions of a brand or
product [10].
The study by [12] identified differences between electronic and traditional WOMs.
In the traditional sense, information is shared among people within a family or a
familiar context, where one acquires information through similarity or knowledge of
the other. In the digital world, due to the lack of familiarity, the spread of untrue e-
WOM is high. Word of mouth in the digital realm spreads easily, exposing consumers
to a greater amount of information about products [12]. The result of the multi-
plier effect of e-WOM dissemination is the reason celebrities or opinion leaders are
involved in promoting a brand, “seeking an emotional or rational connection with a
target audience” [7, p. 348].
According to [10], “When brands hire social media influencers, they have already
made a name for themselves in a specific domain, so when influencers endorse
brands related to their field of expertise, consumers can readily believe and accept the
influencers’ opinion” (p. 504). [11] defends that the concept of an influencer involves
“a content creator: someone who has expert status in a specific area, has cultivated
a considerable number of engaged followers—of marketing value to brands—and
regularly produces valuable content through social media” (p. 59).
Currently, online technologies have changed the way people access tourist infor-
mation and structure their trips, playing a role in every stage of decision-making
[13].
The analysis of social networks is a valid method for marketing and digital
marketing, as it allows “the detection of prominent actors in a social network, with
the advantage of being a simple but powerful method for visualizing, analyzing, and
communicating findings” [7, p. 362]. According to [14], an influencer can persuade
to the point where their followers reconsider their actions and agree with them,
influencing their purchase intentions. It is thus an important marketing strategy for
418 G. Xavier et al.

companies focused on decision-making [14]. With the advancement of technologies,

the capacity for interactivity has increased. Information is shared directly or indirectly
by users in different places and various ways [15]. With this technological advance-
ment, social networks have been leveraged for brand promotion and for individuals to
exchange experiences and evaluations. These evaluations are relevant when it comes
to decision-making [14]. Influencers share their opinions about products and services
on social media, and all the consumers who follow them and subsequently share or
comment on these opinions contribute to the product or service’s marketing.
In tourism, the promotion of destinations takes place on social networks, primarily
by influencers who increase their followers, targeting specific tourism products [16].
These influencers spread the message to users, broadly disseminating it through word
of mouth, leading to new perspectives on the relationship between the brand and the
target audience [7]. They are a tool used by companies to shape consumer perceptions
of the brand [10].

33.3 Methodology

Given the study’s objective, a quantitative methodology was adopted. Quantitative

research involves the process of collecting and analyzing numerical type of data.
This type of research is suitable when we want to find patterns and averages, make
some predictions, and test causal relationships or compare groups. The quantita-
tive research method can be chosen when a descriptive and exploratory study is
conducted. Therefore, in this exploratory and descriptive study, an extensive review
of studies, scientific articles, and books was carried out that supported the questions.
The collection of data from tourists allowed the specification of the Melgaço region,
disclosed by the current trend of influencers. Previously, a pre-test was applied with
the purpose of evaluating the instrument developed.
In this investigation, a questionnaire was built using Google Forms survey tool and
the questionnaires were distributed through a variety of online distribution channels,
among which LinkedIn, Facebook, Instagram, and email. As it was an online survey,
respondents were directed to access the questionnaire through these social media
platforms. It was developed based on the literature review, aiming to collect infor-
mation on the socio-demographic profile of the respondents, like personal data (age,
gender, marital status, educational level), behavioral data (travel habits, following
influencers, sharing travel experiences), as well as their stance on influencers when
choosing a tourist destination [1–3, 10, 16–20].
The questionnaire consisted of 21 questions, although only a subset of them will
be analyzed in the present chapter. Some questions used a Likert scale with a 5-point
measurement, ranging from 1 (not influenced at all) to 5 (completely influenced), or
in some cases, from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The survey remained
available for access by respondents and data collection from November 22, 2021, to
January 31, 2022, with a total of 137 responses collected.
33 The Perception of Tourists Regarding the Importance of Influencers … 419

To analyze the questionnaire results, various statistical procedures were carried

out using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS version 28):
1. In the initial step, before any other statistical analysis, univariate statistics were
computed for all survey items.
2. In the second step, one-way ANOVA and Chi-squared tests were used to identify
differences among the three generations of respondents (X, Y, and Z).

33.4 Results

33.4.1 Respondents Profile

Regarding socio-economic data, aiming to establish a positive relationship between

the choice of a tourist destination and each of the profiles, it was found that out of
the 137 respondents, the majority, 74 respondents, are female, representing 54% of
the interviewees (Table 33.1).

Table 33.1 Socio-economic profile of respondent

N % N %
Age group Under 18 18 13.1 Education level Elementary 08 5.8
school
19–29 years 13 9.5 Upper School 26 19
30–39 years 20 14.6 Post-secondary 08 5.8
education
40–49 years 53 38.7 Bachelor’s 60 43.8
old degree
50–59 years 23 16.8 Master’s Degree 24 17.5
old
60 years and 10 7.3 PhD 11 8
over
Gender Female 74 54 Income Up to e700 29 21.2
Male 62 45.3 From e701 to 42 30.7
e1400
Prefer not to 01 0.7 From e1401 to 31 22.6
say e2100
Marital Status Single 43 31.4 From e2101 to 17 12.4
e2800
Married/civil 78 56.9 2801e or more 18 13.1
partnership
Divorced 14 10.2
Widowed 02 1.5
420 G. Xavier et al.

However, for a better assessment of the results, considering that there is no

uniformity in the literature regarding the chronological period of generations among
authors, the age groups in this study will be divided into three groups:
• Group A—up to 29 years old—often referred to as digital natives, Generation
Alpha, or Generation Z
• Group B—aged 30–49—commonly known as digital immigrants, Millennials, or
Generation Y
• Group C—aged 50 or older—referred to as Boomers or Generation X.
In this way, it can be observed that the majority of respondents (53%) belong to
Generation Y, and the majority are married or in a common-law marriage, repre-
senting 56.9%. Regarding education, 60 respondents (43.8%) hold a bachelor’s
degree, 18.98% have completed secondary education, and 17.52% have a master’s
degree, indicating a high level of academic qualifications among the respondents.
As for monthly gross income, the largest portion of respondents (30.66%) earns
between e701 and e1400 per month. Additionally, there is an almost equal distri-
bution with 22.63% falling into the income bracket of e1401–e2100 and 21.17%
earning up to e700 per month.

33.4.2 Perception of the Importance of Influencers

Given that the objective of this study is to understand the respondents’ opinions on the
influence exerted by influencers on the purchasing behavior of tourists in the Melgaço
region, closed-ended questions were used as a basis to obtain specific information
straightforwardly, resulting in an easy and clear analysis. For the analyses, this study
divided the age groups into Generations Z, Y, and X, as defined earlier.
Firstly, respondents were asked about what they understood by a digital influ-
encer (Table 33.2). Generations Z, Y, and X all understand that an influencer is
someone who shares their experiences on social media, demonstrating that social
media consumers, regardless of age, engage with and relate to the shared content
[1]. There were no statistically significant differences in the results among the
respondents.
To understand the factors behind the motivation for the respondents’ last visit
to the Melgaço, they were asked if they had ever been influenced to visit a tourist
destination by an influencer (Q1.6). Generations Y (53.4%) and X (45.5%) have been
more influenced to visit a destination by an influencer (Q1.6), while Generation Z
has only been influenced by 29% (Table 33.3). However, the results did not show
statistically significant differences. This indicates that tourism influencers have not
been able to gain loyal followers among younger consumers [6]. Generation Z seems
to be influenced by other variables, lacking the trust placed by Generations Y and
X, which already have a bond of trust [21], in the information shared when making
a decision [16] to visit a tourist destination.
33 The Perception of Tourists Regarding the Importance of Influencers … 421

Table 33.2 Question Q1.1. What do you understand by a digital influencer?

Z Y X Total X2 Sig
N (31) % (22.6) N (73) % (53.3) N (33) % (24.1) N (137) % (100)
A 11 35.5 19 26.0 6 18.2 36 26.3 2.475 0.290
B 21 67.7 55 75.3 23 69.7 99 72.3 0.770 0.680
C 12 38.7 39 53.4 19 57.6 70 51.1 2.616 0.270
D 14 45.2 43 58.9 18 54.5 75 54.7 1.659 0.436
E 10 32.3 17 23.3 3 9.1 30 21.9 5.193 0.075
A—Someone who indicates products/services they use; B—Someone who stands out by sharing
their experiences on social media; C—Someone who shares their opinions and persuades their
followers; D—Someone who can influence and even lead to a purchase behavior for a product/
service; E—A business strategy for promoting a product/service

Table 33.3 Questions Q1.5–Q1.9 (in percentage)

Z Y X Total F Sig
Agreea Mean Agreea Mean Agreea Mean Agreea Mean
Q1.5 90.4 4.61 97.3 4.81 97.0 4.73 95.6 4.74 1.196 0.306
Q1.6 29.0 2.77 53.4 3.37 45.5 3.03 45.9 3.15 2.131 0.123
Q1.7 32.3 3.26 50.7 3.38 36.4 3.30 43.0 3.34 0.200 0.819
Interest.b Mean Interest.b Mean Interest.b Mean Interest.b Mean F Sig
Q1.8 64.5 3.90 78.1 4.12 63.6 3.91 71.5 4.02 0.833 0.437
Freq.c Mean Freq.c Mean Freq.c Mean Freq.c Mean F Sig
Q1.9 32.3 2.87 23.3 2.42 21.2 2.61 24.8 2.57 1.191 0.307
Note a Percentage of respondents who chose agree (4) and strongly agree (5); b Percentage of
respondents who chose interesting (4) and very interesting (5); c Percentage of respondents who
chose frequent (4) and very frequent (5)
Q1.5. Advancement of technology, due to interactivity, has changed destination marketing strategies;
Q1.6. Have you ever been influenced to visit a tourist destination by an influencer?; Q1.7. Level of
trust in the opinions shared by an influencer on social media about tourist destinations; Q1.8. Do
you find content that shares lived experiences as if telling a story appealing?; Q1.9. How often do
you usually share your travels on social media?

Regarding the level of trust in the opinions shared by influencers about a tourist
destination (Q1.7), the highest level of trust is in Generation Y, followed by Gener-
ation X (Table 33.3), but it is not possible to conclude that there is a significant
difference.
It can be observed that trust and satisfaction contribute to consumer loyalty [6].
Brands should focus on customer satisfaction [22], building a bond with the consumer
through trust, communication, and service [21]. Regarding finding content shared
based on lived experiences presented as a story attractive (Q1.8), the majority of all
three generations agree or strongly agree (Table 33.3).
422 G. Xavier et al.

Consumers on social media engage with content and become part of the shared
story [1]. Everyone has an interest in what is happening in the world and what society
is doing [19].
When asked about sharing their travels on social media (Q1.9), Generation Z
tends to do it more frequently (32.3%), but all generations do it (Table 33.3), demon-
strating that, in one way or another, they share their lived experiences in their travels
through technology, sharing with the world and creating new experiences in a tourist
destination [23]. To assess the perception of the Discover Melgaço brand by tourists
and their sources of contact with it, respondents were asked if online sharing of
experiences can promote a brand of a tourist destination (Table 33.4). The results
show a certain consensus among the generations that agree and strongly agree, with
no significant differences.
The use of influencers in brand promotion was evaluated (Table 33.5), and the
majority of respondents stated that influencers represent a marketing strategy.
The only aspect that showed statistically significant differences was the promotion
of a seductive experience, which was more valued by Generation Z.
The responses from the three generations were quite similar, and they believe
that in the tourism sector, a brand can differentiate the product to the point of influ-
encing the choice of a tourist destination (Table 33.6), with the results not showing
statistically significant differences.

Table 33.4 Question Q1.11. Online sharing of experiences promotes a destination brand
Z Y X Total F Sig.
Agreea Mean Agreea Mean Agreea Mean Agreea Mean
(%) (%) (%) (%)
77.4 4.32 91.7 4.45 78.8 4.21 85.4 4.36 0.940 0.393
a
Note The percentage of respondents who chose agree (4) and strongly agree (5)

Table 33.5 Question Q1.12 Evaluate the use of influencers in brand promotion
Z Y X Total F Sig.
Agreea Mean Agreea Mean Agreea Mean Agreea Mean
(%) (%) (%) (%)
A 58.1 3.71 65.8 3.74 60.6 3.70 62.8 3.72 0.024 0.977
B 80.6 4.29 79.4 4.25 69.7 4.00 77.4 4.20 1.160 0.317
C 83.9 4.26 69.9 3.92 66.7 3.85 72.2 3.98 2.022 0.136
D 74.2 4.03 46.6 3.51 51.5 3.48 54.0 3.62 3.754 0.026*
E 74.2 4.16 63.0 3.81 60.6 3.91 64.9 3.91 1.512 0.224
Note a Percentage of respondents who selected agree (4) and strongly agree (5)
A—It adds value to them; B—It is a marketing strategy; C—To give them an audience; D—Promotes
a seductive experience; E—Leads to destination visits
33 The Perception of Tourists Regarding the Importance of Influencers … 423

Table 33.6 Question Q1.13: In the tourism sector, can a brand differentiate the product to the extent
of influencing the choice of a tourist destination?
Z Y X Total F Sig.
Agreea Mean Agreea Mean Agreea Mean Agreea Mean
(%) (%) (%) (%)
80.6 4.16 89.0 4.25 84.8 4.12 86.1 4.20 0.293 0.746
Note a Percentage of respondents who selected agree (4) and strongly agree (5)

Generation Y followed by Generation X is the ones who are familiar with or have
heard of the Discover Melgaço brand (Table 33.7), but it is not possible to conclude
that there is a significant difference in the result.
Unfortunately, the number of tourists who were familiar with it fell far below
expectations, which can be attributed to the data collection period. This is one of the
limitations identified in the study.
To assess the perception of the Discover Melgaço brand by tourists and their
contact sources, some images from the marketing campaign were presented, and
respondents were asked about what was conveyed to them by these images (Q1.15).
Only the willingness to visit the region showed statistically different values, with
greater agreement from the older generations.

Table 33.7 Question Q1.14: Do you know or have you heard of the Discover Melgaço brand?
Z Y X Total X2 Sig.
N % N % N % N %
(31) (22.6) (73) (53.3) (33) (24.1) (137) (100)
7 22.6 33 45.2 12 36.4 52 38.0 4.777 0.092

Table 33.8 Question Q1.15: Do you believe that the following images from the Discover Melgaço
brand convey?
Z Y X Total F Sig.
Agreea Mean Agreea Mean Agreea Mean Agreea Mean
(%) (%) (%) (%)
A 54.8 3.68 56.2 3.60 45.4 3.24 53.2 3.53 1.254 0.289
B 90.3 4.35 86.3 4.40 90.9 4.52 88.3 4.42 0.396 0.674
C 61.3 3.68 69.9 3.93 78.8 4.12 70.0 3.92 1.445 0.239
D 83.9 4.19 85 4.37 84.9 4.30 84.6 4.31 0.610 0.545
E 54.9 3.55 75.4 4.05 75.8 4.06 70.8 3.94 3.421 0.036
a
Note Percentage of respondents who selected agree (4) and strongly agree (5)
A—An image of an adventurous destination; B—An image of a nature-oriented destination; C—An
idea of tranquility and relaxation; D—A positive image of the region; E—A desire to visit the region
Finally, through a Likert-type scale question (1—strongly disagree to 5—strongly agree), the impact
of some factors on the decision to visit Melgaço was assessed (Table 33.9)
424 G. Xavier et al.

Table 33.9 Question Q2.1: What is the impact of the following aspects on your decision to visit
Melgaço?
Z Y X Total F Sig.
Item Agreea Mean Agreea Mean Agreea Mean Agreea Mean
(%) (%) (%) (%)
A 22.6 2.58 27.4 2.64 24.2 2.70 25.6 2.64 0.066 0.936
B 45.2 3.39 39.7 3.10 45.5 3.15 42.3 3.18 0.550 0.578
C 29.0 3.03 38.3 2.93 27.3 2.73 33.5 2.91 0.441 0.644
D 16.2 2.48 19.1 2.26 18.2 2.33 18.2 2.33 0.327 0.722
E 42.0 3.00 39.7 3.00 36.4 3.00 39.4 3.00 0.000 1.000
F 25.8 2.77 34.2 2.82 33.4 2.61 32.1 2.76 0.282 0.755
G 25.8 2.74 37.0 2.85 33.4 2.76 33.6 2.80 0.094 0.911
H 22.6 2.71 28.8 2.70 33.4 2.73 28.5 2.71 0.005 0.995
I 32.3 2.94 53.4 3.41 27.3 2.88 42.3 3.18 2.534 0.083
J 29.1 2.97 46.6 3.22 30.3 2.94 38.7 3.09 0.668 0.514
K 29.0 2.90 42.5 3.18 33.4 2.85 37.2 3.04 0.920 0.401
L 38.7 3.32 63.0 3.89 48.5 3.30 54.0 3.62 3.457 0.034
a
Note Percentage of respondents who selected agree (4) and strongly agree (5)
A—Texts from influencers; B—Photos/images from influencers; C—Videos from influencers; D—
Live streaming from influencers; E—Recommendations of points of interest from influencers;
F—Recommendations of accommodations from influencers; G—Recommendations of dining
options from influencers; H—Recommendations of tourist activities from influencers; I—Posts
on the social media accounts of Melgaço Municipality; J—Information available on the website
of Melgaço Municipality; K—Information published in tourism-related social media groups;
L—Recommendations from friends and family

The results show similar levels of agreement among the three groups, with the
least valued aspect being the live streaming of influencers. The recommendation of
friends and family gathers a high level of agreement, especially for Generation Y,
whose agreement level is statistically higher than the other groups. For Generation
Y, the publication on Melgaço Municipality’s social media is also important.

33.5 Conclusions

The Internet is undoubtedly the most important means of communication after the
invention of the telephone. The value of the internet, from being a source of research
to data collection, makes work faster and more efficient [24].
After the pandemic and the consequent slowdown in tourism, various brands
had the opportunity to innovate and immerse themselves in the highest possible
technological level, which became a solution for destinations [25].
33 The Perception of Tourists Regarding the Importance of Influencers … 425

We are in a digital world where some people have the power to inspire and
influence others who end up becoming their followers.
The present study aimed to assess the perception of the importance of influencers
in shaping the image of a tourist destination, more precisely the tourist destination of
Melgaço–Peneda-Gerês National Park. It is also aimed to understand the factors that
motivated the respondents’ last visit to the Melgaço area and the degree of influence
exerted by an influencer in their choice of visitation, as well as the power exerted
over tourists’ purchasing behavior in the region. For this purpose, an online survey
was conducted, sent to respondents through social media, specifically Facebook,
Instagram, and LinkedIn, and also distributed via email through a link to the Google
Forms survey platform. The survey consisted of 21 questions divided into the research
topic, the impact of influencers, and the respondent’s profile.
According to the results, respondents from all three generations agreed that an
influencer is someone who shares their experiences on social media, and the chosen
criterion for being a good digital influencer is related to the quality of the content
they share.
Influencers have emerged to create content in areas where they have expertise,
producing digital content and changing brand marketing [11]. They have come
to inspire consumer decision-making. They are digitally followed by people with
similar interests [3]. The positive bond created by influencers with consumers [7, 21],
regarding tourist destinations (Q1.4), for Generations X and Y, is achieved through
the sharing of photos/images and text with information. The younger generation
preferred the sharing of destination videos.
All three generations agreed that with the advancement of technology, there has
been a change in the marketing strategies of tourist destinations (Q1.5), with greater
interactivity [15]. This digital impact on businesses, as per the literature review,
has compelled brands to change their marketing strategies [20], leaving outdated
strategies behind to find their place in the media and interact with their target audience.
This positive marketing, according to [26] in favor of society, creates value not only
for the company but also for customers and everyone else [20].
Generations Y and X have been more influenced to visit a tourist destination by
influencers (Q1.6). Generation Z does not place the same level of trust in opinions
shared by tourist influencers about a destination (Q1.7) and tends to be influenced
by other variables, lacking the trust placed by Generations Y and X, who already
have a trust bond [21] due to the information shared when making a decision [16]
regarding a visit to a tourist destination.
Most respondents find content shared through lived experiences, as if telling a
story, attractive (Q1.8). Through the dynamism in sharing content, products/services,
there is interaction with social media consumers, and they engage and feel included
in this sharing and end up becoming part of that story [1].
All three generations engage in sharing on social media (Q1.9), with Generation Z
doing so more frequently. Through technology, Generation Z shares new experiences
in a tourist destination with the world [23]. Generation Z tends to use Instagram,
while Generations Y and X prefer Facebook (Q1.10). All three generations agree
that online sharing can promote a brand of a tourist destination (Q1.11).
426 G. Xavier et al.

Respondents agree that influencers are a marketing strategy (Q1.12), with Gener-
ation Z attracted to seductive experiences. In the tourism sector, all three generations
believe that a brand can differentiate the product to the point of influencing the choice
of a tourist destination (Q1.13). Experiences lived by the public are distributed online,
stimulating the choice of a tourist destination or merely the imagination of the tourist
[27]. The persuasion of the message is evaluated based on the quality of the argument,
credibility, attractiveness, and perception of the source [14].
Most respondents are not familiar with or have not heard of the Discover Melgaço
brand (Q1.14). However, when presented with images from the marketing campaign
(Q1.15), the majority of respondents from Generations Y and X expressed a desire
to visit the region.
Regarding the decision to visit Melgaço (Q2.1), the generations agree with recom-
mendations from friends and family, especially Generation Y, which also values the
publication on the social media accounts of Melgaço Municipality.
The results provide insight into the factors that motivated the visitation of a tourist
destination. It can also be observed that influencers have persuasive arguments and,
according to the respondents, have changed the marketing strategies of businesses.
However, when asked if they have been influenced to visit a tourist destination, there
was no agreement in the responses.
The entire structure of consumer travel planning is primarily done online [13],
and in the decision-making process, marketing invests in an influencer as a strategy
to persuade their followers in the intention to purchase [14].
The present study found that the e-WOM-generated content [28] is not having
an effect on the Melgaço region, neither in terms of motivation to visit nor in the
perception of the Discover Melgaço brand. This could be addressed more effec-
tively to reach a larger number of consumers through influencers [10]. Despite the
investment that the municipality of Melgaço has made in recent years in digital
marketing, the results are still far below expectations, given the limited number of
respondents who were familiar with the municipality and its brand. Nevertheless, we
believe that the characteristics of this destination, focused on adventure and nature,
are appealing to tourists who are heavy users of social media and new technologies,
so the commitment to their use should continue.
As a limitation of this research, during the empirical study, due to the COVID-19
pandemic and the slow return of tourism, it was not possible to collect exclusive infor-
mation from visitors to the municipality of Melgaço. This information would have
been important to establish a tourist profile and even make a comparison between
high and low seasons with the involvement of influencers in these visits. Such infor-
mation could help the municipality plan strategies to attract more tourists and address
the issue of seasonality.
Future research could explore other tourist destinations and/or destination brands.

Acknowledgements UNIAG, Research and Development Unit funded by FCT—Foundation for

Science and Technology, Ministry of Science, Technology, and Higher Education, under the scope
of project UIDB/04752/2020 and UIDP/04752/2020.
33 The Perception of Tourists Regarding the Importance of Influencers … 427

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910729
Chapter 34
Social Media and the Growth
of E-commerce—Multiple Case Studies:
MusaMakeup and CRU Ecoliving

Ana Paula Camarinha, António Abreu , and Rafaela Ferreira

Abstract In today’s digital age, social media (SM) have emerged as a powerful
force, transforming communication and social interactions on a global scale. At
the same time, the fast growth of electronic commerce (EC) has revolutionized the
way organizations operate and how consumers participate in online transactions.
The integration of SM with EC has created a dynamic scenario that presents new
opportunities and challenges for organizations seeking to take advantage of digital
platforms to grow and succeed. This article aims to explore and analyze the impact
of SM on EC by examining the multifaceted relationship between the two domains.
By conducting multiple case studies of two Portuguese companies, using qualita-
tive methodology with document analysis and structured interviews, we delved into
the various ways in which SM influences and impacts on the overall growth of EC.
This study aims to reveal strategic implications for organizations, providing recom-
mendations for taking advantage of SM to optimize EC performance. Through a
multidisciplinary approach, combining marketing, communication, and technology
strategies, this article contributes to the existing body of knowledge, promoting a
deeper understanding of the transformative role of social media in promoting EC
growth.

A. P. Camarinha (B) · A. Abreu

CEOS. PP, IPolytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Abreu
e-mail: [email protected]
A. P. Camarinha
SIIS—Social Innovation and Interactive Systems, Polytechnic of Porto, Porto, Portugal
R. Ferreira
Porto Accounting and Business School, Porto, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 429
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_34
430 A. P. Camarinha et al.

34.1 Introduction

In recent years, SM have revolutionized the way we communicate, connect, and

consume information. Online platforms have become an integral part of our daily
lives, influencing the way we interact with friends, family, and brands. At the same
time, the rise of EC has transformed the traditional business landscape, offering
consumers convenient and affordable ways to shop online. As these two domains
have evolved, the intersection of SM and EC has created new opportunities and
challenges for companies looking to harness the power of digital connections.
Today, we live in an interconnected world, where SM have become integral
platforms for communication, information sharing, and consumer engagement. The
convenience and accessibility of these platforms have enabled consumers to discover
new products, seek recommendations, and make purchasing decisions in an increas-
ingly digitally centered way. Consequently, organizations have begun to take a proac-
tive approach to harnessing the power of these networks to attract more, engage, and
convert potential customers [7].
At the same time, we are experiencing the transformation and growth of EC, which
has fundamentally changed the way we shop and conduct business transactions [5].
EC refers to the buying and selling of goods and services over the Internet, reducing
the need for physical stores and allowing organizations to reach a much wider, global
customer base [5]. Consumers now have convenience and accessibility when it comes
to purchasing products and services. This change in consumer behavior has led
organizations to adapt and adopt EC as a means of expanding their reach, increasing
sales, and promoting customer loyalty.
The aim of this study is to shed light on the impact that SM can have on the
growth of EC, focusing on two Portuguese organizations, MusaMakeup, and CRU
Ecoliving, which operate in this sector. By investigating the interaction between these
two domains, it is intended to provide information on the mechanisms through which
SM influence the growth and success of EC ventures. Using a qualitative research
approach to answer the research question “What is the impact of Social Media on
the growth of E-commerce and how can it be used to boost business success?”,
a study based on structured interviews and document analysis was carried out that
delves into the dynamics between SM and EC, exploring the strategies, opportunities,
and best practices found by the selected organizations. By uncovering mechanisms
through which SM influences the growth of EC, this research aims to contribute to
the growing body of knowledge in the field of digital communication and provide
useful information for organizations navigating the evolving landscape of EC in the
age of SM. The results of this study not only contribute to existing knowledge, but
also provide practical implications for companies looking to improve their digital
presence and drive EC growth in an increasingly competitive market.
34 Social Media and the Growth of E-commerce—Multiple Case Studies … 431

34.2 Literature Review

The EC landscape has been completely changed by SM. They have transformed the
way companies approach EC, from the way they market their products to the way
they engage with customers and build their brand.
To put this into context, SM are online platforms that allow users to create and share
content, such as text, images, and videos, with their network of followers or friends.
These platforms often have features that allow users to interact with each other,
such as comments, likes, and messages. Some popular examples include Facebook,
Instagram, Twitter, TikTok and LinkedIn. SM have become an integral part of modern
society, with billions of users around the world using it to stay connected with friends
and family, share information, news and express themselves creatively. It has also
become a working tool, essential for companies to reach and engage with customers,
as well as to promote their products and services [8].
The EC appeared in 1995 in the United States of America, and this need arose
for the creation of Business to Consumer businesses. It also arose due to the need to
update electronic business, as it allowed for the possibility of all kinds of transactions.
E-commerce is called electronic commerce as soon as a transaction is made digitally
and online. It also consists of all the activities of a company, but always implies
that there have been transactions, discriminating the area in which it operates or the
market of the company that is carrying them out [6].
SM have thus made it possible to positively influence E-commerce, used as one
of the main resources for companies’ Marketing and Communication. Neil Patel [7]
highlights the importance of social proof in driving E-commerce sales through SM.
Social proof is the psychological phenomenon in which people are more likely to
make a decision based on the actions and opinions of others. In the context of E-
commerce, social proof can take many forms, examples such as customer reviews,
SM likes and shares, among others. According to Patel [7], social proof is particu-
larly important in the age of SM, where consumers are constantly bombarded with
marketing messages and product recommendations. By taking advantage of social
proof, EC companies can build trust with potential customers. Social proof can also
be used to boost EC sales through SM by encouraging customer reviews and testi-
monials. When consumers see positive reviews from other people who have bought
and used a product, they are more likely to feel confident about making a purchase
themselves. EC companies can also use SM to showcase these reviews and testimo-
nials, sharing them on their networks and website, to help build trust with potential
customers.
One of the main reasons why SM has influenced E-commerce is through the rise
of influencer marketing [4]. According to Holmes [4], SM influencers have become
“the new celebrities,” with their recommendations carrying significant weight among
their followers. As a result, many EC companies are now partnering with digital influ-
encers to promote their products and reach new audiences. Influencer marketing is
a powerful way of leveraging social proof to drive sales. When an influencer recom-
mends a product or brand, their followers are more likely to trust and be influenced
432 A. P. Camarinha et al.

by their recommendation [6]. Platforms such as Instagram and YouTube have created
a class of influencers—individuals with a large following who can promote products
and services to their fans [1]. EC companies have increasingly turned to these influ-
encers as a way of reaching new audiences and increasing sales, often offering them
free products or financial compensation in exchange for promoting their products [1].
SM are now playing a more active role in companies, as they have started to be used
as virtual shop windows. Platforms such as Instagram and Pinterest allow companies
to showcase their products in a highly visual way, and users can click to buy directly
from the platform. This has made it easier for companies to reach customers and boost
sales through SM [4]. These platforms are increasingly being used to personalize the
EC experience through the growth of social commerce. Platforms such as Facebook
and Instagram have introduced new features that allow users to make purchases
directly from the app, bypassing traditional E-commerce websites, thus creating
new opportunities for companies to sell products [1]. By leveraging data on customer
interests and preferences, companies can tailor their marketing messages and product
recommendations to individual users. This helps to create a more engaging and
personalized shopping experience, which can lead to greater customer loyalty and
increased sales.
In order to be able to measure the success of this investment in SM, the importance
of analyzing these platforms stands out. By tracking metrics such as engagement,
number of clicks and conversion rates, companies can gain valuable insights into
what is working (and what isn’t) in their Social Media Marketing and E-commerce
efforts. This allows companies to refine their strategies and optimize their campaigns
for better results. As EC continues to grow, SM will play an increasingly important
role in shaping its future [4].
SM can be a powerful tool for EC companies in many ways. One of the main
benefits of SM for EC is the ability to reach new audiences and expand the customer
base. Examples such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter have millions of users,
and companies can use targeted advertising and other strategies to reach potential
customers who might not otherwise have heard of that brand. SM can also be used
to promote engagement and create a more personalized shopping experience for
customers. EC companies can use SM to share product updates, promotions and
other content that helps build a relationship with customers and keep them engaged
with the brand. In addition, by collecting data on customer interests and preferences,
companies can tailor their marketing messages and product recommendations to indi-
vidual users, creating a more personalized and relevant shopping experience. Another
key benefit, according to the authors, is the ability to facilitate social proof [2]. Like
Patel [6], the authors point out that by encouraging customers to leave their opin-
ions and share their experiences with a product or brand on SM, EC companies can
build trust and credibility. SM can also be used as a customer service tool, allowing
companies to respond quickly and effectively to customer questions and complaints.
By providing timely and helpful support through SM, EC companies can create a
positive customer experience that builds loyalty and leads to repeat business [2].
34 Social Media and the Growth of E-commerce—Multiple Case Studies … 433

SM can also be considered a strong tool for building brand awareness and loyalty,
with companies using these platforms to showcase their products and build a relation-
ship with their followers. By sharing high-quality content, responding to customer
questions and feedback, and engaging in conversations with the public, EC compa-
nies can build a strong and loyal customer base that is more likely to return to
their store for future purchases. SM also has the capacity to drive engagement and
build a community around a brand. By creating a strong presence on SM, compa-
nies can foster a sense of community among their followers, with customers sharing
their experiences, offering feedback, and participating in discussions about the brand
and its products. This kind of involvement can help build trust and credibility with
customers, leading to repeat business and encouraging word-of-mouth referrals [5].

34.3 Methodology

The aim of this study is to identify the impact that SM can have on the growth of an
E-commerce business, not only in terms of sales, but also in terms of brand visibility,
positioning, and consumer confidence, and to show how we can make gains in an
E-commerce organization by investing in good SM management, among other things.
A multiple case study was used because it allows for a comparison of results. The
choice was also because it obtained more considerable and more convincing data, to
be able to find patterns between the organizations analyzed. When it came to which
organizations to contact, it was established that they had to be active on SM and
have EC businesses. The organizations chosen for this study were MusaMakeup and
CRU Ecoliving. They were selected based on their projects presented at events at
the Porto Accounting and Business School, providing valuable first-hand knowledge
and insights into their strategies.
MusaMakeup was the first to create a formula called “Creamy Glitter.” This
organization is a well-known brand in Portugal, where makeup artists and makeup
lovers, from the biggest influencers to the smallest ones, approve of the organization’s
products. This brand now has a wider range of products including the original Creamy
Glitters, Glitter Spray, Lip Glosses, and Glitter Pigments. Now, the organization is
expanding, opening its first physical space soon. The organization’s focus and source
of profit lies in online sales of products to the end consumer (B2C).
CRU Ecoliving is a brand of cork products focused on the sustainable children’s
decoration segment. The idea came from a Portuguese entrepreneur who grew up in
a family that worked with cork and decided to pass this passion on to her daughter.
Beatriz Almeida, founder of CRU, identified a gap in the market within the children’s
decoration sector in terms of sustainable and natural solutions, and took action to
develop her idea. This brand is fairly new, having only been created in 2021. The
organization is present on Facebook and Instagram and has its own website.
Bent Flyvjerg [3] discusses the aims of a case study and argues that case study
research can be used for a variety of purposes, including theory testing, theory
building, and theory reformulation. A case study is a research method that involves
434 A. P. Camarinha et al.

several strands, such as the detailed analysis of a particular case. The data collec-
tion chosen for this case study was document analysis and structured interviews.
Document analysis is a key component of case study research and can involve a
variety of materials, such as reports, memos, meeting minutes, financial statements,
among others [9]. As for the interviews, they were organized into parts: The first part
explained the objectives of the interview and the study and also clarified that all the
information obtained would only be used for this study; the second part of the inter-
views, in terms of the script, consists of questions relevant to the study, structured
and taking into account the interviewees; finally, the third and final part consists of
final considerations and expectations for the future. These interview scripts help to
assess various aspects related to the impact of SM on EC.

34.4 Results Analysis and Discussion

By examining the outputs provided by the two organizations under study, it was
possible to obtain valuable information to draw comparisons and identify more effec-
tive approaches to making the most of SM for EC growth. The two organizations
were compared based on various aspects, including feedback and customer rela-
tions, community, trust, visibility, strategies, sales, and content, and some interesting
observations emerged.
In terms of feedback and customer relations, both organizations prioritize main-
taining a close and interactive connection with their customer base. They under-
stand the importance of responding promptly to customer questions and comments
to ensure a high level of customer satisfaction. MusaMakeup emphasizes the
value of informal and direct communication, easily answering customers’ ques-
tions and making it easy for them to provide feedback. On the other hand, CRU also
places significant emphasis on customer feedback, using it to improve its products
and services, demonstrating a commitment to continuous improvement based on
customer need.
When it comes to building a community, both organizations recognize the impor-
tance of creating a strong connection with their audience and understand the power
of SM in cultivating a loyal and engaged customer base. MusaMakeup achieves this
by harnessing influencers and focusing on fostering a sense of community around
the brand. Similarly, CRU also understands the importance of building a commu-
nity, with a strong focus on creating content that resonates with its target audience,
fostering loyalty and brand advocacy.
Trust is a vital aspect of any successful business. MusaMakeup establishes trust by
providing exceptional customer service, going above and beyond to ensure customer
satisfaction. By treating every customer interaction with the utmost attention, a solid
foundation of trust is created. CRU, on the other hand, builds trust by actively
seeking customer feedback and incorporating it into its product development process,
demonstrating a commitment to meeting customer expectations.
34 Social Media and the Growth of E-commerce—Multiple Case Studies … 435

As for brand visibility, it plays a crucial role in the success of any business, and both
organizations use SM as a resource to increase theirs. MusaMakeup invests in creating
a strong organic presence and in influencers, cultivating proximity with its customers
through regular content updates and interactions. CRU invests in targeted ads and
campaigns, ensuring that their brand reaches the right audience. They understand the
value of creating engaging content that captures the attention of their target market.
By harnessing the power of SM, both organizations increase their visibility in the
digital landscape.
In terms of strategy and sales, both organizations demonstrate a proactive
approach. CRU invests in advertising and campaigns, with a special emphasis on
seasonal events, offering attractive incentives to customers, such as free shipping.
These initiatives have had a positive impact on their sales. Similarly, MusaMakeup
focuses on investing in influencers targeting its specific audience, which results in
increased sales and the acquisition of new customers. Both organizations understand
the importance of aligning their strategies with the objectives of driving sales growth
through SM channels.
Content creation is a fundamental aspect of marketing in SM. CRU tests different
types of content to identify what has the most impact on your audience. Based on
the feedback received during the testing phase, they refine their content strategy to
maximize impact and conversion. MusaMakeup places great emphasis on creating
both branded and user content, thus being able to adapt to the interests and preferences
of its target audience—by creating engaging and relevant content, both organizations
aim to captivate their audience and promote engagement.
Although there may be some differences in their specific approaches, both brands
understand the importance of taking advantage of SM to increase the growth of their
EC. They prioritize feedback, community building, trust, visibility, strategic plan-
ning, and the creation of impactful content. By implementing these strategies effec-
tively, both organizations witness positive impacts on their sales, customer relations,
and overall brand success.

34.5 Conclusions and Future Work

Throughout this study, we have witnessed the widespread influence of RS on CE, as

it has revolutionized marketing, sales, and customer engagement. The seamless inte-
gration of RS into the CE program has facilitated direct interactions between organi-
zations and their target audiences, allowing for greater brand visibility, personalized
messaging, and real-time customer feedback.
By focusing on two Portuguese organizations operating in the sector, valuable
information was obtained about their SR strategies, customer relations, and overall
performance.
The analysis revealed several conclusions that shed light on the impact of SM on
their growth. Both organizations recognize the indispensable role of SM in expanding
their reach, connecting with their target customers, and increasing sales. They have
436 A. P. Camarinha et al.

invested resources in developing comprehensive SM campaigns, taking advantage

of various platforms to interact with their audiences. This proactive approach has
led to greater brand visibility, better customer engagement, and a positive impact on
sales growth.
Going forward, it is important to recognize the constant evolution of SM and Ec.
Future studies can explore the emerging trends and technological advances shaping
the landscape, such as the rise of influencer marketing, the integration of augmented
reality and virtual reality experiences, and the impact of social commerce.
In conclusion, this research has demonstrated the profound impact of SM on the
growth of any EC business, managing to answer the specific research objectives,
verifying the influence of SM, the impact and involvement of SM in EC, exploring
the challenges of using SM as a working tool and recommendations for other orga-
nizations. By harnessing the power of these platforms effectively, organizations can
expand their brand presence, foster meaningful connections with customers and drive
sales growth. By continuously exploring and adapting to the ever-changing digital
landscape, organizations can capitalize on the immense opportunities offered by SM
to boost their EC growth and thrive in the dynamic digital age.

References

1. Agrawal, A.J.: How Social Media Has Changed E-Commerce. Forbes (2018, March 28).
https://www.forbes.com/sites/ajagrawal/2018/03/28/how-social-media-has-changed-e-com
merce/?sh=5d7117825c0c
2. Barker, M., Barker, D.I., Bormann, N.F., Neher, K.E.: Social media marketing: a strategic
approach. In: Cengage Learning (2018)
3. Flyvbjerg, B.: Case study. In: Denzin, N.K., Lincoln, Y.S. (eds.) The SAGE Handbook of
Qualitative Research, pp. 301–316. Sage Publications (2011)
4. Holmes, R.: How Social Media is Revolutionizing E-Commerce. Forbes (2018, March
19). https://www.forbes.com/sites/ryanholmes/2018/03/19/how-social-media-is-revolutioniz
ing-e-commerce/?sh=4d9cf4c74e39
5. Hyder, S.: The Benefits of Using Social Media for E-commerce. Entrepreneur (2020, October
29). https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/358352
6. Laudon, K.C., Traver, C.G.: E-commerce 2017: Business, Technology, Society, Thirteenth
Pearson, Boston (2017)
7. Patel, N.: How to Drive E-Commerce Sales Through Social Media Proof. Neil Patel (2019,
June 19). https://neilpatel.com/blog/social-media-proof/
8. Safko, L.: The Social Media Bible. Wiley, Hoboken (2010)
9. Tuten, T.L., Solomon, M.R.: Social Media Marketing (2018)
10. Yin, R.K.: Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods (6th ed.). SAGE
Publications (2018)
Chapter 35
Improving Accessibility as a Strategy
for Social Sustainability in Tourism
Supply

Dália Liberato , Pedro Liberato , Ana Vieira, Cristina Rodrigues ,

and Teresa Mendes

Abstract Tourism is a citizens’ right. Therefore, all of society has the right to
enjoy tourism experiences regardless of individual preferences. The increase in the
elderly population (+ 65 years), the high number of people with disabilities (physical,
hearing, intellectual, and cognitive) in the world and the growing desire to travel, has
accelerated the interest and concern for accessibility, to provide a better experience
to these tourists, increasing practices and strategies under the “Accessible and Inclu-
sive Tourism.” However, this tourism segment still has a long way to go, since many
barriers persist. The present research aims to analyze accessibility in cultural heritage.
For the collection and analysis of information, the qualitative method was selected,
exploratory descriptive study, based on semi-structured interviews conducted with
representatives of official entities, stakeholders, interpreter-guides, and associations
of two medium-sized destinations in Northern Portugal (Braga and Guimarães), with
the aim of assessing accessibility in the historical-cultural heritage in medium-sized
cities of particular relevance. The city of Guimarães was distinguished as a World
Heritage Site, being associated with the birth of Portugal as a nation, bringing an

D. Liberato (B) · P. Liberato · C. Rodrigues · T. Mendes

School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), and CiTUR
Researcher, Centre for Tourism Research, Development, and Innovation, Rua D. Sancho I, 981,
4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
P. Liberato
e-mail: [email protected]
C. Rodrigues
e-mail: [email protected]
T. Mendes
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Vieira
School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), Rua D. Sancho I,
981, 4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 437
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_35
438 D. Liberato et al.

enormous relevance in terms of valorization and empowerment of its historical and

cultural heritage by a segment that is increasingly more universal (accessible), having
here the concern to evaluate urban policies in terms of accessibility to heritage and
tourism destination. According to the typologies framed in Accessible Tourism, it is
possible to highlight that, regarding the percentage of tourists with reduced mobility
who visit tourism destinations, and, of these, which ones are interested in cultural
heritage and what degree of satisfaction they express, the two tourism destinations
analyzed do not account for this type of data, since it is a very residual public.
Regarding other types of disabilities, some projects have been developed. Consid-
ering the definition of strategies to implement in the access to heritage, it is possible
to evidence that, despite the improvements made by the destinations, the existing
cultural heritage is not completely accessible, existing mainly architectural barriers.
The results show that accessibility is being considered as a strategic opportunity for
the targeted tourism destinations, however these are still partially accessible, and it
is expected that the path to accessibility is a complex process and applicable in the
medium to long term.

35.1 Introduction

One of the most important sectors for the economy of a country is tourism, since it
generates employment, providing the development of destinations: creation of infras-
tructure, improvements in the transport network, and better provision of services. As
stated by [1], every Human Being has the right to participate in it. “Accessibility is
not a new concept” [2]. Throughout time, accessibility has been subject to several
definitions, and there is no single concept. However, the different concepts that have
been attributed to it over the past century are present in everyday life. The term
“accessibility” is not a static term, it has undergone several changes: regarding quan-
tification, local versus people measurement, and aggregation levels. However, this
has been defined as a set of policy and/or urban-environmental changes, i.e., acces-
sibility is a “specific, pre-defined agenda for reforming the physical environment”
[3].
According to [2], accessibility is the greater ease of attaining services, goods,
destinations, and activities, which are referred to as opportunities, and from the
perspective of [2] “despite their possible disabilities or impairments.” Accessibility
encompasses Universal Design, thus having a variety of services and products that
help combat the needs of individuals [2]. According to the European Concept of
Accessibility, this is a characteristic that exists in a certain place and that allows the
existence of a harmonious relationship between that place and the Human Being [4].
In the perspective of [5], accessibility indexes consist of two functions: attraction
(provides the quality and scope of opportunities that can be achieved with goods
and facilities in places) and resistance (consists of “making it difficult to move to
those goods and facilities”). By using these two rates, they allow weighing between
35 Improving Accessibility as a Strategy for Social Sustainability … 439

opportunities and activities and ease of being reached with respect to travel time and
transport costs [5].
This research aims, through a qualitative methodology, to discuss the relevance of
the applicability of accessibility and inclusion strategies for tourists in two medium-
sized cities, relevant in the Northern Region of Portugal. The main themes of acces-
sibility, inclusion, and the legislative framework for this segment are addressed, and,
the methodology used, the main results, and conclusions of the research are presented.

35.2 Literature Review

In order to make the environment more accessible, Universal Design is one of the most
well-known approaches/options [4]. Its main goal is to create products, services, and
environments accessible to all, i.e., that all human beings, regardless of their needs,
can enjoy them without the need for adaptation [4, 6, 7], always trying to simplify
life for everyone [8]. The concept of Universal Design encompasses all people of all
ages, abilities, and needs [8]. In today’s world, developing accessible infrastructure
is an icon of modernity [6]. However, according to [9], Universal Design needs a
transdisciplinary approach since it requires strong cooperation between the various
professionals from different areas. To carry out the planning, design, and implemen-
tation of accessible actions, it is necessary the full availability of the various actors
so that there is interaction between the different entities, users, and participants.
Objectives, concepts, and strategies need to be better defined, always considering
the several views of the stakeholders. National, regional, and local governments and
institutions in the European Union have started to consider the Universal Design
approach as a key factor for the social inclusion of people with special needs, thus
starting urban renewal, making infrastructures more accessible [9]. Universal Design
includes seven principles. These principles provide general guidelines for assessing
individual indicators of accessibility and also serve as a basis for better understanding
the extent to which services, products, and environments are accessible to all [4, 10].
Universal Design principles create economic improvements for both operators and
tourism destinations, generating sustainable outcomes for both people with needs and
the rest of the population, as they recognize the consequences of disability and aging
[8, 11]. According to [12], social sustainability happens when formal and informal
systems, structures, processes, and relationships actively contribute to the creation
of healthy communities. “Socially sustainable communities are equitable, diverse,
connected, democratic, and provide a good quality of life” [8].
As with any type of disability, people with reduced mobility encounter several
barriers in their daily lives, preventing them from “living the experiences of life” in a
similar way to people without disabilities. These barriers can be physical (sidewalks,
means of transport, infrastructures without accessibility, among others), social (atti-
tudes—discrimination, exclusion of people in social activities) and communication
(difficulty in providing and obtaining information) [13].
440 D. Liberato et al.

People with reduced mobility can be divided into three groups depending on
their degree of disability. In relation to the tourism industry, people who are in the
moderate and severe categories behave differently from those in the mild category.
The more severe the degree of disability, the more important environmental factors
and accessibility become. They seek quieter destinations that allow them to be more
independent and have easier access to activities. Travel agents have to take into
consideration that people with moderate or severe disabilities, when traveling, always
have a companion or family member [14].
“Among the motivations for traveling, those of being in a natural environment
and doing outdoor activities are considered important driving factors for people
with reduced mobility” [15, 16]. People with mobility disabilities can be a market
segment that boosts the profit of the tourism industry if it is well positioned, since
these consumers, even not being wealthy, have resources that allow them to travel
more often during the year (holidays, family visits, and medical care). Destinations
have to market their services and products to this tourist segment, since this type
of tourist is very loyal to destinations that meet their needs, i.e., destinations where
ramps are included, accessible facilities (rooms, bathrooms, elevators, among others),
but also the training of employees, so that they know how to act when they come
into contact with a person with disabilities, always anticipating their needs [14].
Marketing strategies should be designed and implemented considering people with
disabilities [14].
These tourists still face some barriers while traveling. Several authors have
addressed this topic indicating some barriers and solutions. [17] refers that the main
complaints are the absence of elevators, ramps without barriers, and in airport services
they highlight the long distance between parking spaces and terminals. [18] presents
several suggestions that can help increase the accessibility of hotel establishments
and services for people with motor disabilities. Some of the special needs are life-
long, i.e., permanent, but there are others that are temporary, such as a broken leg or
recovery from surgery [19, 20]. The World Health Organization (WHO) (2015) [21]
defines disability as a broad concept, since it encompasses impairments (problem
in the body or structure), participation restrictions (problems encountered by the
individual when participating in situations in daily life) and limitations in activities
(difficulties encountered when performing an activity). [22], say that the term “dis-
ability” is a term that covers various types of impairment, limitations, and restrictions
on participation in various activities of daily living. Defining “disability” accurately
is a difficult process, because there are many conditions in it [23]. Several authors,
regarding the tourism sector, state that heterogeneity is in the main motivations of
tourists with and without disabilities and that it can be found in the main disability
groups: hearing, physical, visual, intellectual, and cognitive [15]. In 2016, the World
Health Organization declared that disability is not just a health problem, but some-
thing complex that involves the complex connection between the characteristics of
the person’s body and the characteristics of the society in which it fits. To be able to
overcome the difficulties of people with disabilities, there is a need to remove social
and environmental barriers [19].
35 Improving Accessibility as a Strategy for Social Sustainability … 441

Anyone, at any point in their life, may have some type of disability (temporary
or permanent), preventing them from participating in various activities, environ-
ments, and circumstances [24]. Any type of disability affects people’s “concept of
life,” leading to an obvious need for adaptation. Disability leads to a decrease in
the person’s autonomy, causing a social disadvantage (locomotion, communication,
work, orientation in space and time, personal hygiene, among others) [1]. However,
like any other individual, people with disabilities are also entitled to enjoy social
equality and civil rights [1, 25].
Several authors throughout the ages have approached the subject of disability.
According to [26], the expression “people with special needs” should not be used,
since it covers all people who need special care, such as pregnant women. [27] says it
is necessary to be careful with the expressions used, in order not to create stereotypes,
prejudice, and stigmas, i.e., the expression “people with disabilities” is not correct. In
this same line of thought, [11, 24] emphasize that language control is very important
in order not to particularize the concept of disability or disabilities.
Over time, several models that define disability have been created: medical, social,
biopsychosocial, geographic, and economic. Each Disability Model was based on
different paradigms, which influenced the actions related to accessibility in infras-
tructures, public spaces, and tourism services, since the existing offer comes from
how service providers understand disability [21]. The most addressed models are
the medical and social models, which are presented as opposing concepts [21, 28].
However, with the increase in tourism supply and travel, different approaches to lived
experiences will develop, such as the biopsychosocial, geographic, and economic
models [21].
There are several types of barriers, these being: physical, technical, social,
economic, and lack of information [6, 29]. These barriers affect many social groups:
the elderly, people with disabilities (permanent or temporary), families with young
children, people at risk of social exclusion (e.g., immigrants) [6]. This is in line
with the perspective of [30] who reiterates that “lack of accessibility creates social
inequality.”
According to [31], there are three types of barriers to participation in tourism activ-
ities: Environmental (social space attitudes, architectural, and ecological factors);
Interactive (skills inconsistency and communication barriers); Intrinsic (associated
with the person’s physical, psychological, and/or cognitive condition).
However, other authors [23, 32–34] characterize these barriers as Structural (phys-
ical and material); Interpersonal (attitudes); and Intrapersonal (psychological and
characterized by disability). Intrapersonal or intrinsic barriers are defined as the
biggest problem to participation in tourism activity and social barriers as the most
negative [23]. When people with disabilities overcome all existing barriers, they want
and desire the same experiences as other people without disabilities, asking for similar
services and products [23]. Several authors developed multiple research projects
concerning the barriers that exist in the tourism industry. According to Loredana
et al. [35] in tourism the main barriers are divided into two topics: environment
and social barriers. Regarding the environment are activities in tourism destinations,
communications, infrastructure, and transport, planning and reservations. In social
442 D. Liberato et al.

barriers: attitudes, low level of awareness of accessibility and low level of special
qualification for Accessible Tourism [35]. According to [6], technical and infor-
mation barriers are the main barriers that hinder the accessibility of the tourism
environment, especially for people with disabilities and the elderly. According to the
perspective of the United Nations [36], the obstacles encountered by people with
disabilities while traveling include untrained professionals, websites and reservation
services without accessibility, lack of accessible and inclusive airports, inaccessible
services, and infrastructure (restaurants, hotels, tourism attractions).
As previously mentioned, the number of people with special needs has been
increasing due to several factors: aging population, increased average life expectancy,
increase in chronic diseases, and low infant mortality rate [1, 24, 37]. According to
[36], in the European Union (EU) people with disabilities and elderly people (+65
years) represent 15% of the population. Taking this framework into consideration,
the tourism industry must react with strategies suitable for this important target
audience. Also, for [38], this type of tourist has been increasing, and in most cases,
these people travel with others who also enjoy tourism services, which cause an
increase in economic growth because of increased demand. The decision-making
process in the choice of destinations and tourism products, of this type of tourist, is
very different from that of a non-disabled tourist [29].
As in any field, in tourism, there needs to be inclusive language so that people
with special needs have access to the same opportunities and benefits as people
without special needs [39]. As previously stated, outdated terms can cause nega-
tive and inappropriate stereotypes, feelings, and/or attitudes [39]. Thus, the National
Disability Authority [39] advocates that “Person-First Language” should be adopted
when writing/talking about people with disabilities with the goal of representing
the “individuality, equality, or dignity” of these people. Terms such as “wheelchair,”
“disabled,” and “cripple” are no longer in use, having been replaced by “people
with disabilities” or “people who use a wheelchair.” “Person-First Language empha-
sizes the person, not the disability, and fosters positive attitudes toward people with
disabilities” [39]. People with disabilities need to be heard when planning accessible
development. They not only need to be a dialogue partner, but they also need to
have an influence on destination governance strategies and decision-making. Based
on that strategy, we will be developing and promoting a sustainable approach. For
destinations, listening to the experiences already made by this type of tourists will
help in the process of planning and serving this segment [30].
According to [40], in defining inclusive tourism there are seven different elements
that form the lines of inquiry. These elements can inform the limitations and potential
of tourism with the goal of generating socioeconomic impacts with more sustainable
and equitable outcomes. The first element refers to disadvantaged people as producers
of tourism, overcoming existing barriers; the second element, disadvantaged people
as consumers of the tourism sector, overcoming existing barriers; the third element,
self-representation in an appropriate and dignified way, so that they can tell their
story and culture; the fourth element, power relations within and outside tourism; the
fifth element, greater participation in decision-making in the tourism sector; the sixth
element, change in the tourism sector with the aim of providing more opportunities
35 Improving Accessibility as a Strategy for Social Sustainability … 443

and involving more people; finally, the seventh element, promoting understanding
and mutual respect. The application of these seven elements allows us to assess the
degree of inclusion of the destination.
Part of the world population that intends to travel has some kind of disability
(motor, cognitive, visual, or hearing), and the tourism industry realizing the potential
of new technologies has introduced them as a valence for the activity [41, 42].
With the development of digital platforms, such as applications, websites about
destinations and social networks, a wider range of opportunities has been opened,
since it allows people with disabilities to know right away if the destination/activity
is or is not accessible to their characteristics [42]. New Technologies, Internet, and
Marketing are crucial for the participation of people with disabilities in the tourism
industry, as it is from these valences that the first contact is made when looking for
information about the destination and/or activities, from planning or even during the
trip [43]. One of the marketing strategies for capturing the target audience’s attention
is the use of appealing images. An image can influence people’s opinions, motivate
participation in new activities, change mindsets, and increase willingness to travel,
including people with disabilities [43].
Local, regional and national development and tourism strategies (supported by
political and economic agendas), over time, have increasingly produced on the
heritage agenda: “how to use and sell heritage to national and international tourists,
how to strengthen the positive image of the country and how to increase revenues”
[44]. Heritage is divided into two groups: tangible and intangible. In cultural tourism,
heritage includes both tangible and intangible elements [45].
With the increase in the aging population and the large number of people with
some kind of disability, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
[46] stated that it is important for any human being to participate in social life, and
there is a need to reflect on accessibility in the various cultural spaces, emphasizing
as a key point the principle of cultural accessibility. Article 30 refers to “Participation
in cultural life, recreation, leisure and sport,” and this article states that the signatory
states recognize the right of people with disabilities to participate in all cultural
activity and that they may have access to theaters, monuments, museums, among
others, just like any non-disabled person [46]. The UN Convention considers the
individual characteristics that each person with disabilities has as it relates to the
environmental barriers, they may encounter that may limit them in participating in
cultural life. Cultural heritage, art galleries and museums, have a high interest in
the use of accessibility strategies with the aim of improving participation for all.
Previously, studies were developed around the factors that should be considered
when developing and building accessible environments for people with disabilities,
mainly for motor and sensory impairments. However, over the years, research has
focused on recognizing accessibility and expanding it across the various dimensions
[46].
On July 13, 2021, the ISO Standard 21,902:2021—Tourism and related services—
Tourism accessible to all was published. This standard aims to establish the require-
ments and provide guidelines for Accessible Tourism for all, with the main objec-
tive of ensuring access and enjoyment of tourism for all people, regardless of their
444 D. Liberato et al.

limitations and abilities. The document provides information on strategies, policies,

products, and services and infrastructure and is aimed at all stakeholders, both for
the public and private sectors (ISO 21902:2021, 2021).
The city of Braga, being the largest city in the Minho region in Northern Portugal,
is considered the oldest city in the country and one of the oldest Christian cities in the
world. It is located in the northern region of Portugal [47]. It has also been considered
as one of the youngest and most entrepreneurial cities in Portugal. It was nominated
in 2012 as the European Youth Capital and in 2016 as the Ibero-American Youth
Capital and distinguished as Best European Destination in 2021.
The city of Guimarães is associated with the birth of Portugal, being considered
the “Birthplace City,” since, around 1109, the first king of Portugal, D. Afonso
Henriques, was born there [48, 49]. Guimarães is a medium-sized city located in
Northern Portugal [50], a tourism destination with a wide cultural and heritage wealth,
featuring traditional infrastructures between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries
[49, 50].
This study is presented as a descriptive exploratory study and uses a qualitative
methodology. It is an analysis of accessibility in historical and cultural heritage in
medium-sized cities, more specifically in Braga and Guimarães. “Qualitative research
is a well-established approach to investigating phenomena in the social sciences”
[51]. Since the first decades of the twenty-first century, qualitative methodology
has gained more acceptance, as this method can provide rich, in-depth knowledge
by pertinently presenting and debating viewpoints regarding the investigated topic
[51, 52].

35.3 Methodology

This study presents itself as a descriptive exploratory study and uses a qualitative
methodology. It is an analysis of the accessibility of cultural-historical heritage in
medium-sized cities, the cities of Braga and Guimarães, located in the Northern
Region of Portugal.
To answer the question previously presented, it is necessary to define a general
objective, and eventually its division into specific objectives [53]. Therefore, the
study aims to analyze the accessibility of cultural-historical heritage in medium-
sized cities, more specifically in Braga and Guimarães. In the literature review, the
analysis regarding the accessibility in cultural heritage in the cities of Braga and
Guimarães is addressed and demonstrated (Table 35.1).
From this perspective, and prior to the application of the interview, participants
were asked to fill in socio-demographic data. In addition, the questions were divided
into the various specific objectives established and were also based on the literature
review, as given in Table 35.2.
This study was electronically disclosed directly to the target audience, seeking
the participation of the various actors who were able to conduct the interview. The
participants were explained the objective of this study and its purpose and were asked
35 Improving Accessibility as a Strategy for Social Sustainability … 445

Table 35.1 General and specific objectives

General objective Assessing accessibility in historical and cultural heritage in medium-sized
cities
Specific objective Evaluate urban policies in terms of accessibility to heritage and tourism
destination

Table 35.2 Theoretical background of the interview

Question Interview questions Theoretical
foundation
Objective 1: Evaluate urban policies in terms of accessibility to heritage and tourism destination
Q1 What do you understand by Accessible Tourism? [8, 54–57]
Q2 Can the aspects associated with accessibility be seen as [59–71]
opportunities for tourism destinations? Why?
Q3 According to ISO Standard 21902: 2021, do you consider that the ISO 21902:
tourism destination (Braga/Guimarães) is an accessible destination? 2021, 2021
Q4 According to the projects developed at the tourism level in the city Authors
of Braga/Guimarães, is accessibility being considered? If not, what
could be improved?

to schedule the interviews. These took place during the months of July, August,
and September 2022 and were conducted in person, in writing or by video call.
This research considers theoretical saturation, i.e., from a given moment, when the
interviews were conducted, there will be no more information to add on the theme,
and at that moment they were concluded (Table 35.3).

Table 35.3 Interviews

Interviewed organization Date Duration
Braga Cathedral’s Treasure-Museum 06.7.2022 In writing
Braga City Hall 08.7.2022 In writing
D. Diogo Sousa Museum of Archeology Diogo de Sousa 11.7.2022 00:20:06
Biscainhos Museum 14.7.2022 00:22:15
Dukes of Bragança Palace 18.7.2022 00:18:30
Guimarães Castle 18.7.2022 00:27:08
Alberto Sampaio Museum 20.7.2022 00:33:37
Regional Directorate of Culture of the North 02.8.2022 00:35:46
Certified Guiding Interpreter 29.8.2022 00:45:03
Monastery of São Martinho de Tibães 31.8.2022 In writing
Certified Guiding Interpreter 05.09.2022 00:22:55
Certified Guiding Interpreter 17.09.2022 00:23:03
CERCI Braga 21.09.2022 00.20.56
446 D. Liberato et al.

After conducting the interviews, the next step consists of analyzing and inter-
preting the data collected, in three phases. In the first phase, the synthesis of infor-
mation, i.e., the selection of the elements collected during the interviews carried
out through annotations and transcriptions [71]. Since the data collection was done
through interviews, their transcription was carried out to identify the important
content for the research. However, the researcher using qualitative methodology
needs to create formats for displaying the data [71]. In this sense, a document was
created considering the questions defined in the interview, from which the data were
collected.

35.4 Results

The final objective of the data analysis is to evaluate the accessibility of cultural-
historical heritage in medium-sized cities, specifically in Braga and Guimarães. The
analysis of the collected data will be carried out through content analysis.

35.4.1 Urban Policies in Terms of Accessibility to Heritage

and Tourism Destination

Regarding urban policies, in terms of accessibility to heritage and tourism destination,

there will be an analysis regarding the definition of Accessible Tourism, accessibility:
whether it is seen as an opportunity and whether it is being considered in tourism
destinations and, finally, whether the destinations under analysis are accessible.

35.4.1.1 Braga

a. Definition of Accessible Tourism

According to the interviewees, Accessible Tourism is an integrative type of tourism

(I.4), which involves equality processes (I.2), being designed for everyone (I.9),
giving people the possibility to enjoy tourism services independently with equity
and dignity (I.2), allowing access to the most varied heritage enjoyment experiences
(cultural, gastronomic, natural, among others) (I.10).
b. Accessibility as an Opportunity for Tourism Destinations
There is agreement on the fact that accessibility is seen as an opportunity for tourism
destinations, since it is a factor conducive to personal development (I.3) and employ-
ability, giving the possibility of expanding the target audience. Tourism destinations,
when implementing accessibility in their services, try to develop a set of infras-
tructure improvements with equipment, means of communication and marketing that
35 Improving Accessibility as a Strategy for Social Sustainability … 447

make it possible to make known the mission, vision, and objectives, with the purpose
of welcoming everyone with quality (I.10).
“European studies point out that in the year 2025 the majority of the population
will be people between 40 and 60 years old, which will translate into a movement of
more than 2000 million international trips. Therefore, Accessible Tourism and the
aging population will be strong growth points” (I.2). “Accessible Tourism generates
billions of euros per year, represents 3–4% of the EU’s gross income, i.e., it is
a winning strategy, not only financially, but also in terms of employability” (I.9).
“When we talk about accessibility we are talking about the elimination of physical
barriers” (I.8).
c. According to ISO Standard 21902: 2021, Tourism Destinations Are Acces-
sible
When implementing ISO Standard 21902: 2021, it is possible to verify that, according
to the interviewees, Braga tourism destination has made efforts to become more
accessible, being a welcoming and integrating city (I.5), however it is partially acces-
sible (I.10). Some of the projects developed in the city of Braga to make it more
accessible were: ramps; streets with regular sidewalks that become easily acces-
sible; lowered and leveled crosswalks; the existence of some illuminated, tactile and
sound signaling; improvement and rehabilitation interventions in some museums
in order to improve accessibility (I.2/I.8/I.9), such as the Museum of Biscainhos
where an elevator is being installed. The more recently built museums, such as the
Museum of Archeology D. Diogo de Sousa, already have accessibility elements.
Besides museums and monuments, Braga organizes every year great events, such as
the Roman Braga, the White Night, or the Ouvidoria Festival, which are free events,
with the programming aimed at many kinds of public (I.10), including people with
disabilities.
d. Accessibility to Be Considered
As mentioned before, Braga cannot be said to be a completely accessible destination,
because there is a lack of coordinated national policy (planning, thinking and action)
(I.3) at the level of heritage with accessibility, which allows the permanence of
barriers: physical, economic, and social accessibility. Thus, it would be important
to make some improvements in the creation and development of adapted public
toilets, development of audio-guides and creation of places to pick up and drop off
passengers (I.3/I.8).
“We still think a lot about physical accessibility, but it is not only this one that is
in question” (I.8). “From the point of view of intellectual accessibility there is still a
long way to go, especially in people with special needs, in cultural elements. On the
part of the employees there is a will, but without a policy, the capacity of the heritage
in relation to accessibility is reduced” (I.4).
“In 2004 a city itinerary was created in “braille.” The tourism information office
has developed portable contents—the “Go More” project—that allows the visitor to
tour and learn everything he wants and be able to enjoy the existing cultural and
448 D. Liberato et al.

natural resources. Four Baroque itineraries adapted to people with reduced mobility
were created” (I.9).
“Accessibility, which is intended to be addressed here, concerns not only phys-
ical accessibility, but any specific characteristic that tourists may have: temporary
disability (accident victims, parents with infants and/or young children, advanced
stage of pregnancy); permanent or long-term disabilities (motor, sensory, or intel-
lectual disabilities); seniors; people with abnormal stature; or people with chronic
illnesses; and, accessible social conditions” (I.10).

35.4.1.2 Guimarães

a. Definition of Accessible Tourism

According to the participants, Accessible Tourism is a type of tourism or tourist

activity that is prepared to receive all kinds of tourists with the most varied limitations
(I.8), being accessible physically, emotionally, and visually (I.5), and the services
must be adapted or suitable for all types of visitors (I.9), but there are still many
gaps (I.11).
b. Accessibility as an Opportunity for Tourism Destinations
According to the interviewees’ opinion, accessibility can be seen as an opportunity
for tourism destinations, given the higher demand in this type of market (I.11). It is
everyone’s job to make the destination accessible by solving accessibility problems
(I.7).
“Tourism cannot ignore this kind of public. Communicational accessibility and
intellectual accessibility are less addressed, unlike physical accessibility which is
considered almost as a precondition for all the work that will be developed in the
future. In museums there is a greater concern for the way they communicate, so that
they are accessible to all people, regardless of their limitations/cognitive conditions”
(I.8).
“The better prepared destinations are able to gain more from this since they attract
more of this type of customer” (I.11).
c. According to ISO Standard 21902: 2021, Tourism Destinations Are Acces-
sible
Regarding Guimarães, the interviewees stated that the city is an accessible destina-
tion, and that there have been improvements. However, it depends on the place that
is visited (I.6), being considered partially accessible (I.11). One of the main causes
for non-adaptation in some monuments and museums is the destruction of space,
the “loss of essence,” as for example in Guimarães Castle, because by building a
structure you are destroying the space (I.7). The city of Guimarães has received the
label “Tur4All” (I.9) (“Accessible Portugal” developed a national project, with the
support of some organizations associated with the sector (Turismo de Portugal, IP),
which aims to provide information about the Accessible Tourism offer existing in
35 Improving Accessibility as a Strategy for Social Sustainability … 449

the country), being a relatively flat city, allowing feasibly make your route on foot
for those with reduced mobility or conditioned (I.9). Some of the city’s museums
and monuments already have some improvements regarding accessibility, such as
the Paço dos Duques de Bragança, where an elevator and ramps were installed (I.5)
so that people with reduced mobility can visit it in a safer and more dignified way.
Regarding public sector buildings, these, having the largest share of responsibility in
terms of urban policies and urban space (I.8), have emphasized accessibility, since
they are more recently built infrastructures.
“Heritage and culture often find it difficult to overcome barriers. In terms of
infrastructure, you often can’t do everything you would like to do and so you’re not
in an ideal situation yet. It’s a long-term process” (I.11).
d. Accessibility to Be Considered
There are still some barriers since ISO Standard 21902: 2021 is not fully applicable
(I.8). As in the city of Braga, Guimarães lacks adapted public toilets and local
businesses do not have wheelchair access (I.9). Thus, it would be necessary the
implementation of definitive or removable ramps, lowered crosswalks, models of
monuments for the blind or with information in “Braille” and the creation of places
for picking up and dropping off passengers (I.8/I.9).
“To take accessibility to the medium and long term, since the medium and long
term has already started, so the needs of that type of tourists have also started. This
way, we may even lose some demand because we are not able to respond to that
kind of needs in terms of accessibility, because we still think a lot about physical
accessibility, and it is not only the physical accessibility that is in question” (I.8).
Table 35.4 summarizes the urban policies in terms of accessibility to heritage and
tourism destination, according to the topics considered and the results obtained in
the cities framed in this research.

35.5 Conclusion

Accessibility has become one of the key issues in tourism today. It ensures that
all products, services, and environments are developed in a way that everyone can
use and benefit from [11]. The increasing aging of the world’s population and the
large number of people with special needs has fostered the creation of accessible
infrastructure and services to address barriers to accessing experiences [8, 54–59].
This is a very complex process that can only be achieved in the long term [9].
The present research aimed to evaluate urban policies in terms of accessibility to
heritage and tourism destination, based on the studies by [8, 54–59], and the ISO
Standard 21902: 2021 (2021).
Regarding the definition of Accessible Tourism, there was an agreement among
the various participants of the two cities, having been defined Accessible Tourism as
a type of tourism that offers all people the possibility to enjoy the services, products,
and environments designed, independently. In this sense, it is possible to fit the
450 D. Liberato et al.

Table 35.4 Summary regarding the urban policies in terms of accessibility to heritage and tourism
destination
Topics under review Braga Guimarães
Definition of Accessible Integrative Tourism (I.4) It is a type of tourism or tourist
Tourism It involves equality processes activity that is prepared to
(I.2) receive all kinds of tourists with
Designed for everyone (I.9) the most varied limitations (I.8)
Services should be adapted or
suitable for all types of visitors
(I.9)
Accessibility as an Accessibility is a factor It is everyone’s job to make the
opportunity for tourism conducive to development destination accessible by
destinations (I.3) solving accessibility problems
(I.7)
Framework of accessibility in Partially accessible city (I.10) It depends on the place you
Braga and Guimarães Welcoming and integrating visit (I.6)
destinations, under ISO city (I.5) Partially accessible city (I.11)
Standard 21902: 2021 “Loss of essence”—by building
a structure you are destroying
space (I.7)
Accessibility to be considered There is a lack of coordinated ISO 21902: 2021 does not
national policy (planning, apply completely in the city
thinking and action) (I.3) (I.8)

opinion of the interviewees into the definition of Accessible Tourism presented by

[8, 55, 56].
Accessibility can be considered as an opportunity (important and strategic factor)
for tourism destinations, in this way they agree with [5, 15] and with Decree-Law
163/2006 (2006). However, Braga and Guimarães are still two partially Accessible
Tourism destinations, since the process is long term, as emphasized by [5], being
necessary improvements in some respects, as the creation of places to pick up and
drop off passengers and lowered crosswalks, being necessary to apply measures and
strategies presented in ISO 21902: 2021 (2021).

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Chapter 36
Fashion as an Economic Sustainability
Indicator in Tourism Destinations’
Governance Through Business
Participation

Dália Liberato , Benedita Mendes , Elisa Alén , and Pedro Liberato

Abstract In the tourism sector, the hosting of events has been playing an increas-
ingly significant role in attracting visitors and differentiating between competing
destinations. Events play an important role in a destination’s marketing strategy.
There are several motivational typologies that induce the growth in the number of
participants in fashion events, among them getting to know designers, brands, and
new collections, as well as following the trends. Professional motivation is growing
as a result of participation and collaboration in the organization of the event itself,
or because they intend to get to know the work and stay updated on the strategies
used by partner companies and competitors in the sector, representing the place
and the moment where new trends are presented for the first time and the occasion
where partnerships and commercial exchanges between production, commercializa-
tion, and consumption areas take place. The industry strategy for the involvement
of all stakeholders in the organization of events associated with a large producing
region will emphasize the international involvement of participants, the international
competitiveness of the industry, and the tourism destination. It intends to stimulate
the region in the perspective of an economically sustainable model and integrate a
destination governance strategy associated with this industry. This research aims,
through the application of questionnaires to participants of fashion events held in the

D. Liberato (B) · B. Mendes · P. Liberato

School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), CiTUR Researcher
(Centre for Tourism Research, Development, and Innovation), Rua D. Sancho I, 981, 4480-876
Vila Do Conde, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
B. Mendes
e-mail: [email protected]
P. Liberato
e-mail: [email protected]
E. Alén
Faculty of Business Sciences and Tourism, University of Vigo, Ourense, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 455
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_36
456 D. Liberato et al.

city of Porto between the months of September 2019 and February 2020, to assess
the degree of participation, motivation for participation, evaluation of the experience
of participation in the event, and corresponding degree of satisfaction. The main
results highlight that fashion events can add value to the city of Porto and are directly
related to its image and personality as a city and its active, cultured, and cosmopolitan
lifestyle.

36.1 Introduction

Fashion events allow the different brands in the fashion industry to introduce
themselves to foreign markets by presenting collections that meet the needs of
their consumers. This knowledge of foreign markets often occurs through informal
conversations between buyers and journalists during fashion events [1–3].
Events can make destinations more attractive and active, as they break the routine
of a city [4–8] and allow the desired development of a place or region and its
several components [9–12]. In fact, hosting events allows the development of the
local community at the political, environmental, economic, and socio-cultural levels
[13–17], also enabling the increase of jobs and, consequently, the improvement of
the quality of life.
Fashion destinations are destinations recognized by their status [18] and, thus, can
be differentiated from their competitors, since they are not easily replaceable and have
unique functional and symbolic attributes [19] that make them world-renowned [20,
21]. An individual’s loyalty towards an event makes him or her express willingness
to participate in future editions of the event and to recommend the event to others
[16, 22]. Indeed, satisfied and loyal participants to an event show their willingness
to repeat the experience [23] and do so regardless of the location, the date, the
price, among other determining factors for those who participate for the first time
[24], because loyalty does not originates from the absence of alternatives, but from
the customer’s willingness to obtain products and services that they know and that
meet their expectations [25]. The relationships between the local actors of a tourism
destination allow its sustainable development, increase competitiveness, and ensure
the success of rejuvenation strategies [26, 27]. Thus, the continuous dialogue and
participation of all stakeholders in the organization of events is important [28], as it
will allow a regional development, which will be based on the quality of life of the
community (residents and visitors) [29].
This article aims, through the application of questionnaires to participants of
fashion events held in the city of Porto, between the months of September 2019 and
February 2020, to assess the degree of participation, motivation for participation,
evaluation of the experience of participation in the event, and corresponding degree
of satisfaction.
36 Fashion as an Economic Sustainability Indicator in Tourism … 457

36.2 Literature Review

To attract a large number of tourists and meet the needs and motivations of diverse
target audiences, it is important for Destination Marketing Organizations (DMOs)
and event organizes to work together in order to provide them with added value [30].
Indeed, the more appealing a tourist destination is, the higher the demand from
various market segments. The higher the perceived value associated with a destina-
tion, the greater the overall satisfaction with it [31]. Over time, local governments and
institutions began to realize the role of fashion as a creator of identity and strategic
advantage, since fashion events attract many visitors, promoting the aesthetic and
creative characteristics of a city [32] emerging as differentiating elements, capable
of adding value to a destination, in an increasingly competitive tourism market [33,
34]. Thus, fashion events become crucial in the process of promoting a tourism desti-
nation worldwide and attracting a high number of visitors [35] offering the city the
opportunity to achieve direct and indirect economic and social benefits [32, 36].

36.2.1 Motivation

Tourists and general consumers participate in events because they desire to experience
unique and memorable moments, as well as share them with friends, family, and other
individuals with common interests [37]. An event constitutes a strategically organized
experience aimed at creating an impact in the lives of each participant; therefore, it
is essential to understand the expectations of the participants to provide them with a
unique experience, ensuring their satisfaction and loyalty.
Motivation is the process that occurs prior to event participation and corresponds
to the individuals’ ness to participate in a specific event [16]. Motivation is based
on psychological factors that generate needs and expectations within individuals,
which, in turn, result in actions. If motivations are identified in advance, it is possible
to tailor the offering to the consumer’s needs and expectations [38].
Regarding fashion events, there is a wide range of motivations that contribute
to the growth in the number of participants, including getting to know designers,
brands, and new collections, as well as keeping up with trends. Many participants
are driven by professional reasons, as they collaborate in the organization of the
event itself or aim to familiarize themselves with the work and strategies employed
by colleagues and competitors in the industry [33]. Fashion events represent the
venue where new trends are first introduced and where partnerships and commercial
exchanges take place [39]. The primary motivation of fashion event organizers should
be the continuous improvement of event quality to enhance participant satisfaction
and loyalty [40].
458 D. Liberato et al.

36.2.2 Experience

Experiences are events that positively or negatively impact an individual and

remain stored in their memory [41] influencing their future behaviours. Schmitt
[42, 43] defined experiences as a means of providing sensory, emotional, cogni-
tive, behavioural, and relational values that enhance functional value. Experiences
are private and personal, and they are related to how individuals feel emotionally,
physically, intellectually, and spiritually [41–45]. An experience is considered better
when it is more personal, unique, and memorable and it should involve the sensa-
tions of the individual experiencing it [41]. A unique and memorable experience
will be forever remembered by an individual and will affect their future behaviour
[46]. Thus, authenticity is crucial as experiences are unique and based on personal
feelings, motivations, needs, and expectations [47, 48]. Getz [13] believes that expe-
riences encompass an individual’s motivations, expectations, and attitudes towards
an event, as well as their reflections after the events, which will determine their
future behaviour. Every event, regardless of its type, is built upon the experience,
and its main objective is to provide participants with moments, emotions, and positive
sensations [37].
Mehmetoglu and Engen [49] argues that the evaluation of the experience should be
based on the sensations, learnings, and emotions that an event allowed its participants
to feel, as well as the attitudes they had before, during and after the event took
place. Wood and Masterman [50] lists seven attributes of events that enhance the
quality of the experience, including involvement, interaction, immersion, intensity,
individuality, innovation, and integrity.

36.2.3 Satisfaction

The development of unique and memorable experiences requires careful strategic

management by both fashion event organizers and Destination Marketing Organiza-
tions (DMOs). However, the provision of these experiences influences the behaviour
of the target audience, who will exhibit greater satisfaction and loyalty towards the
fashion events they participate in and the destinations where they take place.
Satisfaction is defined by [51] as the outcome of the difference between expec-
tations and the performance of the experience. Consumer satisfaction entails an
evaluation of the overall experience [52]. According to [53], satisfaction is based on
the comparison between the performance of a product/service and the customer’s
prior expectations, each experience is unique, and therefore, after each encounter,
individuals will feel varying levels of satisfaction or dissatisfaction, depending on
whether their expectations were met or not. Thus, satisfaction corresponds to how
a lived experience evokes positive feelings in the visitor, based on past experiences
and a range of conscious and unconscious influences [54]. Satisfaction, concerning
events, results from the comparison between participants’ expectations and their
36 Fashion as an Economic Sustainability Indicator in Tourism … 459

actual experience [55]. It relates to the perceived quality of the event by its partici-
pants and is dependent on the experience [16, 56]. The satisfaction of an event is not
solely tied to its core elements but also to its secondary elements and characteristics
[53, 57].
Therefore, in the case of fashion events, participants’ satisfaction is not only
connected to the fashion shows and exhibitor spaces but also to other factors such
as location, accessibility, and support services, among others. Through evaluation,
it is possible to determine the competitive advantage or disadvantage of an event
compared to its competitors since satisfaction influences loyalty and, in that sense,
the willingness to participate again, as well as to make positive comments about it.

36.3 Methodology

The present research work addresses fashion events as a driver of tourism develop-
ment in the city of Porto, and thus, its objective is to understand this development.
According to [58], tourism research involves formulating questions and systemat-
ically collecting information capable of answering those questions, as well as orga-
nizing and analysing data to understand patterns of behaviour and trends that enable
a better understanding of tourism development and predict various alternative future
scenarios.
Therefore, to fulfil the objective of this research and considering the approach
to the problem, the adopted methodology will be quantitative, using a questionnaire
survey. The questionnaire survey is a method used when the researcher believes
that the phenomenon under study can be better approached through the informa-
tion provided by individuals in the population in question. Thus, a questionnaire
survey consists of presenting a set of questions to a specific group of individuals
regarding their perspectives and behaviours towards the situation or problem that the
researcher intends to study [59]. Some of the advantages of this technique include
the ability to reach many people, ensuring the collection of a great amount of data,
ensuring participant anonymity, obtaining quick and concise responses, reducing the
risk of distortion, and facilitating comparison between the responses of different
respondents.
To gather more concise and systematic information, the choice was made to
formulate a questionnaire with closed-ended questions. Two types of closed-ended
responses were used in the questionnaire: single-choice questions and Likert scale
questions. In the present questionnaire, five-point scales were used, and the different
response options are presented in Table 36.1.
The questionnaire begins with a brief description of the study and informed
consent, in which respondents can learn about the research objectives, the importance
of their participation for the success of the study and be informed about the anonymity
and exclusive use of the responses for academic purposes. The questionnaire is
divided into seven parts, as given in Table 36.2.
460 D. Liberato et al.

Table 36.1 Likert scale categories used in the questionnaire

1 2 3 4 5
Not important at all Not very important Important Very important Extremely important
Not likely Unlikely Probable Quite likely Very likely
Disagree Partly agree Agree Strongly agree Totally agree
Very dissatisfied Dissatisfied Satisfied Very satisfied Extremely satisfied
Source Authors

Table 36.2 Structure of the questionnaire

Part 1 Individual tourist profile
Part 2 Travel characteristics
Part 3 Event (knowledge and experience of previous editions’ participation)
Part 4 Motivation
Part 5 Experience
Part 6 Satisfaction
Part 7 Loyalty (regarding the event and the destination)
Source Authors

In the first part, there are six questions related to the Individual Profile of the
Participants, the second part consists of eight questions related to Trip Characteristics,
and the third part refers to the Fashion Events in the City of Porto.
The remaining four parts are dedicated to motivation, experience, satisfaction, and
loyalty, respectively. They consist of a total of six Likert scale questions (Table 36.3).
In addition to the Portuguese version, the questionnaire was translated into three
other languages: English, Spanish, and French. A total of 410 questionnaires were
collected.

Table 36.3 Number of questionnaires collected per event

Event Total participants (estimate) Number of questionnaires collected
PortoFashionWeek NightOut 10.000 20
MODtíssimo 54 6.500 100
Portugal Fashion SS20 15.000 150
Sustainability talks 150 20
Young designers competition 50 20
Modtíssimo 55 7.000 100
Source Authors
36 Fashion as an Economic Sustainability Indicator in Tourism … 461

36.4 Results

The collected data will be subsequently analysed in a descriptive manner through

the application of the questionnaire to the participants of fashion events held in the
city of Oporto between September 2019 and February 2020. The sample consists of
410 individuals, distributed across the events listed in Table 36.4.
In the sample, 36% participated in the event “Portugal Fashion Spring Summer
2020”, 24.4% participated in the event “MODtíssimo 54”, 24.4% participated in
the event “MODtíssimo 55”, 4.9% participated in the event “Porto Fashion Week
Night Out”, 4.9% participated in the event “Portugal fashion News 19”, and 4.9%
participated in the event “Sustainability Talks”.

36.4.1 Motivation

Following results refer to the motivations that lead to participation in fashion events
(Table 36.5).
On average, the highest importance is given to “Other”, followed by “Profes-
sional Reasons”, then “Networking with People with Common Interests”, followed
by “Staying Updated on New Trends”, “Cultural Enrichment”, and “Curiosity about
the Event”, which all have average values above the midpoint of the scale. They
are followed by “Discovering New Collections” and “Getting to Know Brands”,
which also have average values higher than the midpoint of the scale. Lastly, “Being
Recognized” and “Getting to Know Designers” have average values lower than the
midpoint of the scale (Tables 36.6 and 36.7).
Another reason, justifying attendance at events, is the acquisition of clients
(Table 36.8).
In the sample, regarding the consideration of visiting the city of Porto and
exploring its most iconic places during the event days: 20.5% respond “Not likely

Table 36.4 Frequency table: event

Frequency %
MODtíssimo 54 100 24.4
MODtíssimo 55 100 24.4
Porto Fashion Week Night Out 20 4.9
Portugal Fashion News 19 20 4.9
PortugalFashion Spring Summer2020 150 36.6
SustainabilityTalks 20 4.9
Total 410 100.0
Source Own elaboration based on SPSS outputs
462 D. Liberato et al.

Table 36.5 Frequency table: rate the reasons that motivated you/us to participate in the event,
according to its degree of importance
1 2 3 4 5
N % N % N % N % N %
Meeting designers 85 20.7 74 18.0 140 34.1 57 13.9 54 13.2
Getting to know brands 39 9.5 40 9.8 151 36.8 101 24.6 79 19.3
Discovering new 40 9.8 47 11.5 126 30.7 106 25.9 91 22.2
collections
Staying up to date with 23 5.6 28 6.8 125 30.6 114 27.9 119 29.1
new trends
Networking with 26 6.3 29 7.1 93 22.7 104 25.4 158 38.5
like-minded individuals
Being recognized 123 30.0 55 13.4 91 22.2 53 12.9 88 21.5
Cultural enrichment 19 4.6 37 9.0 131 32.0 103 25.1 120 29.3
Curiosity towards the 15 3.7 42 10.2 142 34.6 102 24.9 109 26.6
event
Professional reasons 48 11.7 14 3.4 35 8.5 60 14.6 253 61.7
Other 1 5.6 17 94.4
The values indicated refer to the measurement scale: 1—not at all important; 2—not very important;
3—important; 4—very important; 5—extremely important
Source Own editing based on SPSS outputs

Table 36.6 Statistics: rate the reasons that motivated you/us to participate in the event, according
to its degree of importance
N Average Standard deviation Variance coefficient
(%)
Meet designers 410 2.81 1.28 46
Knowing brands 410 3.34 1.17 35
Meeting new collections 410 3.39 1.23 36
Keeping up with the 409 3.68 1.13 31
new trends
Networking with people 410 3.83 1.20 31
with common interests
Getting recognized 410 2.82 1.52 54
Cultural enrichment 410 3.65 1.13 31
Curiosity about the 410 3.60 1.09 30
event
Professional motives 410 4.11 1.37 33
Other 18 4.89 0.47 10
The values indicated refer to the measurement scale: 1—not at all important; 2—not very important;
3—important; 4—very important; 5—extremely important
Source Own editing based on SPSS outputs
36 Fashion as an Economic Sustainability Indicator in Tourism … 463

Table 36.7 Frequency table:

N
other: which?
Raise customers 3
Search suppliers 1
Promote collections 1
Advertise 1
View family work 12
Source Own editing based on SPSS outputs

Table 36.8 Frequency table:

N %
would you consider visiting
the city of Porto and getting Not probable 84 20.5
to know its most emblematic Not very probable 48 11.7
places during the days of the
event? Probable 61 14.9
Quite probable 53 12.9
Very likely 164 40.0
Total 410 100.0
Source Own editing based on SPSS outputs

at all”, 11.7% respond “Unlikely”, 14.9% respond “Likely”, 12.9% respond “Quite
likely”, and 40.0% respond “Very likely”.

36.4.2 Experience

Following results refer to the experience lived during fashion events (Tables 36.9
and 36.10).
On average, the agreement is higher for “During the event, I felt in a good mood”
followed by “The fact that the event took place in Porto improved my experience”,
“The event allowed me to get to know the work of various professionals better”, and
“The atmosphere of the event is welcoming and stimulating”.
464 D. Liberato et al.

Table 36.9 Frequency table: regarding your experience, please indicate to what degree you agree
with the following statements
1 2 3 4 5
N % N % N % N % N %
The event allowed me to meet 32 7.8 45 11.0 169 41.3 75 18.3 88 21.5
designers and brands I didn’t know
before
The event allowed me to get to 26 6.3 53 12.9 153 37.3 100 24.4 78 19.0
know the new trends
The event allowed me to get to 14 3.4 31 7.6 151 36.9 120 29.3 93 22.7
know the work of several
professionals better
The event enriched my knowledge 13 3.2 53 12.9 159 38.8 101 24.6 84 20.5
The event has stimulated my 17 4.1 47 11.5 149 36.3 105 25.6 92 22.4
curiosity
The atmosphere of the event is 6 1.5 48 11.7 141 34.4 128 31.2 87 21.2
welcoming and stimulating
The activities developed at the 19 4.6 62 15.1 166 40.5 107 26.1 56 13.7
event are dynamic and creative
The event appealed to my 21 5.1 72 17.6 165 40.4 97 23.8 53 13.0
sensations
The event appealed to my creative 21 5.1 69 16.8 140 34.1 116 28.3 64 15.6
thinking
During the event I felt identified 20 4.9 39 9.5 135 32.9 128 31.2 88 21.5
with the world of fashion
During the event I felt in a good 2 .5 29 7.1 117 28.5 136 33.2 126 30.7
mood
The event surprised me 38 9.3 83 20.2 137 33.4 90 22.0 62 15.1
The event captivated me 17 4.1 58 14.1 158 38.5 106 25.9 71 17.3
I got involved in the event 16 3.9 52 12.7 162 39.5 107 26.1 73 17.8
I actively participated in the event 25 6.1 38 9.3 131 32.0 120 29.3 96 23.4
During the event I didn’t notice 33 8.0 76 18.5 115 28.0 85 20.7 101 24.6
time passing by
I want to share my experience 26 6.3 51 12.4 124 30.2 98 23.9 111 27.1
I took pictures and recorded videos 78 19.0 35 8.5 88 21.5 80 19..5 129 31.5
to share on social networks
I want to buy pieces of the 131 32.0 66 16.1 87 21.2 72 17.6 54 13.2
designers/brands present in the
event
(continued)
36 Fashion as an Economic Sustainability Indicator in Tourism … 465

Table 36.9 (continued)

1 2 3 4 5
N % N % N % N % N %
Participating in the event allowed 157 38.3 67 16.3 76 18.5 52 12.7 58 14.1
me to get to know (better) the city
of Porto
The fact that the event took place in 37 9.0 40 9.8 105 25.6 78 19.0 150 36.6
the city of Porto improved my
experience
The values indicated refer to the measurement scale: 1—disagree; 2—I partially agree; 3—I agree;
4—I strongly agree; 5—I totally agree
Source Own editing based on SPSS outputs

Table 36.10 Statistics: regarding your experience, please indicate to what degree you agree with
the following statements
N Average Standard deviation Variance coefficient
(%)
The event allowed me to 409 3.35 1.16 35
meet designers and brands
I didn’t know before
The event allowed me to 410 3.37 1.12 33
get to know the new trends
The event allowed me to 409 3.60 1.03 28
get to know the work of
several professionals
better

36.5 Conclusion

Fashion events’ tourism is effectively a sector of event tourism that has become
increasingly emphasized in recent years. Fashion tourism is characterized by the fact
that visitors choose destinations that meet their needs regarding their shopping desires
and participation in fashion events [60] which, in turn, consist of promotional events
[60] in which designers and fashion companies present their new collections [61].
Over the past few years, local governments and institutions have begun to appreciate
the role of fashion as a creator of identity and strategic advantage.
To define the objectives, a scientific literature review was carried out exposing
several contents related to the theme of fashion event tourism. The methodology
chosen for the application of this study was quantitative, by applying questionnaires
to 410 participants of fashion events held in the city of Porto between the months of
September 2019 and February 2020. In addition to the Portuguese version, the ques-
tionnaire was translated into English and Spanish. The results showed that fashion
events can add value to the city of Porto and are directly related to its image and
city personality and its active, cultured, and cosmopolitan lifestyle. The respondents
466 D. Liberato et al.

also recognize the existence of a concern, on the part of the organization of these
events, for the valorization of tourism resources and emblematic places of the city,
emphasizing the need to enhance the destination simultaneously with the satisfaction
regarding the fashion events hosted in the city of Porto.
Over time, local governments and institutions began to realize the role of fashion
as an identity creator and strategic advantage, since fashion events attract many
visitors, promoting the aesthetic and creative characteristics of a city [32], emerging
as differentiating elements, capable of adding value to a destination, in an increasingly
competitive tourism market [33, 34].
Similar studies should be developed at national level to contribute to the scientific
knowledge of this tourism segment, which is still underappreciated in Portugal, as
well as to deepen the research in the scope of the individual and behavioural profile
of the fashion events tourist, adding the associated experiential marketing aspects.

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Chapter 37
Technology Applications
in the Competitiveness of Tourism
Destinations

Pedro Liberato , Diogo Pereira, Dália Liberato ,

and Maria Carlos Lopes

Abstract The development and emergence of new technologies in tourism have

revolutionized the sector and business operations and have also become an impor-
tant factor in the competitiveness of tourist destinations. The use of these technolo-
gies contributes to the differentiating factor between destinations, which is why their
implementation is seen as a priority. On the other hand, the use of technology in desti-
nations also improves tourism products and services and thus provides innovative
experiences for tourists. This article aims to understand the importance of technology
in the development of a destination by researching and analyzing information on
innovative technologies such as artificial intelligence, virtual and augmented reality,
and robotics. The importance of applying these technologies to the competitiveness
of tourism destinations will be assessed and a comparative analysis undertaken of
the destinations in the northern region of Portugal with the greatest degree of use
in the promotion and information of these destinations. Finally, recommendations
and proposals will be drawn up for improving technologies in the region. The main
conclusions point out that the application of technology in tourism in the northern
region of Portugal is insufficient. In addition, there is not enough variety in the

P. Liberato · D. Liberato (B)

School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), and CiTUR
Researcher, Centre for Tourism Research, Development, and Innovation, Rua D. Sancho I, 981,
4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
P. Liberato
e-mail: [email protected]
D. Pereira
School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), Rua D. Sancho I,
981, 4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
M. C. Lopes
Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation—CiTUR, Leiria, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 471
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_37
472 P. Liberato et al.

technologies implemented, since most of them are related to virtual and augmented
reality.

37.1 Introduction

According to Ivanov and Webster [1], new technologies were introduced in the service
industry in a short space of time, significantly changing the way humans do busi-
ness or interact with companies. Tourism was one of the first sectors to implement
technology and digitalization in its business processes at a global level, becoming,
for example, a pioneer in providing online booking platforms for accommodation or
flights. As information and communication technologies (ICT) evolve, the tourism
sector has increasingly adopted these technologies.
The emergent interaction between technology and tourism has resulted in funda-
mental changes in the industry and our perception of it [2]. The authors go on to
say that technology is increasingly revolutionizing the tourism sector and deter-
mining the strategy and competitiveness of tourism organizations and destinations.
The evolution of information and communication technologies (ICT) has radically
transformed the dynamics and way of doing business in the tourism sector. This has
led to increased competitiveness among service providers, who now have to offer
consumers innovative experiences to satisfy them and build loyalty [3].
Tourist behavior has also been affected in their daily lives by various digital and
technological processes. Technology has allowed tourists to become much more
informed and to take a proactive role in organizing their trip.
According to Neuhofer et al. [4], new forms of tourist activities are emerging
thanks to the emergence and development of new technologies, which are changing
conventional tourist experiences. In addition, with the emergence of the Internet,
consumers have gained more and more autonomy, playing a more active role in co-
creating experiences. The authors conclude that this co-creation and technology are
important for the tourism sector, as they make it possible to create personalized and
meaningful experiences for tourists.
This research aims to understand the importance of technology in the development
of a destination by researching and analyzing information on innovative technologies
such as artificial intelligence, virtual and augmented reality, and robotics. The impor-
tance of applying these technologies to the competitiveness of tourist destinations
will be assessed and a comparative analysis will be carried out of the destinations in
the northern region of Portugal with the greatest degree of use of technology in their
promotion and information.
37 Technology Applications in the Competitiveness of Tourism Destinations 473

37.2 Literature Review

Artificial intelligence (AI) is described as the intelligence demonstrated by a machine

in reproducing human-like abilities. According to Lai and Hung [5], AI refers to
a set of technologies that can imitate human sensitivity, thinking, reasoning, and
action to solve problems. In the tourism industry, artificial intelligence is being
applied, through tests, to personalization and recommendation systems, personal
travel assistants, robots, prediction systems, language translation applications, voice
recognition, and natural language processing systems [6].
Artificial intelligence is relevant to the tourism sector as it can help tourists
make decisions related to flights, hotels, tour packages, attractions, among others.
According to Tussyadiah and Miller [7], from the consumer’s point of view, AI
provides a better experience for tourists, giving them flexibility, useful and relevant
information, and facilitating decision-making. Artificial intelligence will be key in
automating requests and serving tourists, responding instantly to their needs via
video calls or chatbots. Chatbots are software programmed to converse naturally
and answer simple questions, identifying keywords to provide multiple answers to
a single question [8]. In addition, they are available 24 h a day, 7 days a week, and
365 days a year, eliminating the need for employees.
A fundamental application of AI will be using facial recognition of tourists,
through an image or a video. According to Gupta et al. [9], the facial recognition
system processes data, detecting the shape of the face and collecting its facial expres-
sions. This information is then compared with a pre-existing database to identify or
authenticate the individual. This type of technology can be used, for example, in the
check-in process at a hotel or at airports, automatically recognizing a tourist’s face.
AI could also be used to alter the tourist’s surroundings. Hotel rooms can be auto-
matically adjusted to a specific temperature [9]. They could also adapt the music and
lighting to the tourist’s wishes, autonomously detecting the need for these adapta-
tions without the tourist having to make any specific request [6]. Artificial intelligence
currently brings many benefits to the tourism sector, but it also brings challenges and
risks. According to Bulchand-Gidumal [6], one of the main concerns of tourists is
related to the fear of surveillance, the threat to privacy that AI systems can pose, since
they collect massive amounts of data and, more importantly, can deduce patterns and
information from it. Gretzel [10] adds that intelligent systems capture information
about their environment and their users, which is highly personal and therefore a
threat that raises significant ethical concerns.
Mihret [11] defines robotics as the domain of knowledge and techniques that
can be used to create robots. Robotics is a branch of engineering that involves the
conception, design, manufacture, and operation of robots. The author adds that robots
are designed to perform various tasks in place of human beings and points out that
they are more than just computers, being able to sense and react to changes in their
environment.
A robot is an autonomous machine (a physical object) that incorporates AI and
senses the environment, allowing it to make decisions and carry out actions [6].
474 P. Liberato et al.

Beer et al. [12] state that the two main characteristics of a robot are its autonomy
and its ability to sense and manipulate the environment. The authors define autonomy
as “the ability of a robot to sense its environment, plan based on that environment,
and act on that environment with the intention of achieving a specific task goal (given
or created by the robot) without external control.” Ivanov and Webster [1] add that a
robot’s level of autonomy determines whether it will be able to carry out its assigned
task independently (thus replacing workers) or whether it will only support workers
in carrying it out.
Robots are equipped with various sensors that allow them to obtain data and infor-
mation about their surroundings such as objects, sound and voice, location, distance,
pressure, temperature, energy consumption, facial recognition, among others [1].
According to Murphy et al. [13], robots can be divided into three different cate-
gories: industrial robots, professional service robots, and personal service robots.
Ivanov and Webster [1] state that these robots can be used in hospitality, giving
examples of the use of industrial and professional service robots for back office oper-
ations, such as cleaning rooms, and the use of personal service robots for front office
operations, such as concierge and room services or entertainment.
Some of the main advantages of using robots in the tourism sector include
improving the tourist experience, simplifying the work process, allowing human
labor to focus on other activities, and making tourism more efficient [8]. The authors
present, as an example, the use of robots at the reception desk of a hotel, which have
a direct implication on the interaction and experience of guests and are becoming a
trend in the sector.
One of the most important implementations of new technologies and their impact
on tourism is virtual reality (VR).
Virtual reality is defined as the technology that uses an artificial 3D environment,
generated by a computer and called a “virtual environment,” with the aim of providing
its user with a sense of psychological presence and physical interaction with that same
environment [14].
According to González-Rodríguez et al. [15], virtual reality is a constantly
evolving technology that is increasingly being used in tourism, particularly in areas
such as hotels, entertainment, restaurants, museums, among others. The authors add
that it gives the consumer a good image of the destination and helps to improve the
experience.
For tourism, virtual reality is important and deserves a lot of attention, as it has
numerous useful applications that can have a significant impact on the sector. For
Guttentag [16], virtual reality could become very important for the sector, especially
in planning and management, marketing, entertainment, education, accessibility, and
heritage preservation.
Firstly, in the planning phase, for example, VR allows users to create realistic
virtual environments, where they can analyze and observe them from different
perspectives. In addition, virtual environments can be used to illustrate and
communicate plans [16].
On the other hand, VR can also be used to carry out and improve the marketing of a
tourist destination. Since the service is intangible and cannot be tested in advance, VR
37 Technology Applications in the Competitiveness of Tourism Destinations 475

is able to provide sensory information about the destination, making it an important

marketing tool and, consequently, helping tourists to make more informed decisions
and have more realistic expectations [16].
Perhaps, one of the most important applications of VR will be in heritage preser-
vation. VR makes it possible to recreate a particular site or object in a virtual model,
using precise data that can be stored indefinitely. This recreation allows observation
without the risk of damaging or compromising the object or site, making it a good
alternative for accessing places considered to be under threat [16].
But if, on the one hand, this use of VR is important, in this case for preservation, on
the other hand, the authenticity and limitations of this technology may be questioned
by tourists. Many aspects that characterize the tourist experience in a real environment
can never be faithfully reproduced in a virtual environment. For Guttentag [16], VR
should only be seen as an acceptable substitute for the consumer.
Virtual reality will certainly continue to evolve, and, from this perspective, it is
possible to consider the increased opportunities for implementing this technology in
the tourism sector. However, we cannot rule out the issues and challenges that will
also arise with its use.
Currently, another form of technology that is increasingly being used to improve
tourism and the consumer experience is augmented reality (AR).
According to Azuma et al. [17], augmented reality is defined as a technology
that fits real and virtual elements into the world, i.e., both coexist in the same real
environment and are also an interactive, real-time experience.
Yovcheva et al. [18, p. 27] describe the augmented tourism experience as “a
complex structure that involves the emotions, feelings, knowledge, and skills that
come from perceiving, processing, and interacting with virtual information that
merges with the real physical world that surrounds the tourist.”
Although similar, augmented reality (AR) should not be confused with virtual
reality (VR). AR allows physical interaction with reality and complements the tourist
experience, while VR is limited to the virtual environment and is used before and
after the trip [18, 19].
According to Buhalis et al. [20], AR uses portable devices such as smartphones,
glasses, and wearables to display layers of information superimposed on the real
world.
Portable devices help complement the experience by presenting much more
personalized content adapted to the specific needs of the tourist. They can present
new or more complete information about the place or object the user is viewing or
present new perspectives on them (e.g., viewing monuments that are in ruins or no
longer exist, such as the city of Pompeii or the Lighthouse of Alexandria).
The real-time information in different languages that AR provides can offer an
alternative to standard tourist guides, identifying tourist points of interest, accom-
modation, restaurants, transportation, and directions, as well as ratings and reviews
[21].
As AR is very important for improving the tourist experience, it is also becoming
an important marketing tool for companies. They can use the technology to create
previews of the destination, hotels, restaurants, and attractions that consumers can
476 P. Liberato et al.

visit, helping them plan their vacations and make decisions [21]. According to a study
carried out by Cranmer et al. [22], it was concluded that AR would be especially
important for marketing, as it would reduce its costs and provide more accurate and
attractive information to the consumer.
As well as helping to improve marketing, Cranmer et al. [22] recognize that this
technology can help add value to organizations by demonstrating opportunities to
improve relationships and communications, processes and functions. According to
the study, AR can facilitate communications between departments and relationships
with new and potential customers.
The use of AR by operators would also help the tourist by offering more secu-
rity and helping to set expectations. Due to greater access to information, the
tourist’s expectations will be more appropriate, reducing possible disappointments
and complaints, which can be costly for tour operators [22].
The tourism competitiveness of a destination refers to the ability of the place to
optimize its attractiveness to residents and non-residents by offering quality, innova-
tive, and attractive tourism services (e.g., good value for money) to consumers and
winning market shares on the national and global markets, while ensuring that the
resources available to support tourism are used efficiently and sustainably.
According to Del Chiappa and Baggio [23, p. 145], “in an increasingly globalized
and extremely dynamic environment, innovation is the key element for cities and
tourist destinations to be competitive.”
Mira et al. [24] state that for a destination to be competitive, it must innovate by
forming strategic alliances with all the players in the sector, optimizing and preserving
endogenous resources, applying marketing strategies, and constantly monitoring the
destination. The authors add that quality is an important factor, saying that a destina-
tion’s competitiveness is achieved when it can guarantee a quality tourist experience
for its visitors and quality of life for its residents (Table 37.1).
For Dupeyras and MacCallum [25], these key elements should be considered in
an assessment of tourism competitiveness (according to detailed data from surveys
of countries by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development).

37.3 Results

Portugal Agenda presents unique shows that spark the imagination of visitors. The
company offers visitors immersive experiences of different themes and artists, both
national and international, so that they can appreciate culture and art in an innovative
way, using technology to do so. To provide these experiences, Portugal Agenda
uses immersive technologies such as virtual and augmented reality, holograms, light
projections, video mapping, gesture controls, and motion capture.
Portugal Agenda offers these shows not only in Lisbon, but also in the city of
Porto. Here, the company’s shows can be enjoyed at venues such as the Clérigos
Church, the Botanical Garden, and, above all, the Immersivus Gallery at Alfândega
do Porto. The Immersivus Gallery is the first immersive art experience gallery in
37 Technology Applications in the Competitiveness of Tourism Destinations 477

Table 37.1 Key elements that define competitiveness in tourism

Key elements Observations Country responses
identified
Tourism governance Government support and tourism as a priority, Belgium, Canada, Chile,
regulations, an overall government approach, Egypt, Greece, Italy,
a tourism strategy, safety and security, Poland, Portugal, Spain,
public–private partnerships, vertical Turkey, UK
cooperation, statistics and data, multilateral
cooperation, institutions (e.g., National
Tourism Council), earmarked budget to
support tourism
Product Product differentiation, innovation, Australia, Austria,
development investments, market share, providing unique Belgium, Brazil, Canada,
experiences, increasing the added value of Denmark, Finland,
tourism, developing high-value segments, France, Germany,
market perspective (including potential Hungary, Israel, Mexico,
travelers, tour operators and small businesses) New Zealand, Norway,
Poland, Spain, Turkey,
UK
Quality of tourist Improving quality, welcoming visitors, quality Austria, Belgium, Brazil,
services of life, equity and social cohesion, consumer Czech Republic,
services Denmark, Finland,
France, Germany,
Hungary, Portugal,
Slovenia, Spain
Price Prices, exchange rates, value for money, taxes Australia, Belgium,
competitiveness Czech Republic,
Denmark, Egypt,
Finland, France,
Germany, Greece,
Norway, Poland, UK
Accessibility/ Development of infrastructures, geostrategic Australia, Belgium,
connectivity position of the destination, proximity Brazil, Chile, Czech
Republic, Finland,
Greece, Italy, New
Zealand, Norway,
Poland, Portugal,
Slovenia, Spain, Turkey,
UK
Destination brand Promotion and marketing, identity, image, Australia, Austria, Brazil,
destination knowledge, attractiveness, market Canada, France, UK
diversification
(continued)
478 P. Liberato et al.

Table 37.1 (continued)

Key elements Observations Country responses
identified
Natural and cultural Sustainability, gastronomy, climate, Belgium, Brazil, Chile,
resources biodiversity Czech Republic,
Denmark, Egypt,
Finland, France,
Germany, Greece,
Hungary, Israel, Italy,
Poland, Portugal,
Slovenia, Spain, Turkey
Human resources Skills, education and training, labor Belgium, Chile, Estonia,
development productivity, tourism training centers Greece, Spain, and
Turkey
Source Dupeyras and MacCallum [25], adapted

Portugal, installed in the Furnas da Alfândega, where content is projected onto the
floor, walls and ceiling. According to Immersivus, with 2000 m2 of 360° projection
area, this gallery will become a national artistic reference point (Fig. 37.1).
On June 24, 2022, as part of the commemorations of the Battle of S. Mamede,
entrepreneur Marco Génio presented a unique project in Portugal that allows the
public to interact with the history and heritage of the city of Guimarães. Called
“Afonso 360,” it is an interactive film that portrays the day-to-day life of King Afonso
Henriques, using new tools and innovative immersive technologies, 360Ll, and virtual
reality. According to the entrepreneur and the municipality of Guimarães, this inter-
active film lasts approximately eight minutes, in which you can visit and watch the
daily life of Guimarães Castle when D. Afonso Henriques was king of Portugal or
even watch a recreation of the Battle of S. Mamede, fought on June 24, 1128. To be as
faithful as possible to history and real events, this project has obtained contributions

Fig. 37.1 “Porto Legends,

the Underground
experience,” at Alfândega do
Porto. Source Portugal
Agenda (2023)
37 Technology Applications in the Competitiveness of Tourism Destinations 479

Fig. 37.2 Presentation with

the Municipal Executive and
the Minister of Internal
Affairs (external module).
Source official Facebook
page (2022)

from historians and researchers. It becomes interactive, since the visitor “can become
the director, thanks to the possibility of choosing the respective setting” (Fig. 37.2).
This immersive experience is a totally national and innovative production, which
can be enjoyed by anyone visiting Guimarães, through places to watch the film,
installed inside the castle or outside, more specifically, in the keep or in a module
positioned next to the Paço dos Duques de Bragança, with space for more than a
dozen people. People with reduced mobility can also enjoy this experience using
a mechanical platform to visit the monument. Finally, the film is available in five
languages: Portuguese, Spanish, English, French, and German.
This project is an initiative of the Northern Regional Directorate for Culture, and
its inauguration was attended by the Minister of Internal Affairs, José Luís Carneiro,
the Mayor of Guimarães Domingos Bragança, and other members of the municipal
executive.
In 2021, Viana do Castelo City Council launched the official Geopark website
and a smartphone app. The use of technology is intended to preserve nature and the
park’s geological heritage and is a partnership between the council and the Portuguese
company Ubiwhere. In addition, it would help the visitor’s tourist experience and
the monitoring of the park.
The smartphone application helps the visitor to identify and recognize the heritage
and geological resources, allowing for greater visitor autonomy. Furthermore, using
augmented reality, additional information can be provided to the visitor, making the
experience more immersive and interactive. According to Ubiwhere, other resources
are available to the visitor, such as interactive panels where they can view cartographic
elements, 3D objects, photography, and panoramic animations (Fig. 37.3).
Also, in 2022, the North Regional Culture Directorate (DRCN) announced that
the museums would offer visitors new resources using virtual reality and augmented
reality. The DRCN announced the launch of the “Museus Portugal” platform in
partnership with the company DKS Studios and with the support of the Garantir
Cultura Program. This platform aims to create a unique and immersive experience
480 P. Liberato et al.

Fig. 37.3 Area of the park with a QR code to get more information through smartphone. Source
Coastal Geopark

of information, photography, video, and 3D and 360° content about museums that
anyone can experience.
According to DRCN, through a smartphone application and augmented reality
technology, users will see interactive images superimposed on reality and will have
access to text, video, photographs, and 3D objects by pointing their smartphone at a
space, work of art or artifact, and will also be guided by a virtual robot.
The seven museums managed by the DRCN would use these new resources:
Biscainhos Museum and D. Diogo de Sousa Museum (Braga), the Paço dos Duques
de Bragança and Alberto Sampaio Museum (Guimarães), Abade de Baçal Museum
(Bragança), Lamego Museum, and Terra de Miranda Museum (Miranda do Douro).
In addition to implementing VR and AR, the Northern Regional Directorate
for Culture announced the SIAP project, an artificial intelligence system that uses
machine learning and data processing techniques to detect and alert potential risks
to heritage in advance, through constant monitoring. As a result, it contributes to
increased security and a reduction in possible maintenance costs.

37.4 Conclusion

The DRCN has already implemented virtual reality and augmented reality technolo-
gies in its museums. It is recommended that these technologies also be implemented
in other museums in the northern region and not just those run by the DRCN, offering
visitors a wide range of options.
The use of robots in tourism and hospitality should also be further developed. The
use of the two robots at Yotel Porto, as well as the smartphone app and other smart
devices in the establishment, demonstrates the hotel sector’s capacity for innovation
by creating more automated processes and, consequently, guiding customer service
37 Technology Applications in the Competitiveness of Tourism Destinations 481

for longer. On the other hand, for those who are not tech-savvy, the traditional hotel
experience should be available, offering tourists different options to choose from,
adapting to their trends, generations, and preferences [26–30]. This hybrid experience
should therefore be implemented in more hotels in the region, especially in the large
hotel chains, which have a great deal of investment power.
Overall, the northern region of Portugal shows a precarious use of technologies
in the tourism sector, especially in the interior north, more specifically in the regions
of Alto Tâmega, Douro and Terras de Trás-os-Montes. On the other hand, in the
northern coastal regions, it is possible to see some use of the technologies discussed,
but still limited.
In addition to the small number of technologies used in the region, in some cases
they provide little information about their purpose and usefulness. In this research, it
was often necessary to consult some news or articles to obtain more information, as
it was not available on the official website of the entity or organization. This could
be a flaw in the marketing department of some companies in the region.

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Chapter 38
Events’ Tourism and Hospitality
Marketing

Dália Liberato , Elga Costa , Isabel Barradas, Pedro Liberato ,

and Joaquim Ribeiro

Abstract Event tourism has seen significant growth in recent decades, playing a key
role in the development of tourism destinations. In fact, several studies have focused
on understanding this phenomenon, studying the relationship between the different
types of events and their influence on the destinations that host them. However, few
publications analyze the relationship between events that take place in cities and
the hotel industry. The existing articles that establish this relationship are limited to
pricing, so it is pertinent to analyze this relationship in a more comprehensive way,
namely the strategies adopted by hotels when events take place in cities. This study
aims to understand the influence of events held in the cities of Lisbon and Porto on
the hotel industry, specifically from the perspective of hotel marketing. To this end, a
qualitative, exploratory, descriptive, and cross-sectional research methodology was
adopted, carried out through semi-structured interviews with seven representatives of
hotel units and four representatives of entities linked to the organization of events in
the aforementioned cities. The general aim of the research is to understand how events
influence hotel marketing in the cities of Lisbon and Porto. The results show that
business events and sporting events are the most important for the hotel industry in
these cities. About the strategies adopted when events take place in the city, hoteliers

D. Liberato (B) · E. Costa · P. Liberato · J. Ribeiro

School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), CiTUR Researcher
(Centre for Tourism Research, Development, and Innovation), Rua D. Sancho I, 981, 4480-876
Vila do Conde, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
E. Costa
e-mail: [email protected]
P. Liberato
e-mail: [email protected]
J. Ribeiro
e-mail: [email protected]
I. Barradas
School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), Rua D. Sancho I,
981, 4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 483
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_38
484 D. Liberato et al.

attach great importance to the price strategy and have increasingly adopted a digital
marketing strategy, which facilitates segmentation and reaching specific audiences. It
was also found that the relationship between hotel units and event organizers, despite
being at an early stage, is highly valued and that given the current scenario, derived
from COVID-19, the industry’s recovery actions should focus on actions to transmit
security to the customer.

38.1 Introduction

In recent years, cities have seen constant growth and development. According to
[1], events have been one of the driving forces behind these changes, generating
attractiveness and major economic benefits for cities. In fact, although there is a
constant growth in tourist destinations, combating seasonality seems to be one of the
biggest challenges, making it crucial to find strategies to mitigate this trend [2]. In
this sense, events can emerge as a solution, since many of them, such as business
events, take place at times of low demand [3].
An event can be considered a unique spatio-temporal phenomenon since it is
unrepeatable and calls for an experience. The term “event tourism” began to be used
at the end of the 1980s and establishes an association between events and tourism,
which is characterized by the set of attractions created for the purpose of satisfying
visitors’ needs [4].
The growing interest in events has triggered a series of studies on the subject.
Indeed, [5, 6] in their research highlighted the importance of event tourism in
branding a destination, which can be used as a tourism and product development
strategy.

38.2 Literature Review

According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), tourism

has experienced exponential growth in recent decades. This continuous development,
combined with the diversification and differentiation of the sector, makes it one of
the most important economic sectors in the world [7].
The global expansion of tourism has also brought various benefits to local
economies, as it is not only responsible for creating jobs in various areas, but also
plays a crucial role in the development of new infrastructures, which is reflected in
an increase in the value and relevance of regions [7, 8].
However, there are some growing trends among consumers, namely traveling
“to change”, where consumers seek local authenticity, and traveling “to show”. The
latter is closely linked to the emerging relevance attributed to social media, whereby
38 Events’ Tourism and Hospitality Marketing 485

consumers feel the need to go in search of “instagrammable” destinations, experi-

ences, and moments [7]. In this context, event tourism could play an important role,
so investing in this sector becomes pertinent.
Events can be seen simultaneously as enhancers of a destination’s attractiveness,
but also, and above all, as key marketing elements in the promotion of places, given
the high global competitiveness in attracting visitors [1, 5, 6].
Events should therefore be considered from both a demand and a supply perspec-
tive [5]. Thus, it is important to analyze and understand a series of aspects related
to the demand perspective, namely determining who travels to participate in events,
what their motivations are, what they do, and how much they spend. From a supply
perspective, it is important to understand that destinations promote different types
of events to achieve various objectives, including attracting tourists, especially at
times of low demand; creating a positive image of the destination; contributing to
the overall marketing of the destination, among others [5]. In fact, more recently, [6]
highlighted the importance of event tourism in branding a destination, as a tourism
strategy and product development. They listed five propositions that reveal the impor-
tance of event tourism in a city. The first is the creation of economic benefits and
the others derive from this, namely: developing a positive image and supporting the
construction of the destination’s brand; cooperation in marketing by making cities
more appealing; livening up cities; and finally, the fact that events act as catalysts for
other forms of development, such as improving infrastructure, for example.
Although tourism has experienced high global growth, combating seasonality
continues to be the biggest challenge for many destinations. In this sense, it is crucial
to create strategies that make it possible to mitigate this trend in tourism [2].
Seasonality can be largely influenced by two sets of factors. The first is considered
natural, examples of which are the climate, the location associated with the climate,
and the hours of sunlight. The other set of factors is institutional and related to leisure
time, the school calendar, social norms, among others [2].
The high disparities in visitor numbers and revenue suggest that for many attrac-
tions in various destinations, outside of high demand seasons, there is a need for
innovation and diversification in terms of product development. For others, season-
ality could mean their total or partial closure. From a political and marketing point
of view, the continued operation of destinations’ various attractions can make a
positive contribution to the promotion of regions in an innovative way, favoring the
stabilization or growth of local economies [2].
Business events have been studied for the economic value they bring to cities, rural
areas, or countries themselves. The increase in the number of meetings, congresses,
and conventions has set the tone for the competitiveness between cities to become
increasingly intense, thus enabling the growth of venues that want to invest in this
type of event [9].
Although business events can take many different forms, there are some common
characteristics. As far as location is concerned, most of these events usually take
place in urban centers, as these are the places that most easily have the infrastructure
appropriate to the size and needs of the events, such as a greater range of hotels and
transport facilities [10, 11].
486 D. Liberato et al.

As for the time factor, most of these events take place on weekdays, which are
considered working days in Western society. In addition, spring and fall tend to be
the preferred seasons for holding this type of event. As such, this factor is one of
the main reasons why these events are so important for the hotel industry, as they
take place at times of low demand, thus offsetting the seasonality mentioned above
[3, 10, 11].
A survey carried out by Expedia in 2018 found that around 60% of business trips
in the USA were converted into bleisure. It is also found that this trend is consistent
with four other countries: the UK, Germany, India, and China. A sample of around
2500 individuals from these five countries confirmed that there is a tendency to extend
their stay on bleisure trips—an average of 2.9 leisure days in addition to 3.9 business
days.
Cultural events have played a crucial role in the development and revitalization
of urban environments. The emergence of cultural events has greatly contributed to
improving the image of cities, as they have added “life” to city streets [1, 12].
Although it is difficult to define precisely what cultural events are, [1] identified
some aspects that are common to the different types of cultural events. As a rule, they
have a content that focuses on the community’s roots or artistic aspects. In addition,
they comprise a series of activities, are recurrent, have a limited duration, and are
generally commemorative in nature.
The growth of tourism in a city is directly related to its hotel capacity. In fact, a
low hotel supply can be a determining factor in a city not being chosen to host major
events and festivals [13]. However, there is not much evidence to establish the direct
impact that festivals and entertainment events have on the hotel industry, nor how
they influence revenue maximization strategies or occupancy rates [13].
Although, of course, the occurrence of festivals and events should be reflected
in an increase in the average daily rate (ADR) and occupancy rate (OR), there are
some aspects that influence this growth. These aspects include the fact that tourists
attending these events can opt for other forms of accommodation, such as Airbnb,
friends, or family homes or even not staying at all—one day trippers [13].
The focus on different types of events has contributed to a greater diversifica-
tion of tourism. In this way, events have played an important role in meeting the
demands of tourists with different expectations. Over time, consumer behavior has
undergone some changes. Nowadays, tourists crave novelty, which leads them to
seek out different types of experiences [14].
With the growth of tourism, tourists’ motivations for traveling have increasingly
been the subject of study. Indeed, this research has proved to be extremely important,
as it seems possible to anticipate future travel patterns through tourists’ motivations
[15, 16].
The diversity of events ends up attracting a multiplicity of tourists with different
purposes. This is the case with business tourism, where the main motivation is related
to work factors and networking opportunities [17]. As this area of events is of
particular interest, several studies have investigated the motivations of its partici-
pants [17–19]. Thus, they concluded that although participants spend most of their
time at conferences and congresses, an important factor is the attractiveness of the
38 Events’ Tourism and Hospitality Marketing 487

destination. In addition to this factor, they highlighted the accessibility, quality of

accommodation, safety, and climate of the destination [19].
Even though 2020 has seen the transformation of many events to a virtual dimen-
sion and despite the many advantages that this format offers, such as cost savings
or a higher attendance rate, this transformation does not bring many benefits for
increasing tourism in the regions. As a result, the events industry will also have to
reinvent itself and come up with alternatives for holding events in what will be the
new normal [20].
Although studies on the strategies adopted by the hotel industry in the presence
of relevant events are scarce, the reality is that these events are great opportunities to
maximize a hotel’s revenue. In this sense, there are some strategies that can be put
into practice to highlight the presence of the hotel unit [21].
Given that more and more users are using the internet to access information
about the events they want to attend, it is necessary to strengthen the hotel’s presence
through this medium [22, 23]. Therefore, to ensure that the hotel capitalizes on the
increased flow of tourists, PPC campaigns can be created, for example, that refer to
the event, but at the same time capture the user’s attention to make direct reservations
at the hotel [23].
It is therefore important to design an appealing landing page, with a well-defined
intention, that grabs the customer’s attention and leads them to a certain action.
Messages with a sense of urgency can also be added to prevent the customer from
postponing their booking, such as offering a discount based on the event in question
and mentioning that there are only a certain number of rooms available [22, 23].
It is also important to analyze the search peaks associated with certain events so
that campaigns can be prepared in advance. This analysis can be carried out using
tools such as Google Trends [22, 23].
Another important aspect is the hotel’s coverage of the keywords that users
normally use when looking for accommodation. Thus, it is important to invest in
a diversified and comprehensive strategy so that the hotel’s name appears when
searching for hotels near the specific event or the city where it takes place [23].
There is a gap in the existing link between events and hospitality. Although some
studies have established this relationship in some way, the existing ones have mostly
focused only on sporting events [24, 25]. In addition, the studies that have looked at
the subject focus only on the perspective of demand before, during and after sporting
events [25], or the influence that major events can have on the pricing of hotel units
[24, 25]. Corroborating this statement is the study by [26] which has investigated the
behavior of the price variable in a large-scale event—the case of Oktoberfest.
In the previous studies, it was observed that there is indeed an increase in demand
and rates for hotels close to the event venue, which points to the fact that hotels take
advantage of the existence of events to implement revenue maximization strategies
[23–25].
488 D. Liberato et al.

38.3 Methodology

Although some studies have established the relationship between events and hospi-
tality, most focus on sporting events [23–26]. Furthermore, even those that do not
focus on this type of event essentially focus on the influence that large events can
have on pricing [23–26].
Even so, the existence of these studies points to the use of strategies by hoteliers
to attract event participants. However, these processes are not properly identified,
making it pertinent to understand which types of events are likely to be most important
in the hotel industry and how the industry is preparing to capture and meet the needs
of those attending these events.
In fact, although there are not many studies focusing on the strategies adopted by
hotel units in the presence of events in cities, these events are excellent opportunities
to maximize a hotel’s revenue. As such, it is essential to act in this direction by
developing and integrating strategies to highlight the presence of the hotel unit [26].
It would therefore be interesting to understand how hotels in the cities of Lisbon
and Porto act in the presence of these events. It would also be relevant to understand
whether there is a predominance of online strategies, since more and more tourists
are turning to the internet to get the information they want [26] or whether other
more traditional practices continue to be relevant in these situations [27].
The general objective of the study was defined: to understand how events influence
hotel marketing in the cities of Lisbon and Porto (identify the most important events
for the hotel industry in the cities of Lisbon and Porto).
The data show that, before the pandemic, Portugal had a high potential to become
a more attractive destination and thus generate more revenue. As a result, some
emphasis was placed on the events’ industry through the integration of programs to
attract corporate events and international congresses, among others [28].
The Portuguese capital quickly became a leader in the MI markets, winning awards
in this segment in 2017. As early as 2018, it was anticipated that events such as the
Web Summit would continue to boost hotel performance indicators, such as RevPAR
[28].
As far as the city of Porto is concerned, events have also contributed greatly to
the development of the city, to the creation of a favorable image of it, as well as to
repeat visits by tourists [29].
For this research, we chose to approach both representatives of event organizers
and representatives of 4- and 5-star hotels in the cities of Lisbon and Porto, which
is the population under study. Only 4- and 5-star hotels were considered, as it was
felt that lower category hotels would be unlikely to have a dedicated marketing
department.
The sample included four representatives of organizations linked to the organi-
zation of events in Lisbon and Porto and seven representatives of hotel units—four
from the city of Porto and three from the city of Lisbon, making a total of eleven
participants.
38 Events’ Tourism and Hospitality Marketing 489

Although the number of participants in this study may be lower than the ideal
for qualitative studies, it should be borne in mind that most of them are highly
knowledgeable and have several years of experience in their roles, which ultimately
leads to the acquisition of rich and meaningful data [30]. The sampling technique
used in this research is theoretical sampling. This technique is based on identifying
individuals with the greatest capacity to respond to the established objectives.

38.4 Results

To carry out a relevant analysis of the interviews carried out, as well as a more direct
reading of the results obtained, the specific objectives previously outlined will be
considered.

38.4.1 Identifying Relevant Events

38.4.1.1 Hospitality Perspective

According to the data obtained in the interviews, the different types of events are of
different importances to the different hotels.
Most of the interviewees mentioned that the events that end up having a noticeable
impact on their business are mainly business events.
(…) it has a huge impact, especially when we’re talking about an urban center that hosts
many events, from sporting, musical, artistic, congresses, conferences, professional, closed
events to companies… So there’s a huge myriad of types of events that take place every year
(…) that affect us directly. Having said that, I work for a hotel itself, part of whose business
is holding events. It has its own congress center (E2).

The ones that are most important to us are corporate events and also larger events, congresses
or conventions in different areas, both nationally and internationally (E3).

(…) festivals, sporting events, cultural events too (…) Congresses too, of course, MICE are
also events that often take place in the city and end up affecting us positively, in the sense
that they bring us occupation (E7).

However, the participants did mention the importance of cultural and sporting
events. In fact, two of the participants (E4 and E5) ended up mentioning that sporting
events had the greatest impact on the activity of the hotel unit they represent.
And the ones that have really been a boost for us, in terms of bookings, have been the soccer
events (E4).

Obviously, it’s not normal now, but I know that the Porto Marathon, I’ve been told, does
have a lot of impact. And Christmas and New Year are always peak times (E5).
490 D. Liberato et al.

These data refutes the lack of evidence supporting a significant influence of

cultural events on aspects such as pricing or occupancy rate, even when these types
of events are organized by hotels [2, 20].
As with cultural events, there has not previously been a strong correlation between
the occurrence of festivals, concerts, and sporting events and an increase in ADR
and OR in the hotel industry [20]. This was due to the fact that many of these
participants stayed with friends or relatives [13]. Even so, these events seem to
make a significant contribution to the hotels analyzed, particularly for two of them,
according to participants E4 and E5.
This could be explained by the fact that these two hotels have only been open
for a relatively short time, and due to the pandemic, these types of events have been
among the few to take place in the city of Porto.
We opened our first hotel, in Porto, in March 2019 (…) So there haven’t been many events
since we opened (E4).

The event we opened for was the Champions League (E7).

However, participants from Lisbon hotels also mentioned the importance of events
such as the Web Summit and festivals like Rock in Rio and NOS Alive for their business
and the visibility of the destination, something that could be justified by the scale of
these events.
So, when it comes to the Web Summit, it’s the most popular and it’s the one that has also
helped internationally to give the destination a big boost. (…) The big festivals have a lot of
impact! (…) Whether it’s NOS Alive, Super Bock, Super Rock, and even other events along
the same lines, of the same size, they can also bring in customers. So, we’re winning. In this
respect, we, as accommodation, are winning (…) festivals are no longer specifically for an
ultra-young audience, in other words, the audience is very varied (E2). Rock In Rio or NOS
Alive, or now the MEO Arena, when international groups come, we already feel a movement
of customers coming to see the shows. (…) And then there are events like the Web Summit
or the congresses of doctors and other such organizations, which attract thousands of people
and help to bring in customers. Lisbon is a city that needs events (E6).

38.4.1.2 Events’ Organization Perspective

This research considered the views of four interviewees linked to event organizers
in Lisbon and Porto. In general, the events considered relevant are in line with those
mentioned by the hotel managers interviewed. However, two of the participants added
more events, such as the major national and European summits (E9) or the Porto Rally
and the La Vuelta stage, which ended in Porto (E1). In addition, the latter interviewee
emphasized the importance of São João, mentioning that it is a distinctive event that
positions the city of Porto.
Last year, for example, we saw all the big events canceled in the summer. NOS Primavera
Sound, the Porto Rally, a stage of the Vuelta a España that ended precisely in Porto (…)
and I also forgot to mention an event, which really sets us apart and positions us, which
was canceled last year and this year. It wasn’t canceled at our house, but the festivities were
canceled, which is São João (E1).
38 Events’ Tourism and Hospitality Marketing 491

In addition to these, he also highlighted the importance of business tourism in the

city of Porto, mentioning that at a certain point, around 2017, it became necessary
to invest in this market segment, since in terms of leisure, demand was very organic,
and this corporate segment could generate a significant economic impact.
(…) those who come here like to come here and so people come here organically. There was
a time when we asked a kind of question at the tourist office, “Why did you come to Porto?”
and the answer was often “Why shouldn’t I?!”, because we really do have a range of assets
here, from the climate, to gastronomy, beaches, culture, history, heritage, competitiveness,
prices, entertainment, culture, which are really important triggers for people to come here
and that’s why we put the promotion of Porto as a tourist location to one side. Because we
felt, once again, that people came here organically, and it wasn’t necessary for us to promote
it. (…)) the good connections we had and the good feedback we got from people was the
trigger for people to go back to their cities and countries and say how wonderful the city is
and that’s much more relevant (…) than seeing it in a magazine, in an impersonal ad (…)
The closeness of the relationships and this non-commercial part, in other words, if anyone
who comes here says they really like it, everyone knows they weren’t paid to do it. Simply
because they like it, because of the time they spend here, they’ve become a camouflaged
ambassador for Porto. And that’s why we’re starting to channel more money into corporate
tourism (E1).

38.5 Conclusion

Regarding the events that take place in the cities and which are most relevant to
the hotel industry, most of the interviewees said that business events are the most
important for the hotel industry, while sporting events were also very relevant for
some participants.
The data collected in the interviews are in line with the information presented
in the literature review, which mentions that business events are of vital importance
in cities, due to the economic impact they can generate, and because they address
the issue of seasonality [12, 14, 31–34]. From the hoteliers’ point of view, sporting
events also generate a large influx of participants, which ends up having a positive
impact on hotel business. This perspective is also in line with the literature review.
Although sporting events can be short-lived, their effects can be prolonged due to
the flow of individuals—participants and spectators [35, 36].
Even so, some relevance was given to cultural and entertainment events, especially
events such as the Web Summit, NOS Alive, and Rock in Rio. These results provide
evidence that cultural events can have an impact on hospitality and refute the initial
idea that music events might not have a major impact because attendees of these
events seek other types of accommodation [13]. However, the impact of these events
may be directly related to their size and the specific audience they attract.
However, the importance of cultural and entertainment events was more empha-
sized by representatives linked to the organization of events, confirming that events
such as the São João festivities end up really positioning the city, but they attract
492 D. Liberato et al.

the resident population much more than tourists, not exerting much relevance on the
hotel industry [1, 14, 33, 34].

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Chapter 39
Entrepreneurship and Covid-19: The
Entrepreneurial Challenge in a Global
Pandemic

Silvia Lorena Llamuca-Pérez , Tania Morales Molina,

and Marcelo Javier Mancheno-Saá

Abstract The purpose of this study is to analyze the most relevant factors affecting
the development of new businesses that have been set up during the covid-19
pandemic. The main challenges in the entrepreneurial phenomenon are identified
in this study, which represent an immediate contribution to the discussion on the
development and economic evolution, emphasizing the impact of creativity, innova-
tion, and entrepreneurship in sudden health emergencies. For this purpose, descriptive
research and literature reviews were done, where the years 2019–2020–2021 were
contrasted. The growth and decrease of taxpayers in the mentioned periods were
analyzed with the support of the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) during the opening,
closing, and suspension phases. Therefore, the researchers analyzed the factors that
contributed to the decline of small and medium businesses in Ecuador during the
health crisis.

39.1 Introduction

Today, small and medium-sized companies play a significant role in the market,
mainly because they contribute to the creation and development of employment
opportunities in societies and fulfill their business activities. Therefore, since their
creation, small and medium-sized companies have been one of the main sources of

S. L. Llamuca-Pérez (B) · M. J. Mancheno-Saá

Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica, Ambato, Ecuador
e-mail: [email protected]
M. J. Mancheno-Saá
e-mail: [email protected]
T. Morales Molina
Universidad Técnica de Ambato, Ambato, Ecuador
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 495
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_39
496 S. L. Llamuca-Pérez et al.

local and national economic prosperity, given that their productive activities have
had a great social contribution and have been affected during the crisis [1].
Theoretically, the image of entrepreneurs constitutes a basic element of the
economic system, given that the creativity and nature of entrepreneurs are char-
acterized by risk taking. At the historical moment arises decisive innovations for
the economic development of a country. Empirically, Ecuador and Latin America
face a high level of entrepreneurship with very low-quality levels, mainly due to the
inclusion of new companies in the informal economy.
There is no doubt that Small Medium Enterprises (SMEs) are one of the business
sectors most affected by the pandemic; at the same time, these organizations play a
vital role in providing basic goods and services to people in times of crisis. The main
business challenge in the covid-19 era is the financial impact, which is related to the
decrease in international and domestic demand. Therefore, their economic income,
the difficulties to obtain financial credit, and the various conflicts to acquire or not
imported materials reduce the employability and productivity of talents.
However, for organizations, this situation is considered critical and not favorable
for sustainability; in other words, due to lack of working capital, low competitive-
ness, low-capacity utilization, internal and external costs have decreased. External
demand, rising unemployment, and falling exports have put pressure on the increasing
bankruptcy of companies. This leads to lower production lots, economies of scale,
loss of reach and learning. All of these have a negative impact on variables such as
employment, wages, and income distribution. Therefore, companies of all sizes are
affected, especially the tourism, service, and trade industries [16].
The research helps to find opportunities for improvement, since as companies
contribute to economic development, they are likely to be able to reinvent themselves
nationally and regionally by opting for digital marketing or home-delivery commerce.
By analyzing the reasons and effects of the closure of such organizations, a precise
inquiry can be made about the consequences and effects on the local economy, which
until now have been uncertain.
Reference [10] states that small and medium-sized businesses will have no future
without state support. State support includes many issues, including strong public
spending that provides liquidity, tax incentives for many companies. From a business
perspective, this epidemic involves the injection of capital, but the challenges of
innovation and creativity are equally important. The expansion of covid-19 in these
past months has made the stock market unstable, having a serious impact on the
development of the global economy.

39.2 Development

In the predictions of almost all commercial, industrial, and service organizations,

covid-19 is a dark smoke that does not allow to clearly see the future of the economy,
which is an inevitable fact. No one predicted that the year 2020 would bring several
problems such as travel cancelations, panic buying, factory closures, social isolation,
39 Entrepreneurship and Covid-19: The Entrepreneurial Challenge … 497

saturation of medical services, online shopping, and services, telecommuting, and

a massive increase in the number of unemployed populations. Generally, no one
expected a pandemic and the complications that it demanded. If it can be anticipated,
then it seems that after such a major disaster, a new reality has emerged. This scenario
provides opportunities for conversion, modification, and improvement of routines and
processes. Businesses play a fundamental role in changing society and in establishing
this new normality, and entrepreneurs are reinventing activities that will allow them
to generate income [2].

39.2.1 Covid-19 Pandemic

Since ancient times, mankind has experienced a series of epidemics, such as the
plague of Athens, the Bubonic plague, or the Black Death among others that have
occurred at different times in history. The outbreak of severe respiratory disease in
Wuhan, China, was identified for the first time in December 2019, describing it as
a disease called covid-19 caused by a virus called SARS-CoV-2, and its spread was
already unstoppable.
On the economic side, the productive system has been partially paralyzed, where
only the basic necessary sectors such as food, health, pharmaceuticals, and chemicals
could produce, which caused the interruption of income of the companies where
the payment of salaries, payment of basic services, and financial expenses were
complicated. Due to the lack of business reactivation policies on the part of the
State, payments for services began to be delayed, with the possibility of bankruptcy,
causing greater unemployment and breaking the chain of payments [13].
A graphical model is established that makes specific all the areas of the variable:
498 S. L. Llamuca-Pérez et al.

Source Open Knowledge Maps (2022). Overview of research on covid-19. Retrieved

from https://openknowledgemaps.org/map/70a9f00d99dfe256093983e272b1f5f7

39.2.2 Business Management

Since the beginning, business management has been the focus that is responsible for
identifying and determining in companies various strategies that pursue their growth,
being able to take on the challenges of today’s competition, which will allow survival
in globalization, being one of the biggest trends, which acquires relevance in the
approach to customer experience [15].
Rodríguez and Albizuri [21] say that it is important to know that the effects of this
crisis on the world economy are impossible to predict, given the uncertainty about
the progress of the pandemic, which is why numerous national and international
organizations have created contingency plans that in any case anticipate a fall in
39 Entrepreneurship and Covid-19: The Entrepreneurial Challenge … 499

Gross Domestic Product (GDP). To face the current situation, business management
must consider a variety of indications to guide and orient entrepreneurs and managers
of organizations such as: communication with customers, operations, cash flows, and
human talent management.

Source Open Knowledge Maps (2022). Overview of research on gestión empresarial.

Retrieved from https://openknowledgemaps.org/map/db84a5f7a7a0ab021b8bb29c
5681826a

39.2.3 Entrepreneurship

The term “entrepreneurship” comes from the French “entrepreneur” which means
pioneer and refers to a person characterized by buying products at a certain price to
sell them on the market at unknown prices. It is also known that entrepreneurs are
directly involved in the balance of supply and demand although currently its use is
limited to refer to a new project or a new company that starts a person or group of
people with a differential plus, which makes the product or service unique [17].
The pandemic has influenced entrepreneurship in an accelerated way where the
lack of jobs and other income alternatives may have made more people to start their
own business in 2020 and 2021.
If new businesses are referred to as innovative or not, it is necessary to analyze in
business terms that innovation is usually understood as the introduction of new prod-
ucts or services, or in the use of new technologies or processes [4]. New businesses
can be ideally positioned for one or both, as they have no commitment to existing
products or services and can adopt the latest technologies if they have enough access
to knowledge and financing.
500 S. L. Llamuca-Pérez et al.

Source Open Knowledge Maps (2022). Overview of research on emprender.

Retrieved from https://openknowledgemaps.org/map/62dbe59e9252aba11ec62c00
9296a3dc

39.2.4 Technology

Today’s society is linked to technology, and this is immersed in everyday life, but
do we really know what technology is? Several authors agree that it comes from
the Greek term “Techno” which means technique, skill, ability, which is commonly
determined as practice; and on the other hand, the term “logy” whose concept is:
science, knowledge, and study, which is usually called theory. Technology brings
great discoveries that improve quality of life, improve production, save time, shorten
distances, all these to achieve a solution that allows human beings to solve a conflict
or satisfy a need in a specific area [7].
This made social networks almost universal (90.6%) of the population over 5 years
of age. As for e-commerce, 9.2% of companies have online sales options, and 9.7%
of people buy and pay bills through online sources, indicating that it is a method that
is still developing in the country.
These events made it clear that people are adaptable and look for ways to meet
their needs. The challenge for companies in today’s world is to provide products
and services under these new health standards, which means modifying their value
39 Entrepreneurship and Covid-19: The Entrepreneurial Challenge … 501

propositions and adapting them to the present, personalized, intelligent, and fast,
where technology plays an important role. Organizations must develop digital skills
to continue to run normally despite post-pandemic restrictions.

Source https://trends.google.es/trends/explore?date=today%205-y&geo=EC&q=
Emprender

39.3 Methodology

This research met the characteristics of the quantitative approach, due to the fact
that theoretical perspectives were explored, described, and generated through digital
field research linked to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), in order to obtain
accurate numbers for the years 2019–2020–2021, for the right study. Also, the
basic modality of the research was explanatory since the event is considered a
social-economic phenomenon experienced by mankind. The study is retrospective
longitudinal because it takes as reference the years of the pandemic.

39.4 Results Analysis

Once the theoretical review of the research has been carried out, it can be described
that the characteristics of small and medium enterprises were closed down by the
pandemic in Ecuador; such information has been identified from record results at the
website of the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) in the statistical section of economic
activities during the period 2019, 2020, and 2021. Then, it was determined that
in 2019, 225,917 taxpayers were registered in various activities assigned by this
administration, versus the total of passive and suspended registrations of 220,430
taxpayers in relation to 2020 that decrease with a total of 168,619 and 1491. The
following table shows that the first six months in 2021, there are 38,516 active
taxpayers and 383 passive and suspended taxpayers (Table 39.1).
The data obtained from the multidimensional statistics of the tax administration
establishes the percentage distributed of the taxpayers’ status by year in each of the
periods under study (Fig. 39.1).
502 S. L. Llamuca-Pérez et al.

Table 39.1 Economic activities based on RUC (Taxpayer Identification Number—TIN)

2019 2020 2021
225.917 168.619 38.516
Liabilities 3.602 539 8
Suspended 216.828 14.372 375
Total 446.347 183.530 38.899
Source Multidimensional statistics Internal Revenue Service 2021

Fig. 39.1 Taxpayers registered with the tax administration

Likewise, when performing an analysis by year and by state of each of the tax
regimes, in 39% there was a decrease in the registration of new businesses in reference
to 2019 which was 52%, although in 2021 until March it amounts to 9%, as shown
in Fig. 39.2.
In the analysis of the economic activities registered with the tax authorities, the top
five activities were personal services, retail sales in non-specialized stores, restaurant
and mobile food service activities, livestock, and retail sales of other products in
specialized stores, as shown below:
When analyzing the end of activities, it is established that out of 100% of the RUC
(Taxpayer Identification Number—TIN) registrations canceled, whether, in passive
or suspended status in the tax regimes, it is established that the economic activities
that had a higher incidence in 2019 represented activities without the specification
of International Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC) with 75.75%, and for 2020
and 2021, it is given in other personal services’ activities with 22.07% and 22.44%,
respectively.
For the purposes of this research, Ecuador is a middle-income economy. Table 39.2
describes the countries that are part of this category, along with the indicators related
to business activity in the different stages of an enterprise in times of pandemic,
considering the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean.
39 Entrepreneurship and Covid-19: The Entrepreneurial Challenge … 503

Fig. 39.2 Entry of new taxpayers, Internal Revenue Service, March 2021

Table 39.2 Business activity indicators

Country Emerging New Established Business closure Business continued
businesses
Ecuador 26.9 10.8 14.7 5.9 3.4
Colombia 15.3 7.3 4.3 4.2 1.4
Brazil 8.1 15.8 16.2 4.8 1.4
Mexico 2.3 4.2 8 2.6 1.2
Guatemala 11.2 14.6 14.8 4.3 1.7
Source Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, Ecuador
Created by Llamuca Silvia

39.5 Conclusions

The global economic crisis caused by the covid-19 pandemic has certainly caused
many companies to close their doors. This study shows that, due to difficulties, many
companies have closed in Ecuador. Therefore, analysis shows that 18,870 companies
suspended their activities last year due to the current health emergency. These data
were gathered from the statistics provided by IRS that belong to different economic
areas such as commerce, services, and manufacturing throughout the country.
One of the most important and concerning impacts of the problems the world
is currently experiencing is the economic crisis and the financial problems of the
entire country. There will not be a good economic performance. All sectors are
affected, such as small, medium, and large companies distributed in the food industry,
hospitality, entertainment, industrial sector, construction, agriculture sector, tourism,
etc., which in turn face short-, medium-, and long-term effects.
504 S. L. Llamuca-Pérez et al.

The pandemic has caused a crisis, from an evolutionary perspective, it is possible

to consider it as an extreme conflict, leading to polarization of economic entities on
how to deal with this problem, and however, if a consensus is reached, it is possible
that it could lead to a competitive advantage.
Finally, new companies in Ecuador and around the world are one of the most
active factors in the economy, as they stimulate productive activities that provide
more added value, economic, and social development. Financial capital constitutes a
fundamental axis in the progress of all compañies, as well as in long term economic
growth. The employer of all its dimensions is creative, the value of the creators,
the technological innovation tool will allow the market trend, always observing and
studying which are the strategies that will allow the reactivation of the whole financial
sector, an event that was caused by the covid-19.

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de COVID-19 en América Latina (2021)
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pandemia (2020)
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responsables ante la pandemia generada por el COVID-19. Rev. Hispanoam. Hist Ideas 46, 1–11
(2020)
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en Gestión Empresarial. RECIMUNDO 3(3 ESP), 659–681 (2019)
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501–520 (2020)
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Organizaciones Y Negocios) 7(2), 1–17 (2020)
Chapter 40
Educational Practice: The Domain
of Curricular Autonomy (DCA) at Fontes
Pereira de Melo School

Ana Ferreira and Marta Villares

Abstract The present article revisits a discussion about the Curricular Autonomy
Domain within the context of Portuguese education. Curricular Autonomy is a
concept that essentially represents changes in methodology and assessment. One
should question if it is a reachable practice and if schools are able to implement
the necessary changes. In Portugal, the changes in education policies arose after the
revision of the Basic Law of the educational system of 2009, especially through the
(Decreto-Lei nº 55/2018 de 6 de julho. Diário da República nº 129 - Série I. Ministério
da Educação, Lisboa), that “establishes the curriculum of basic and secondary educa-
tion and the guiding principles of learning assessment”. This document determines
the implementation of the Curricular Autonomy Domain in schools, starting in the
school year 2018–2019. However, its implementation has not been consensual, and
four years later, its implementation and effectiveness in terms of learning are still
questioned. Although all teachers recognize the major changes and the need to adapt
teaching practices to a new generation of students, they are not always able to iden-
tify the best ways to meet the students’ demands in a global world where knowledge
should be seen in an integrated perspective. The main goal of this work is to under-
stand to what extent students and teachers consider the development of teamwork
projects’ determinant in the success of teaching, understanding the interdisciplinary
approach as a key resource to appropriate knowledge. In fact, if interdisciplinarity is
considered essential for the learning process, then project work can be an appealing
tool for students, motivating them to research and questioning, essential conditions
for successful learning. Thus, in a perspective of inclusion in education, we ask

A. Ferreira · M. Villares (B)

School of Hospitality and Tourism of Polytechnic Institute of Porto (ESHT), Rua D. Sancho I,
981, 4480-876 Vila do Conde, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Ferreira
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Ferreira
CiTUR Researcher, Center for Tourism Research, Development, and Innovation, Vila do Conde,
Portugal

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 507
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_40
508 A. Ferreira and M. Villares

ourselves about the effect that the Domain of Curricular Autonomy may have on
students’ learning, which activities are being introduced/implemented and what is
the effectiveness/relevance that students and teachers attribute to these Domains of
Curricular Autonomy (DCA). To carry out this study, a questionnaire was applied to
teachers and another one to students from the 5th to 12th grade, from the elementary
and secondary school Fontes Pereira de Melo, in Porto. The goal was to assess the
effect that the proposed activities in the DCA have on learning and how the Domains
of Curricular Autonomy are integrated in teaching practices. In order to enrich the
study, one conducted a survey to understand the teachers’ position regarding the
implementation of the DCA in their teaching practice.

40.1 Introduction

The Portuguese educational system assumes as a priority the development of an inclu-

sive school, promoting better learning for all students and the operationalization of
the skills’ profile they should develop. Furthermore, to enhance the exercise of an
active and informed citizenship throughout life [2], presents the Domain of Curric-
ular Autonomy (DCA) that aims to give schools autonomy for a curricular devel-
opment, appropriating it to specific contexts and their students’ needs. This area of
curricular autonomy presupposes an integrated management of knowledge, valuing
the disciplinary knowledge, but also the interdisciplinary work, the diversification
of procedures and assessment tools, the promotion of research skills, relationship,
analysis, the field of presentation and argumentation techniques, the ability to work
cooperatively and with autonomy.
Thus, it is essential to consider the curriculum an instrument which schools can
manage and develop locally so that all students achieve the competences foreseen
in the profile of students leaving compulsory education, i.e., that each school can
counteract the main factors of failure, adopting appropriate solutions to the contexts
and the specific needs of their students.
To examine the outcomes of the curricular autonomy, this study pursues the
following questions: (1) How do teachers respond to the new Curricular Autonomy
Domain? (2) How does enhanced curricular autonomy affect the school practice? (3)
What do students think about it?

40.2 Theoretical Framework

The current educational system in Portugal is supported by the [5] which establishes
the general framework of the educational system. This Basic Law of the Education
System presents the guiding principles of the whole educational system and defines its
objectives, assuming as a priority the implementation of an education policy focused
40 Educational Practice: The Domain of Curricular Autonomy (DCA) … 509

on people, that ensures equal access to public school, promoting educational success
and, in this way, equal opportunities.
However, in 2017, and following the recognition of the evolution of society and in
particular the multiple challenges that have been posed to the individual, it has become
necessary to consider how the educational systems can contribute to the development
of values and skills that enable students to respond to the complex challenges of this
century and cope with the unpredictability resulting from the evolution of knowledge
and technology.
In this context, the school will have to reconfigure itself to meet the demands of
times of unpredictability and change, which implies changes in teaching and didactic
practices in order to adapt the globality of educational action to the purposes of the
profile of student competencies.
In order to achieve these purposes, the [2] appears where it is stated that “the
available data show that those objectives are not, yet fully achieved, to the extent
that not all students are guaranteed the right to learning and educational success. On
the other hand, society is currently facing new challenges, arising from globalization
and technological development in acceleration, having the school to prepare students,
who will be young people and adults in 2030, for jobs not yet created, for technologies
not yet invented, for the resolution of problems that are still unknown” [2]. This allows
us to say that the tutelage shows a great concern so that today’s school meets the real
needs of a society in continuous construction.
In an analysis of recent changes to education policies [12], one highlights that,
although with varied impacts and diverse appropriations, a wide range of dimensions
emerge, invoking decentralization, school autonomy, and flexibility.
Following this tendency, this Decree-Law is based on three main guiding princi-
ples: autonomy, curricular flexibility, and inclusion; it deepens the concept of articu-
lation and interdisciplinarity with the implementation of areas of curricular autonomy
and incidence on project work with the involvement/participation of areas of knowl-
edge; and assessment is understood as a collection and sharing of information, in the
formative and summative modalities, applying a variety of instruments, appropriate
to the different recipients, the diversity of learning, and the contexts in which they
occur.
The aim is to build a school that can get away from the role of transmitting
knowledge and that teaches to have a global conscience, in which the student at
the same time works on his individual formation and his community conscience.
To create a school that gives priority to cooperative and collaborative work instead
of individual work. To build a school that works on critical spirit, creativity, and
autonomy from an early age, so that students can have confidence in their choices
and make them consciously and thus improve their learning, the learning of all their
colleagues and “teach” teachers to teach them.
To this end, the same Decree-Law states that “the achievement of significant
learning and the development of more complex skills presuppose time for consolida-
tion and an integrated management of knowledge, valuing disciplinary knowledge,
but also interdisciplinary work, the diversification of assessment procedures and
instruments, the promotion of research skills, relationship, analysis, the domain of
510 A. Ferreira and M. Villares

presentation and argumentation techniques, the ability to work cooperatively and with
autonomy” [2] so that, and also according to the same document, “schools are chal-
lenged, (…) to (…)) be able to (i) have greater flexibility in curriculum management,
with a view to stimulating interdisciplinary work, in order to deepen, strengthen and
enrich the essential learning; (ii) implement the citizenship and development compo-
nent, as an area of work present in the different educational and training offers, with
a view to the exercise of active citizenship, democratic participation, in intercultural
contexts of sharing and collaboration and confrontation of ideas on current issues;
(iii) to encourage students to develop research, evaluation, reflection, and critical and
autonomous information mobilization skills, with a view to solving problems and
reinforcing their self-esteem and well-being; (iv) adopting different ways of orga-
nizing school work, namely by creating educational teams that make the teaching
work more profitable and focus it on the students; (v) investing in the promotion
of project work and in the development of communication and expression experi-
ences in oral, written, visual, and multimodal modalities, valuing the students’ role
as authors, providing them with significant learning situations; (vi) strengthen the
dynamics of learning evaluation focusing them on the diversity of instruments that
allow a greater knowledge of the effectiveness of the work done and a follow-up at
the first sign of difficulty in the students’ learning” [2].
In this sense, the mentioned Decree-Law “establishes the curriculum of basic
and secondary education, the guiding principles of its design, operationalization and
evaluation of learning, ensures that all students acquire the knowledge and develop
the skills and attitudes that contribute to achieving the competencies set out in the
Profile of Students Leaving Compulsory Schooling” [2] and, paragraph e) of Article
3 defines, among others, the “Domains of curricular autonomy” (DCA), as “areas of
confluence of interdisciplinary work and/or curricular articulation, developed from
the basic curricular matrix of an educational and training offer, with reference to the
curricular documents, as a result of the exercise of autonomy and flexibility, being,
for this purpose, summoned, totally or partially, the times intended for curriculum
components, subject areas and disciplines” [2].
This aims to be an instrument at the service of a coherence within the educational
system that allows achieving the profile of the students exiting compulsory schooling,
a document that sets out what it is intended that young people achieve at the end of
compulsory schooling. According to this document, the students of this generation
build and consolidate a scientific and artistic culture with a humanistic basis. “To do
so, they mobilize values and skills that enable them to intervene in the life and history
of individuals and societies, to make free and informed decisions on natural, social,
and ethical issues, and to have a capacity for active, conscious and responsible civic
participation”.
These areas of curricular autonomy (DCA) are in line with the guiding principles
of educational action expressed in Article 4, which, in paragraph i), highlights the
“valorization of the interdisciplinary and articulated management and teaching of
the curriculum, particularly through the development of projects that bring together
learning from different subjects, planned, implemented and evaluated by all teachers
of the class council or school year” [2].
40 Educational Practice: The Domain of Curricular Autonomy (DCA) … 511

In summary, the DCA, in an intersection of learning from different disciplines,

explores pedagogical and didactic paths, in which practical and/or experimental work
and the development of research, relationship, and analysis skills are privileged, based
namely on
• The themes or problems approached from disciplinary perspectives, in an
interdisciplinary approach.
• The concepts, facts, relations, procedures, skills, and competences, in its transver-
sality and disciplinary specificity.
• The textual genres associated to the production and transmission of information
and knowledge present in all disciplines.
Thus, the Common European Framework is one of the options to enrich curricular
planning, through proposals for interdisciplinary work, in which students are led to
a meaningful learning against the memorization process. It is important, however, to
understand what the position of Portuguese teachers is toward this autonomy and the
practices to be implemented, because according to [5] “contrary to the widespread
belief that teachers want more autonomy to customize their curricula to meet the
needs of the students, (…) teachers did not look favorably on the reinforcement of
curricular autonomy nor did they believe that it would diversify the school”.
Education scholars and practioners argue that teacher’s autonomy has a great value
in education. They argue that schools should take more active and creative roles in
constructing curricula and organizing learning experiences for their students [10].
This autonomy is associated with a collective effort among teachers to work together
to synchronize the scope and sequence of the school-wide curriculum, which requires
communication and collaboration among them.
Empirical studies, however, have demonstrated that teachers may not welcome
more curricular autonomy and that autonomy may not produce desirable conse-
quences in practice, what support the notion that, as [9] points out, teachers’
autonomy is both “resolution and problem”. That is, one cannot simply assume
that teachers prefer more curricular autonomy and would use it to develop localized,
student-centered curriculum. Rather, seemingly enhanced autonomy could lead to
complicated, often unexpected, results in practice [5].
According to [7], students in OECD countries and economies receive an average
of 7638 h of compulsory instruction during their primary and lower secondary educa-
tion, ranging from 5 334 h in Poland to almost double that in Australia (11,060 h).
Portugal is in ninth place, with a total of 7934 h 5429.4 of them in primary and 2505
in lower secondary education.
In addition, on average across OECD countries and economies, instruction in
reading, writing, and literature and in mathematics represents 42% of compulsory
instruction time for primary school students and 27% of compulsory instruction time
for lower secondary school students [7].
Providing instruction in formal classroom settings accounts for a large portion
of public investment in education. Almost all countries have statutory or regulatory
requirements regarding hours of instruction. These are most often stipulated as the
512 A. Ferreira and M. Villares

minimum number of hours of instruction a school must offer and are based on the
understanding that sufficient time is required for good learning outcomes.
Understanding which the best practices are to achieve better results from such a
long period of life at school thus becomes essential, both in the opinion of teachers
and students as the main actors of their own learning.
Although one can find some references on the position of university students
on curricular autonomy and the associated work proposals, one cannot find any
bibliographic reference on the opinion of primary and secondary school students on
curricular autonomy and its pedagogical implications.

40.3 Methodology

This study is based on a theoretical approach set on the literature review with the
goal of systematizing the legal framework that supports the Portuguese Educational
System, to evaluate the impact of curricular autonomy on the success of the teaching–
learning process of primary and secondary school students.
In this research, a sample questionnaire to 469 students and 31 teachers was
implemented at Fontes Pereira de Melo School in Porto. The questionnaires, applied
in February 2022, as a Google Forms, are slightly different but both are divided
into two parts: in the first part the identification of the respondent, as age, gender,
schooling level taught. In the second part, one questions the subjects that normally
use this working methodology and which competences/abilities are enhanced. The
students were also asked about the effect of this teaching–learning methodology on
their educational success and final grade. The analysis of the results, made with the
IPSS application, allowed us to determine the importance of DCA in all the processes
of teaching–learning and in particular the teachers and students’ opinion about its
importance in the students’ success. To complement the study, another survey was
conducted, to understand the teachers’ position regarding the methodologies for the
implementation of the DCA in their teaching practice.

40.4 Legal Assumptions and Teaching Practice

To reflect on the educational system is, above all, to think about the curricular
proposals and teaching practices, but, as mentioned before, these ones have to reflect
the great changes of this century. In fact, the great current challenge is the growing
search for innovative methodologies that enable a pedagogical practice able to over-
come the limits of purely theoretical and traditional teaching, to effectively achieve
the training of the subject as an ethical, critical, reflective, transforming, and human-
ized being. In fact, if many teachers still resist these changes in pedagogical practices
due to the traditional style so strongly rooted (due to the need for systematization
of the educational system), they do not fail to recognize the requirement and need
40 Educational Practice: The Domain of Curricular Autonomy (DCA) … 513

to implement the change/transformation process. However, the uncertainty about

how to make the required deep changes effective is aggravated by the difficulties in
the articulation and collaborative work among peers, in a proposal’s design to share
options that allow students to become more autonomous and at the same time help
them to become active citizens with the capacity to intervene, predict, and solve
problems.
Aware of this urgency arises the areas of curricular autonomy in a normative
proposal to reassess ways of doing and applying the differentiation/flexibility of
the curriculum and learn ways to readjust and reconcile the different pedagogical
practices. The goal is to make learning as meaningful/contextualized as possible for
all students based on the curriculum matrix and the essential learning.
The school in Portugal is gradually and cautiously implementing this whole
process of change and, as a way of evaluating the impacts of this change, we present
as case study the reality of the Fontes Pereira de Melo Elementary and Secondary
school (EBSFPM).

40.5 The Domain of Curricular Autonomy at EBSFPM

School

The Fontes Pereira de Melo School Grouping began in the school year, 2018/19, the
implementation of the DCA, in the early years of the different learning cycles, through
the implementation of pedagogical projects. The aim was to make the application of
these in all years of schooling possible and ultimately, in the possibility of building
cross-cutting projects between cycles of education, taking into account the increasing
complexity of knowledge to be acquired by students, in addition to the intention
to take the opportunity of the Decree-Laws under discussion (54/55 of 2018) to
create specific teaching strategies, individual or group, given the learning pace and
specificities of students who may benefit from them.
This process of change is coincided with the celebration of the 50th anniversary
of EBSFPM, so the Pedagogical Council is defined as the theme for the activities
to be developed in this area “Sources, Communications and Environmental Sustain-
ability”. This theme was addressed across the board by all classes of 5th, 7th, and
10th years of schooling. Each disciplinary group was in charge of choosing the type
of approach to be preferred at each level of schooling, involving various areas of
knowledge and disseminating the final product. It constituted, in this way, a way of
making the students authors of significant learning situations and a way of showing
the educational and local community the final result. The integration of these activ-
ities was carried out in phases, being extended in the school year 2019/20 to the
students of the 6th, 8th, and 11th years, and in the year 2020/21, all classes of the
school have carried out activities in the DCA, being now the responsibility of each
class council to define the themes to be addressed. Under the DCA, several and
diverse projects are developed, some of them in partnership with external entities,
514 A. Ferreira and M. Villares

citing as an example, the Porto City Council, the University of Porto and Dr. António
Cupertino de Miranda Foundation.
The implementation of the DCA, school year, 2019/20, in the early years of the
different learning cycles, through pedagogical projects has aimed to make it possible
in all years of schooling and ultimately in the possibility of becoming transversal
between cycles of teaching and learning, considering the increasing complexity of
knowledge to be acquired by students. Furthermore, it is intended to seek that the
school culture invests and integrates, in its structuring documents, a process of curric-
ular and pedagogical transformation/development that is more humanistic, cooper-
ative, and social and to take the opportunity of the Decree-Laws (54/55 of 2018) to
create specific teaching strategies, individual or group, given the learning pace and
specificities of the students who may benefit from them.
Teachers have already started to become aware that there has to be, in some
way, a rupture with the usual past of presenting students with a curriculum and the
respective closed and isolated assessment. The rapid and constant social changes
require a change in practice according to the students’ knowledge in all its essence,
as foreseen in the students’ profile at the end of compulsory schooling.
So now, we will present some reflections on the results obtained from the student
and teacher surveys. Our sample comprised a total of 469 students from the 5th to the
12th year of schooling, regular and vocational education and 31 teachers distributed
by these levels of education.

40.5.1 Results

a. Students

As we can confirm by analyzing Table 40.1, our sample comprised a total of 469
students of the Fontes Pereira de Melo Secondary School, in a universe of 1149
students, from the 5th to the 12th grade, i.e., it represents more than 40% of the
school’s students.
Of these, most attend grade 10 and 11 (18.1%), and only 6.6% attend grade 5
(Table 40.1).
These students were asked about the meaning of the acronym DCA, and according
to the data in the graph in Figs. 40.1 and 40.2, we may conclude that about 56% of the
respondents associate the acronym DCA, with the Domain of Curricular Autonomy.
However, 37.7% think that the acronym means Domain of Curricular Learning and
6.4% think that the acronym means Domain of Curricular Aids. Moreover, about
44% of the surveyed students do not know what it means.
The next question is referred to the students’ understanding of the objectives of
the DCA. As we can see from the analysis of the graph in Fig. 40.3, most students
(43.3%) considered that the aim of the DCA is “to make classes more dynamic and
develop the ability to work in groups” and 28.6% of the students considered that the
aim of the DCA. is “to develop in a dynamic way the necessary skills in the students’
40 Educational Practice: The Domain of Curricular Autonomy (DCA) … 515

Table 40.1 Individual profile

Students/school year Frequency %
of respondents
5th 31 6.6
6th 51 10.9
7th 51 10.9
8th 72 15.4
9th 55 11.7
10th 85 18.1
11th 85 18.1
12th 37 7.9
Total 469 100.0
Source Own elaboration

Fig. 40.1 Meaning of DCA. Source Own elaboration

profile at the end of compulsory education (12th grade)”. We also highlight that 104
students (1%) refer that the main objective of these domains is “to increase the final
results”.
For the achievement of these objectives, most students refer that the subjects
that most promote work in the DCA are the ones that integrate Social Sciences
and Humanities, such as Geography and History, followed by the subjects within
Science (27%) (Fig. 40.3). The subjects that least propose activities/tasks within this
domain, according to the students’ opinion, compose the Language and Technology
departments (15% each one).
Naturally, from the students’ point of view, the importance of this domain is
measured in terms of results because, as we have mentioned, 1% of the students still
consider that their only aim is to increase their own results. Therefore, as we can
see from the graph in Fig. 40.4 of the 462 students surveyed, 80.3% recognized a
516 A. Ferreira and M. Villares

Fig. 40.2 Main goals of DCA. Source Own elaboration

Fig. 40.3 Subjects that most promote DCA. Source Own elaboration

positive effect on their final grades; 1.3% mentioned a negative effect, and 18.4%
consider that there was no impact on the results.
This finding is particularly important if we bear in mind that, when the central
question is about the skills developed rather than the marks obtained, of a total
of 452 students, 52.3% answered that they felt progress in their ability to work in
groups; 4.9% increased their sense of leadership; 9.5% felt more autonomous; 16.2%
learned to respect their colleagues’ opinions better; 8% felt more responsible; and
1.5% showed that they were developing empathy for others. In short, we can conclude
that the DCA work demonstrably develops the relational and behavioral skills of our
students (Fig. 40.5).
40 Educational Practice: The Domain of Curricular Autonomy (DCA) … 517

Fig. 40.4 Effects of DCA activities on final grade. Source Own elaboration

Fig. 40.5 Skills developed through DCA activities. Source Own elaboration

The analysis allows us to present a positive final balance despite also presenting
paths for improvement; therefore, it was important to question teachers, agents in
charge as proponents and moderators of the whole process.

b. Teachers

According to Table 40.2, we can state that the teachers who took part in the sample
(31 respondents) represent the various departments, but not in the same proportion.
In fact, the most representative department was languages (32.3%) and the least
518 A. Ferreira and M. Villares

representative were teachers of Social Sciences and Humanities or Technologies

(12.9% and 9.7%, respectively).
Naturally, these teachers teach at different levels of schooling, with most of the
respondents being from the 3rd cycle (39.0%). Also, according to Table 40.2, 24.4%
of the teachers who replied to the questionnaire teach vocational education.
The teachers refer that the competence that students develop most with this
domain is teamwork (50%), developing soft skills (35.7%). Interestingly, no teacher
recognizes the importance of DCA work in developing leadership skills (Fig. 40.6).
When we questioned teachers about the main objectives of the development of the
DCA (Fig. 40.7), enabling teamwork (27.6%), exploring concepts, facts, relation-
ships, and skills in general (23.7%), and learning to exchange and respect opinions
(21.1%) stand out.
Thus, most teachers consider that DCA activities should constitute a tool for
student assessment (65.6%) and 3.4% consider that these activities should be inte-
grated into a broader assessment instrument. Interestingly 27.6% of teachers consider
that DCA should not be reflected in the assessment of their students (Fig. 40.8).

Table 40.2 Teachers’ profile

Teachers Frequency %
1. Teaching Level 2nd cycle 31 17.1
3rd cycle 51 39.0
Vocational secondary 51 24.4
Regular secondary 72 19.5
2. Curricular Department Languages 10 32.3
Social Sciences and Humanities 4 12.9
Technology 3 9.7
Arts 6 19.4
Exact Sciences 8 25.7
Total 469 100.0
Source Own elaboration

60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
30.0%
20.0%
10.0%
0.0%
Empathy Development of soft skills Teamwork

Fig. 40.6 Skills developed through DCA activities. Source Own elaboration
40 Educational Practice: The Domain of Curricular Autonomy (DCA) … 519

Fig. 40.7 Main goals of DCA activities. Source Own elaboration

70.0%

60.0%

50.0%

40.0%

30.0%

20.0%

10.0%

0.0%
Yes No Yes, but integrated
into other
instruments and not
independently

Fig. 40.8 DAC as an evaluation tool. Source Own elaboration

Moreover, when questioned directly about the development of DCA projects, most
of the teachers interviewed are still reluctant, considering that either they do not have
enough autonomy, since at the end of the study cycle students will only be assessed
by their theoretical knowledge and not in terms of competencies, or because they
520 A. Ferreira and M. Villares

are not familiar with the methodologies to be implemented and the interdisciplinary
work required.

40.6 Final Considerations

This work leaves no doubt: The project work influences students’ learning.
As it is a content approach, based on the social constructivist learning theory,
this work methodology in which the teacher provides a conscious and intentionally
directed activity, in which both the teacher and the student are active agents in the
educational processes [4, 8], stimulates attention, motivation, imagination, reflection,
and the development of critical thinking. In fact, students consider the incorporation
of these working strategies as an added value in the teaching–learning process, since
it helps them to interpret the information and awakens a greater motivation, thus
providing a better context for learning; however, in the teachers’ universe, the opinion
is not unanimous.
In this sense, the DCA is an excellent learning vehicle and as such enriches the
development of the teaching–learning process, which should be an additional reason
for the teacher to invest in the DCA to potentiate the whole teaching–learning process
of his students.
We would like to point out that although 44% of the surveyed students still cannot
associate the acronym DCA with the Domain of Curricular Autonomy, most of the
students identify as main objectives of the work developed in this scope the ones of
“making the classes more dynamic and developing the capacity to work in group”
(43%) and “dynamically developing the necessary competencies to the development
of the students’ profile at the end of the compulsory schooling” (29%).
It is also noteworthy that 52.3% of the students recognize progress in their ability
to work in groups, 16.2% learn to respect their colleagues opinion, 9.5% feel more
autonomous, and 4.9% work on their leadership skills. In summary, 80.3% of the
students say that the activities of the DCA have a positive impact on their results.
When we cross-reference this information with that provided by the teachers, they
agree that the competence most developed by the students is group work (50%), as
well as soft skills (35.7%), but they do not recognize that students develop leadership
competence. In fact, teachers point out teamwork (27.6%), exploration of concepts,
facts, and skills in general (23.7%), and respecting the opinion of others (21.1%)
as the main objectives of the DCA. In fact, and also according to the interviews
conducted, as reported [5], teachers did not welcome the reinforcement of curricular
autonomy, nor did they believe that it would promote better results for the school.
We live in a hyper-connected and global world of great changes and uncertainties
to which education must respond. In this sense, we should promote teaching aimed
at helping to develop in students’ greater mental flexibility and emotional balance,
as well as the ability to discern relevant information from irrelevant information.
The development of the Domains of Curricular Autonomy by fostering collaborative
40 Educational Practice: The Domain of Curricular Autonomy (DCA) … 521

practices for problem-solving stimulates critical spirit, imagination and creativity,

crucial tools for building more aware, responsible, and autonomous citizens.

References

1. Decreto-Lei nº 54/2018 de 6 de julho. Diário da República nº 129 - Série I. Ministério da

Educação, Lisboa
2. Decreto-Lei nº 55/2018 de 6 de julho. Diário da República nº 129 - Série I. Ministério da
Educação, Lisboa
3. Despacho n.º 6478/2017, 26 de julho. Diário da República, nº 143 – Série II
4. Cavalcanti, L.S.: Geografia e práticas de ensino. Goiânia Editora Alternativa (2005)
5. Hong, W.P., Youngs, P.: Why are teachers afraid of curricular autonomy? Contradictory effects
of the new national curriculum in South Korea. Asia Pac. J. Educ. 36(sup1), 20–33 (2016)
6. Lei de Bases do Sistema Educativo, Lei n.º 46/86, de 14 de outubro. Diário da República, nº
237 – Série I
7. OECD: Education at a Glance 2021 Chapter D: The learning environment and organisation
of schools (2021). https://www.oecd.org/education/education-at-a-glance/EAG2021_Annex3_
ChapterD.pdf?_ga=2.200874862.1555655472.1684245671-1349915063.1684245670
8. Pires, L.M., Alves, A.O.: Revisitando os conceitos geográficos e sua abordagem no Ensino.
Desafios da Didática de Geografia, Goiânia, Editora da PUC, Goiás 1(1), 235–254 (2013)
9. Shulman, L.S.: The wisdom of practice: essays on teaching, learning and learning to teach
(2004)
10. Skilbeck, M.: School-Based Curriculum Development. The Roots of Educational Change:
International Handbook of Educational Change, pp. 109–132 (2005)
11. Sousa, A.I.C.: O Decreto-Lei nº 55/2018: um estudo de caso no 1º ciclo do ensino básico,
Master Dissertation, Instituto Politécnico do Porto (2021)
12. Verger, A., Normand, R.: Nueva gestión pública y educación: elementos teóricos y conceptuales
para el estudio de un modelo de reforma educativa global. Educação Sociedade 36, 599–622
(2015)
Chapter 41
Societies, ICT, and Higher Education
in the Twenty-First Century: Reflections
and Proposals

C. M. Santana

Abstract Universities contribute to building a country’s capacity to participate in

a knowledge-based economy. This article aims to analyze the role of HEIs in the
twenty-first century, the possibilities and limits of ICT usage in higher education, as
well as the challenges that need to be overcome for the development of DTC at this
level of education. To achieve this goal, a literature review will be presented, as well
as a proposal for to develop digital competence of university professors for future
implementation.

41.1 Introduction

The term “knowledge society”, which appeared at the end of the 1990s, has come to
be used particularly in academia as an alternative to the term “information society”
(IS).
However, even though it is considered a less complete term than Knowledge
Society, the most important discussions and decisions developed globally about post-
capitalist society (World Summit on the Information Society in Geneva, [9], and in
Tunis [26]) have used the terminology Information Society, defined by Campá [8] as
that society in which “information”, that is, the communication of news or knowledge,
the transmission—and, in any case, the storage—of virtual knowledge, predominates
or has decisive importance.
The term “Society 2.0” is also used to refer to the Information Society. This term
is related to the term “Web 2.0”, coined by O’Reilly [19] to characterize not only
technology but an attitude toward increasing levels of interaction and collaboration
among Net users, made possible by simpler, friendlier, and more intuitive environ-
ments. In this model of communication environment, O’Reilly warned almost twenty
years ago, companies, governments, universities, and their professors would move,

C. M. Santana (B)
Universidade Nilton Lins, Avenida Professor Nilton Lins, 3259 Manaus, Amazonas, Brasil
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 523
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_41
524 C. M. Santana

which is why it was necessary to prepare these agents for the type of society and
interpersonal relations that would be created from Web 2.0.
This article aims to analyze the role of universities in the twenty-first century,
the possibilities and limits of ICT usage in higher education, and the challenges that
need to be overcome for the development of digital teaching competencies (DTC) at
this level of education. To achieve this goal, a literature review will be presented, as
well as a proposal for training to develop digital competence of university professors
for future implementation.

41.2 The Role of University in the Knowledge Society

41.2.1 University as an Agent of Change

Knowledge has a central role in the production processes of Contemporary Society,

resulting from the changes that have occurred in the economic-productive paradigm
since the technical-scientific revolution of the 1970s: the traditional production
factors (capital, labor, and natural resources), although important, lose ground to
the need for the intensive use of knowledge and information, within the new logic
of informational capitalism [9].
Universities can make a decisive contribution to building a country’s capacity to
participate in an increasingly knowledge-based economy, as highlighted in a World
Bank report in which the institution points out that “Tertiary education is funda-
mental not only for building the intellectual capacity for the production and usage of
knowledge but also for promoting the lifelong learning practices needed to constantly
update individual knowledge and skills” [1].
In this same vein, in the Information Society Universities should not only focus on
training professionals with a solid base of technical knowledge but also encourage
the development of soft skills which are crucial in contemporary society, such as
critical thinking skills, problem-solving, communication, and collaboration [18].
Encouraging students to develop additional competencies and skills such as
entrepreneurship, environmental and social responsibility, as well as stimulating
learning in settings where they can apply their knowledge, either by taking part
in internships, research and innovation projects, or in work environments, among
others, is also part of the new role played by universities in the twenty-first century.
In this sense, ISTE and UNESCO’s [27, 28] guiding documents provided the
foundations of strategies that nations should follow to prepare themselves and their
citizens for a society in which the use of ICT plays a strategic role. Based on these
guidelines, several countries in Europe and the USA have developed studies, frame-
works, and strategies aimed at preparing their citizens to develop the skills and
competencies required by the Information Society.
Governments in Latin American nations like Brazil, however, have not made
comprehensive plans to train their citizens at the necessary speed to develop the
41 Societies, ICT, and Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century … 525

skills and competencies required by the Information Society. Such deficiency became
evident during the Sars-Cov2 Pandemic, declared in March 2020 by the World Health
Organization (WHO) and which required intensive use of ICT in all areas, including
higher education.

41.2.2 New Technologies in Education and Higher

Education: Possibilities and Limitations

When planning the use of ICTs, contemporary university institutions must be aware
that these technologies should be geared toward contributing to the creation of a
better and more just world, as pointed out in the Declaration of Principles of the
Geneva World Summit on Information Society (2003): “The Information Society
must be people-centered, inclusive and development-oriented, where everyone can
create, access, utilize and share information and knowledge, enabling individuals,
communities and peoples to achieve their full potential in promoting their sustainable
development and improving their quality of life (…)”.
Universities utilize a variety of tools and platforms to develop their human resource
training activities. In addition to face-to-face teaching, for the development of activ-
ities through the WEB, whether for Distance Education (DE) or interactive activi-
ties in blended learning courses, HEIs use online platforms, also known as Virtual
Learning Environments (VLEs), designed institutionally or externally, such as Web
Course Tools (WebCT), Moodle, and TelEduc, between others.
Teachers can use, through the platforms mentioned above and many others that
have emerged more recently, to a greater or lesser extent, interactive tools such as
discussion forums, e-mail systems, live chats, content in web page formats, PDF
files, in the teaching–learning process.
The possibility of employing Open Educational Resources—OERs, available in
repositories on the Web and covering all areas of knowledgement, enriches the
curriculum, and students can access and use them in face-to-face and/or virtual
environments.
An innovative initiative of ICT use for educational purposes in Brazil was devel-
oped in Amazonas, in 2007, initially focused on basic education. Technology-
Mediated In-Person Teaching (Ensino Presencial Mediado Por Tecnologias—EPMT)
emerged as an initiative to overcome the challenges of training human resources in
the smaller, less populated towns of the state, in the middle of the Amazon forest. The
geographical challenges of this state led the Amazonas State Education Department
to develop this ground-breaking solution, in which teachers conduct their classes
in a media center in the capital, Manaus, connected in real-time with educational
institutions in the small towns of Amazonas, where there are also auxiliary teachers
who provide support to the students in person.
According to Santos [23], Technology-Mediated In-Person Teaching (EPMT)
uses “interactive communication technologies that enable the expansion of
526 C. M. Santana

classroom-based courses to other locations. The teachers and the institution control
the pace and place, and the transmission platform used as a virtual learning envi-
ronment proposed by the Amazonas State University (UEA) is Internet Protocol
Television—IP.TV ”.
The EPMT has received several national and international awards and is currently
being applied, also in Higher Education by the Amazonas State University (UEA),
to offer, from Manaus, an undergraduate course in economics to one of the state’s
small towns.
The Ministry of Education and Culture (MEC) replicated the experience of
Amazonas’ EPMT in other Brazilian states, starting with the creation of the National
Educational Media Center (CNME) in 2018. In that year, this National Center already
reached 17 of the 26 Brazilian states and the Federal District, benefiting 10,000
students in 150 schools, with plans to reach all Brazilian states, and it is also being
used as a tool for teacher training [17].
The increasing use of mobile devices for educational purposes is also worth
emphasizing. In 2013, UNESCO published the Policy Guidelines for Mobile
Learning. This type of learning involves using mobile technologies such as smart-
phones, tablets, and e-readers, alone or in conjunction with other information and
communication technologies (ICT), to enable learning anytime and anywhere [29].
The use of these mobile tools, especially smartphones, benefits learning because
people can use mobile devices to access educational resources, connect with others,
or create content, inside or outside the classroom.
During the pandemic, universities and other higher education institutions that
train highly skilled had to resort, in addition to face-to-face, distance, and hybrid
learning, to Emergency Remote Learning, using all available resources, including
mobile devices, to try to keep educational activities going, even in the scenario of
social isolation due to health issues.
Thus, remote teaching has arrived unexpectedly during the pandemic, and there-
fore, its main characteristic is the emergency implementation of the teaching and
learning process outside the traditional in-person environments, forcing educational
institutions to seek alternatives for the development of its activities on various
platforms and combining various tools, devices, methodologies.
In turn, the usage of AI-based technologies, particularly since 2018, has boosted
the productivity of higher education faculty and students, mainly after the launch
of ChatGPT by AIOpen in late 2022, ushering in Web 3.0, resulting from the
incorporation of artificial intelligence to Web 2.0 [12].
The use of this tool enables the generation of original texts on various subjects
and in various formats by artificial intelligence. There are also concerns of all kinds
because there are no legal frameworks in place to guide the ethical usage of this
powerful technology yet.
Regarding the limitations of ICT use in higher education, it can be said that to
expand the use of ICT in most Brazilian universities, the conditions pointed out a few
decades ago in the Conference of Rectors of Spanish Universities [10] and which
are also applicable to the Brazilian context are still necessary: (i) access of students
and teachers to appropriate infrastructure; (ii) development of methodologies for the
41 Societies, ICT, and Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century … 527

usage of ICT in teaching; (iii) development of teaching materials based on ICT; (iv)
training of teachers and students; and (v) encouraging the use of Information and
Communications Technologies.
Therefore, structural and management issues and insufficient training of teachers
and students in the use of ICT end up leading, in the field of higher education,
especially in Brazil, to a significant increase in dropout rates, students taking leaves
of absence, or abandoning university [14]. New proposals must be presented to
minimize the impacts of the Pandemic on higher education, as well as to try to
accelerate the necessary reduction of the gap between the profile that the Information
Society demands from university teachers and students and the professionals being
trained by higher education institutions.

41.3 Proposal for University Professors Training in ICT

Younger students (“digital natives”—[22]) are already adept at navigating the

cyberspace, but the ICT training of university teachers has not advanced at the same
pace, and new methodologies are needed to help, among other things, in reducing
the digital gap still present between teachers and students, and to result in a higher
level of digital teaching competencies (DTCs).
Historically, models of teacher training have been based on two conceptions, one
that defines a set of desirable characteristics in the professional, while the other
visualizes the teacher in the context of the complex reality in which they work. The
theoretical model, which aims to train professionals capable of responding to the
demands imposed by the academic situation. The critical-reflective model is part of
a broader movement of curricular and teaching renewal whose central idea is that of
the “teacher-researcher”.
For Martínez [16], considering the current needs of the scientific and working
world in the realm of communication networks, university professors of the twenty-
first century must be professionally trained in six aspects: (i) lifelong learning skills;
(ii) communication skills; (iii) collaboration skills; (iv) creative skills, (v) ability to
survive dynamic changes; and (vi) adaptability.
In other words, university professors, to fulfill the tasks that the twenty-first-
century universities demand of them, need not only to master the scientific content
of their subjects, but also to know how to teach what society demands of them, and
this requires that teachers receive adequate and continuous training for this purpose.
In the field of teacher training in ICT, Spark and Loucks-Horsley [25] present a
variety of models, which can still serve as a reference for the development of new
models of teacher education today. Current proposals should be designed taking into
account the complexity of the social context in which universities are inserted and the
educational needs of their teachers. The training models should also consider the four
paradigms that theoretically structure teacher training, according to Zeichner [31],
as cited in Cáceres Mesa et al. [6]: (i) the behaviorist paradigm; (ii) the personalist
528 C. M. Santana

or humanist paradigm; (iii) the traditional-artistic paradigm; and (iv) the critical–
reflexive paradigm.
We consider the critical–reflective paradigm to be the most appropriate for current
and future teacher education programs because it is oriented toward inquiry centered
on critical investigation and reflection on the causes and consequences of classroom
actions. This paradigm gives teachers the intellectual capacity to reflect on and value
their own practice, as well as establish a link between teacher education and the
external sociopolitical reality, aiming to improve the world through education.
In addition, Cabero [5] calls attention to the fact that the skills required from
teachers nowadays must go far beyond mere training by highlighting that “teacher
education in audiovisual and computer media and in new information and commu-
nication technologies must contemplate a variety of dimensions”, considering the
teacher as a reflexive-practitioner.
According to Gutiérrez Martin [13], training teachers to use the new multimedia
technologies should include not only instrumental information but also the knowl-
edge of the hidden curriculum, the implications and consequences of using ICT in
formal and informal education, as well as the context where their professional activity
happens and the social reality in which the educational institution is inserted.
The European Union defines “digital competence” as: “the safe, critical and
responsible use and interaction with digital technologies for learning, at work and
for participation in society. It includes information and data literacy, communication
and collaboration, media literacy, digital content creation (including programming),
security (including digital well-being and cybersecurity-related skills), intellectual
property issues, problem solving and critical thinking” [2].
Paz et al. [21] conducted a study on Digital Teaching Competencies (DTCs) in
the past few years, contemplating research on frameworks for the development of
DTC divided into three subgroups: (a) range of models, by Cuartero et al. [11];
(b) TPACK model, by Ortiz-Revilla et al. [20] and Cabero Almenara and Martínez
Gimeno [4]; (c) DigicompEdu model, by Cabero-Almenara et al. [3] and Caena and
Redecker [7]. It is also worth highlighting that, when associating the topic of DTC
with development, the authors believe that ICTs have continually modified various
fields, including the field of education. Paz et al. [21] also report that there are few
studies concerning the certification of Digital Teaching Competencies.
The definition of the term Teachers Digital Competencies (TDCs) is varied, but
“there are coincidences in fundamental aspects that emphasize the need for teachers
to have didactic and technological knowledge that allow them to make use of digital
technologies in their professional practice, the latter being understood in a broad
sense” [2].
Aiming to contribute to studies in the field of teacher training in ICT that will help
to fill the gap of more detailed and specific programs for the development of DTC in
higher education, we present a proposal for training in Digital Teaching Compe-
tencies for University Professors (DTCUPs), considering the main ICT compe-
tence standards and the digital teaching competencies (DTCs) desirable at this level
of education [15, 27, 28]. A summary of the proposed activities is presented in
Table 41.1.
41 Societies, ICT, and Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century … 529

Table 41.1 Summary of the proposed activities

Activity Professor’s action
Check-in Answer the DigCompEdu CheckIn
self-assessment questionnaire
Self-assessment Analyze check-in results to assess DTC level
First Training Phase (N1) DTCUP Training—Level 1 (basic)
N1 Test N1 Certificate—140 h
Second Training Phase (N2) DTCUP Training—Level 2 (intermediate)
N2 Test N2 Certificate—120 h
Third Training Phase (N3) DTCUP Training—Level 3 (advanced)
N3 Test N3 Certificate—100 h
Check-in Answer the DigCompEdu CheckIn
self-assessment questionnaire again,
comparing the results with the first Check-in
Specialization—after completion and approval Present certificates obtained in the three
in the three levels of training (N1, N2, and N3) training modules to obtain the specialization
certificate in digital teaching competence in
higher education (360 h)
Digital Teaching Competencies for University Professors (DTCUP) Training Program
Source Original by the author

The curriculum proposed for the DTCUP Training Program is as follows.

1. Basic Level: Theoretical Aspects and Basic Notions of Technology—N1
(a) Pedagogy and contents: related to theoretical and paradigmatic aspects that
should guide educators’ actions, the understanding of the role of university
professors in the Information Society. Connectivism [24]. Hybrid Education.
Active Methodologies. Development of soft skills. Notions on university
entrepreneurship and innovation.
(b) Technical and Instrumental Aspects: related to the integrated use of ICT in
the study guides, including the competence for the instrumental use of these
technologies, their availability, and technical support.
2. Deepening Knowledge in ICT Level—N2

(a) Social and sanitary aspects: include the moral, legal, and sanitary codes
(ergonomic, psychological, and human aspects) which must be consid-
ered when accessing ICT. Data Protection Law. Humans Rights Legisla-
tion, employment law, children’s rights, women’s rights, and legislation that
guarantees gender, racial, and ethnic equity; cybersecurity, among others.
3. Knowledge Creation Level—N3
530 C. M. Santana

(a) Collaboration and networking: actions that can be developed by profes-

sors with the help of ICTs (interrelationships at local, national, and interna-
tional levels), experience exchange and/or shared experiences among several
university institutions; creation of online communities.
(b) Content Creation—training in tools/resources for content production and
ICT (tools for recording/editing/publishing videos, podcasts, publishing
software, among others); analysis of planning and reflection tools, as well
as tools for helping students to create and produce their own learning activ-
ities. Use of art to promote learning values and to help students develop
soft skills, reflective and critical thinking, stimulating continuous learning.
Open Educational Resources—OER, curadory, utilization, and creation.

It is important to point out that the implementation of this process must also rely
on the implementation of institutional actions to expand the use of ICT in classrooms,
combined with individual and teacher-team initiatives.

41.4 Conclusion

In the context of the Information Society (IS), the only certainty is continuous change
and the need to face, in increasingly shorter spaces of time, the new demands brought
about by the different processes inherent to a globalized and complex society, in
which the advances in Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) assume
a prominent role. The most advanced economies are based on the greater availability
of knowledge; comparative advantages increasingly depend on the competitive use of
knowledge and technological innovations. This centrality makes knowledge a funda-
mental pillar of wealth and power in developed nations, which is why developing
countries must make the necessary efforts to overcome their limits and renew their
university systems, powerful tools for generating cultural and material progress, with
the ultimate goal of not being excluded from the Knowledge Society.
As universities play a fundamental role in the development of society, it is neces-
sary that this entity renews itself, reviews its dogmas, infrastructure, and curriculum,
and prepares its professors, among other measures, to be able to respond to the pres-
sures of the complex society in which it is currently inserted. This is why it is urgent to
prepare university professors to develop the multiple digital teaching competencies
necessary for the formation of professionals and citizens with the profile required by
contemporary society.

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skills_-_students’_competences_on_a_digital_age. Last acessed 2023/02/26
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1007/s11191-020-00131-9
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Horizonte (2022)
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(2001). http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20-%20Digital%20Natives,%20Digi
tal%20Immigrants%20-%20Part1.pdf, MCB University Press. Last accessed 2022/09/09
532 C. M. Santana

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Chapter 42
The Importance of Digital Marketing
in Hospitality: The Case of Hotel Fafense

Catarina Mota , Isabel Borges , José Luís Braga , and Sandra Brás

Abstract Currently, digital marketing is widely used in all sectors of activity, world-
wide, with the aim of promoting, in a more agile way, any type of business. Although
the concept of digital marketing emerged some years ago, it was during the period
of the Covid-19 pandemic that companies, for the most part, began to bet on this
concept, as a way of being able to carry on with their sales. With regard to the
tourism sector, in particular the hotel industry, this type of marketing enables it to
publicize the accommodation units, causing the number of reservations to increase
considerably. It should also be noted that if a good marketing strategy is applied to
the destination where the hotel unit is situated, all local actors will benefit from the
arrival of tourists. Regarding the aim of the present paper, it is intended to present
a case study, with the purpose of analyzing the impact of digital marketing in the

I. Borges · J. L. Braga · S. Brás

European Institute of Higher Studies (IEES), Fafe, Portugal
e-mail: [email protected]
I. Borges
e-mail: [email protected]
J. L. Braga
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Brás
e-mail: [email protected]
C. Mota · I. Borges · J. L. Braga · S. Brás
Center for Research, Development and Innovation (CIDI-IEES), Fafe, Portugal
I. Borges
Centre of Studies in Geography and Spatial Planning, Coimbra University, Coimbra, Portugal
Research On Economics, Management and Information Technologies, Portucalense University,
Porto, Portugal
J. L. Braga
CiTUR—Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation, Polytechnic of Leiria,
Leiria, Portugal
Techn&Art—Technology, Restoration and Art Enhancement Center, Polytechnic Institute of
Tomar, Tomar, Portugal

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024 533
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9_42
534 C. Mota et al.

Hotel Fafense, located in the city of Fafe. Firstly, the need to invest in technologies
is explained, taking into account the importance of digital marketing. The method-
ology employed consists of a case study, based on a qualitative research approach.
The data collection instrument used is the semi-structured interview. It should also
be noted that the study presents a main starting question and five secondary research
questions. Regarding the results of this study, the use of technologies has had a posi-
tive effect on the promotion of the hotel object of study. Thus, it can be concluded
that the commitment toward digital marketing becomes an added value for the hotel
sector. However, it has more or less impact, depending on where the unit is located.

42.1 Introduction

With the focus on technology, local tourism agents, both in the public and private
sectors, have been implementing projects to attract a greater number of visitors and,
consequently, overnights. This fact triggers the interest in addressing this topic, since
technologies are increasingly associated with windows of opportunity in all sectors
and, more than ever, in tourism.
This paper has as its main objective to study the impact of digital marketing in
the hotel industry, focusing on the “Hotel Fafense”, located in Fafe.
In this way, a starting question arises (1) “Is Hotel Fafense a case of extreme
success or failure with regard to the applicability of digital marketing?”
In addition to this initial question, five secondary research questions were posed,
namely: (1) “How do you publicize Hotel Fafense?”; (2) “Have you put into practice
any digital marketing strategy? If so, which one or which ones?”; (3) “If you answered
yes to the previous question, have these strategies contributed to the increase in sales
of stays?”; (4) “Do you consider digital marketing essential for increasing sales of
stays in the hotel industry? Why?”; (5) “Do you consider that digital marketing has
contributed to the reduction of seasonality in the hotel industry? And what about
Hotel Fafense?”
The methodology applied consists of a case study, grounded by a qualitative
research approach. The data collection instruments used were direct observations
resulting from a semi-structured interview.
This paper is organized as follows: the second section presents a brief review of the
extant literature regarding digital marketing versus traditional marketing; innovation
and digital transformation in tourism; and finally, hotel digital marketing. In turn,
Section three describes the methods used in the current research, while Section four
reveals the research results. Finally, Sections five and six of this paper address the
conclusions of the study and the limitations and proposal for future studies.
42 The Importance of Digital Marketing in Hospitality: The Case of Hotel … 535

42.2 Literature Review

42.2.1 Digital Marketing Versus Traditional Marketing

The main difference between digital marketing and traditional marketing is the ability
to monitor user behavior and campaign performance in real time.
Companies seek to publicize their products or services through marketing, using
the ways they consider appropriate to achieve the desired results, increasing sales
and profits. According to [1], traditional marketing refers to the set of controllable
marketing tools (product, place, price, and promotion) that the company uses to
achieve its marketing objectives in the target market. It comprises communication
made in offline channels and media such as television, radio, written press and
external media, traditional tools, that are still very relevant and effective.
In turn, digital marketing, a broad term, uses the tools of digital technologies [2]
and is currently essential to reach consumers more efficiently [3]. With communi-
cation and marketing actions carried out in the online context, it includes not only
the process of selling products or services, but also the production of content and
incorporation of real value into the consumer’s life.
Traditional marketing has the same objective as digital marketing, which is
to foster synergies between product and service providers and their consumers.
However, what distinguishes them are the tools used to attract the customer. Basi-
cally, traditional marketing works with classic media, while digital marketing works
on the web, mainly on social networks.
With globalization and the new tourist profile, new challenges arise. The consumer
does not easily accept inappropriate and utopian marketing campaigns. Thus, in
order to achieve objective results, it is necessary to reposition destination marketing,
bearing in mind cooperation between competing or complementary destinations, but
also including stakeholders, consumers, and residents [4].
Effectively, according to [5], publicizing a place should include: advertising,
annual reports, offers, panels, brochures, business cards, direct-mail, newsletters,
clippings, portfolios, press kit, sales kit, staff, street signs, travel guides, fairs,
uniforms and costumes, videos and DVDs, signage, websites.
For [6], the degree of consumer involvement in products and services is often
a determining factor in the decision-making process. Engagement fluctuates, being
determined by the importance that consumers attach to the product or service.
Traditional media, while still effective [7], are not as strong as in the past. Using
digital marketing is currently absolutely essential to solidify a brand and promote
sales.
Finally, and according to [8], digital marketing helps to promote the brand,
focusing on results and customer engagement in supporting the brand. For the
authors, technological convergence will eventually lead to convergence between
digital marketing and traditional marketing.
536 C. Mota et al.

42.2.2 Innovation and Digital Transformation in Tourism

Tourism is undoubtedly one of the industries that has benefited the most from digital
evolution. That is why it is normal that digital marketing already plays an essential
role in the success of this sector.
Digital marketing burst into tourism and changed the way companies approach
customers.
In the tourism industry, the disruption was felt a few years ago and brutally
transformed the way companies reach customers.
The need to invest in this area is felt like never before, not least because there
is an awareness that potential customers can, with just a few clicks, have instant
access to the information they are looking for. Whether through social networks,
brand websites, comment websites, among many others.
With digital, new ways of doing marketing have emerged and the products them-
selves have evolved. The tourism industry, in particular, has been disrupted as a
whole due to the rapid development of the internet. Users now have an increasing
ease of knowing the existing offer and have greater ability to compare prices, features,
among others.
To be able to compete and succeed digitally, the most relevant digital marketing
activities include: website, social media presence, Search Engine Optimization, email
marketing, mobile friendly content.
Innovation can be considered as a process of transforming opportunities into
results. It is the application of know-how in a differentiated, value-added, sustainable
way, making the action more economical and productive. Innovation is the specific
tool of entrepreneurs, the process by which they pursue changes as an opportunity
for a diverse business or a diverse service [9].
Another more recent concept of innovation is presented by [10], which defines
innovation as the creation and implementation of new ideas, with a view to gener-
ating value for society, whether they are internally focused or external to the public
administration, thus resulting that it is the outcome of the use of creativity. It appears
that, unanimously, innovation has been described as a determining and primordial
force for world socioeconomic development, as a source of value in the market, used
as a sustainable competitive advantage, determinant of business performance and
success [11–15].
With regard to innovation in tourism, according to [16], one can verify the focus
on company managers as being the key person to stimulate innovation, in terms of
innovations and progress. In Portugal, this research began with the analysis of inno-
vation, based on hotel managers in Aveiro [17], but other authors had already taken
other approaches, characterized by superficial and generalist approaches. Currently,
research will have to follow a more dynamic field, in line with current developments
and contexts.
Framed in tourism, considering its diversity and complexity, Hjalager (2010)
cited by [17] describes five types of innovation, with different approaches: product
or service (by the new meanings that can be observed by tourists and customers);
42 The Importance of Digital Marketing in Hospitality: The Case of Hotel … 537

process (improvement in the efficiency and productivity of the company’s systems);

managerial (change in the forms of organization of the enterprise); marketing (new
programs and approaches), and institutional (change in the structure of networks,
alliances or partnerships).
According to the same author, the dimensions of innovation in hotels may involve
different aspects of the hotel industry which, in turn, indicate approaches based on
interest groups, namely: services or products; marketplace; law suit; organization,
referenced in four types of hotel innovations of nature: managerial, which shape the
quality and competitiveness of the hotel; external communications, which consider
the intangible and informational nature of hotel processes; of scope of services, which
represents an incorporation of enabling technology for hotel services; and innovation
at the back-office level, which concerns the incorporation of technological elements
that facilitate not only the provision of services, but the entire process of production,
delivery, and customer service.
Conferring to the authors Buhalis and Sinarta [18] and Xiang and Gretzel [19],
the importance of customizing services to improve the tourist experience through
the use of digital technologies, as well as the relevance of the role of social networks
in researching information about tourist destinations, in which tourists use these
platforms to plan their trips, as well as the impact of social networks as a deter-
mining factor in tourist decision-making, is showing how they influence the choice
of destinations and tourist services [18, 19].
Likewise, virtual and augmented reality applied to the tourism industry provides
immersive experiences for tourists.
Finally, among studies applied to the hotel industry, the following stand out: the
importance of data analysis on online evaluation platforms to understand tourists’
preferences and improve the offer of tourist services; recommendation systems
that use customer data to offer personalized suggestions for tourist destinations
and services; and the implications of digital transformation in the hotel industry,
highlighting the challenges and opportunities for hotel owners and employees [20].

42.2.3 Hospitality Digital Marketing

Hospitality digital marketing consists of the set of actions that a hotel, inn, hostel,
or other hospitality establishment performs online, with the aim of attracting new
guests, creating relationships, and developing a brand identity [21].
It is the most used way to communicate with the public in a direct, personalized
way and at the right time. Kotler [22] states that marketing is the social process by
which people and groups of people satisfy wants and needs by creating, offering,
and freely exchanging products and services of value with others [22].
The companies’ strategy in the digital environment can go through a set of tools
and channels available, such as capturing traffic organically (SEO—Search Engine
Optimization or publications on social networks, without advertising), paid adver-
tising on search engines (SEM—Search Engine Marketing) or on social media,
538 C. Mota et al.

content creation, or through affiliate networks. The strategic options of each company
must be related to its objectives, its target to be impacted, the functionalities of each
platform, and the company’s own means.
These strategies have been adopted by companies from different sectors of activity
and the hotel sector was no exception. For these companies, digital marketing is a
competitive advantage and a strong tool for the implementation of tourism marketing
actions, in addition to allowing the verification of results [23].
In the hotel sector, the service is produced and consumed at the same time, with
the need for the customer to travel to the place where this service will be provided,
and therefore, it is not possible to view the service before it happens [24]. These
characteristics make marketing assume great importance here, as it is necessary to
convey confidence to the customer and guarantee the quality of the service that will
be provided.
Tourism marketing thus focuses on planning strategies to attract visitors to a given
destination [25]. Hotel digital marketing, on the other hand, is directed to accom-
modation units, being responsible for optimizing sales, improving guest service,
publicizing the hotel unit and availability in real time [26].
In this way, it is extremely important to adopt digital marketing strategies for all
hotel units, thus proving to be a tool that acts as a means for companies to direct
their communication and marketing efforts, aiming to meet the needs and consumers’
desires more efficiently and effectively than its competition.

42.3 Methods

Although there are already several studies about digital marketing in the hotel
industry [27–29], we chose to choose a specific hotel, which is why we chose the
case study as a type of methodology.
Research supported by case studies has been gaining more and more reputation.
This growing notoriety is largely due to authors such as Yin and Stake, who, although
from perspectives that do not completely coincide, have sought to deepen, system-
atize, and enhance the credibility of the case study, within the scope of research
methodology.
Yin (2005) quoted by [30] defined a case study as: “an empirical inquiry that inves-
tigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, when the boundaries
between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident, and in which multiple
sources of evidence are used”.
The case study can be considered as a valid method for research in tourism and
hospitality. Table 42.1 summarizes the main features of the case study.
The case study as a research strategy is addressed by several authors [32–35],
for whom a case can be something well-defined or concrete, such as an individual,
a group, or an organization, but it can also be something less defined or defined
on a more abstract level, such as decisions, programs, implementation processes, or
organizational changes.
42 The Importance of Digital Marketing in Hospitality: The Case of Hotel … 539

Table 42.1 Features of the case study

1 Can explain why an innovation worked or failed to work
2 Has the advantage of hindsight, yet can be relevant in the present and to the future
3 Can illustrate the complexities of a situation by recognizing more than one contributing
factor
4 Shows the influence of personalities and politics on an issue
5 Can show the influence of the passage of time through longitudinal studies
6 The reader may be able to apply it to his/her situation
7 Can evaluate alternatives not chosen
8 Can utilize information from a wide variety of sources
9 Can present information in a wide variety of ways
10 Can illuminate a general problem through examination of a specific instance
Source [31], p. 38, adapted from Beenton [31]

In the present study, we intend to address a well-defined case, supported by a

qualitative research approach, since this aims to present the impact of technologies
on tourism for the city of Fafe. In order to understand why this case of Hotel Fafense is
relevant to the theory of the investigated area, it is necessary to elaborate the following
question: “Is Hotel Fafense a case of extreme success or failure with regard to the
applicability of digital marketing?”
The interview is one of the most important and essential sources of information in
case studies [32]. Also, according to [36], interviewing is one of the most common
and powerful ways of trying to understand other human beings. The interview is still
considered a great instrument to achieve the diversity of descriptions and interpre-
tations that people have about reality, which is why we found it pertinent to choose
this instrument for the elaboration of the present study.
There are three types of interview, structured, semi-structured, and non-structured
[37]. In this case, the semi-structured interview was chosen because, in occasions
where we do not have more than one opportunity to interview a participant, is the
one that best suits our purposes [38]. This type of interview has much of the freedom
of the unstructured interview and requires the same skills, but the semi-structured
interview relies on the use of an interview script. It is a list of questions and topics that
must be covered in a certain order. The semi-structured interview is open, but follows
a general script and covers a list of topics. Therefore, the semi-structured interview
seeks to obtain descriptions of the interviewee’s worldview, with the purpose of
interpreting the meaning of the described phenomenon [39].
Therefore, the use of the semi-structured interview is aimed to provide an under-
standing of tourist behavior by a local hotel unit, in the context of the applicability
of digital marketing strategies, following an interview script with six questions. This
type of data collection instrument was the most suitable for our purposes, as we had
the opportunity to interview the Manager of Hotel Fafense. As the interview was
540 C. Mota et al.

conducted by email, there was no room for probes on topics of interest verbalized
by the interviewee.
The interview gave rise to five more secondary research questions, namely: (1)
“How do you publicize Hotel Fafense?”; (2) “Have you put into practice any digital
marketing strategy? If so, which one or which ones?”; (3) “If you answered yes to
the previous question, have these contributed to the increase in sales of stays?”; (4)
“Do you consider digital marketing essential for increasing sales of stays in the hotel
industry? Why?”; (5) “Do you consider that digital marketing has contributed to the
reduction of seasonality in the hotel industry? And what about Hotel Fafense?”
The main objective of this study was to understand the impact of digital marketing
on the hotel industry, focusing on Hotel Fafense.

42.4 Findings

The interview is started by considering the importance of digital marketing in the hotel
industry. The person interviewed for the case study of this paper was the Manager
of Hotel Fafense.
The first question was as follows: (1) “Has digital marketing had a positive impact
on the hospitality industry? Why?” The answer given by the interviewee was as
follows: “It will depend on what we understand as Digital Marketing. If we are talking
about advertising on social media, promotion ads, and the like, we can say that it has
a slight impact, but not as much as a good ranking on OTAs. For us (Hotel Fafense),
the best marketing is our online reputation. It is our scores on Booking, Expedia,
Google, Hotels.com, and others that drive the highest influx of online bookings”.
Regarding the second question, about how the hotel is publicized, it was posed
as follows: (2) “How is Hotel Fafense publicized?”, the answer obtained was the
following: “The fact that we focus more on reputation does not mean that we do not
do our bet on social networks. We currently hire a local digital marketing company to
maintain our networks and keep them active. We advertise mainly through Facebook
and Instagram”.
The third and fourth questions complement each other, since in what concerns
the answers, these are also additional to each other: (3) “Have you been putting into
practice any digital marketing strategy? If so, which one or which ones?” (4) “If
you answered yes to the previous question, have these contributed to the increase
in room sales?” The answers were positive; however, there was a caveat on the part
of the interviewee to the fact that Hotel Fafense is a small unit and that such digital
marketing strategies are much more notorious in large units, located in urban centers
that are also larger. The answer to the third question was then as follows: “Yes.
Although Hotel Fafense is a small unit, in January we prepared an annual agenda
with two monthly posts. A post to talk about what is happening in the city of Fafe,
and another focused on events, holidays and/or offers/promotions related to Hotel
Fafense”. With regard to the answer to the fourth question and for the reasons given
above, the answer obtained was the following: “Minimally. It is not that there are no
42 The Importance of Digital Marketing in Hospitality: The Case of Hotel … 541

reservations, but we note that, in the case of Fafe in general and Hotel Fafense in
particular, our reviews continue to be the driving force of online reservations”.
With regard to the fifth question (5) “Do you consider digital marketing essential
for increasing sales of stays in the hotel industry? Why?”, the response obtained by
the Fafense Hotel Manager was as follows: “Any tool that increases sales is welcome,
whatever it may be. Digital marketing serves, even in the absence of a large influx
of bookings, to attract followers, who in the future will have access to the hotel’s
novelties and, consequently, increase sales”.
With regard to the sixth question (6) “Do you consider that digital marketing has
contributed to the reduction of seasonality in the hotel industry? And what about Hotel
Fafense?”, the answer obtained to the first part of the question was positive. However,
with regard to the second part of the question, the answer is that Hotel Fafense has
an interesting occupancy rate throughout the year and that digital marketing helps,
but does not make a difference, this from the perspective of the interviewee, as can
be seen: “I believe that it achieves an important reduction in seasonality in more
seasonal places. In the case of Fafe and Hotel Fafense in particular, as we have an
interesting occupation throughout the year, digital marketing helps, but it does not
make the difference that it can make in places like Gerês, Algarve and others”.
Finally, as a discussion of the data presented, it appears that as Hotel Fafense is in a
small town, digital marketing does not have a great impact on its proper functioning.
This situation is due to the fact that it essentially works with direct bookings and
does not depend, for the most part, on digital marketing.

42.5 Conclusion

From the present research, we can infer that it appears that digital marketing is indeed
important for the hotel industry.
However, considering the fact that a small hotel unit was chosen which was located
in a small town, the applicability of digital marketing strategies is not as impactful as
in larger hotels located in large urban centers or in tourist destinations such as Porto,
Lisbon, or the Algarve.
It is also important to mention that despite this reality, the hotel under study has
been investing more and more in digital marketing, which makes the occupancy rate
interesting throughout the year, thus not occurring, likewise, low-season periods.
This research contributed to verify that in the case of hotels located in small towns,
they do not live essentially and exclusively from the applicability of digital marketing
strategies to increase their reservations.
However, it is important that the hotel sector continues to invest in digital
marketing to stand out in the tourist market and thus attract more tourists to the
towns where they are located.
542 C. Mota et al.

42.6 Limitations and Proposal for New Study

Regarding to limitations in carrying out the present study, it appears that although it
was possible for us to interview the Manager of Hotel Fafense, it was found that it
would be interesting, as a proposal for a future study, to analyze more than one unit
hotel.
This situation is due to the fact that we can obtain a comparative term, with regard
to the importance of digital marketing, as well as its impact on increasing bookings.

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Author Index

A D
Abreu, António, 429 Dominique-Ferreira, Sérgio, 61, 229
Adegra, Ana, 157 Duarte, Márcia, 229
Alén, Elisa, 37, 95, 455 Durães, Maria, 173
Almeida de, António Lopes, 373 Du, Xuan, 25
Alonso, David, 215
Alves, Jorge, 81
E
Emer, Paula, 385
B
Barradas, Isabel, 483
Boavida-Portugal, Inês, 329
Bode, Oana R., 317 F
Borges, Ana Pinto, 373, 385 Felgueira, Teresa, 157
Borges, Isabel, 533 Fernandes, Paula Odete, 111, 129, 143,
Borges-Tiago, Teresa, 329 215, 279
Braga, José Luís, 533 Ferreira, Ana, 405, 507
Brandão, Amélia, 385 Ferreira, Fernanda A., 279, 317
Brás, Sandra, 533 Ferreira, Flávio, 317
Ferreira, Jessica, 129
Ferreira, Rafaela, 429
C Fonseca, Clara, 81
Camarinha, Ana Paula, 429 Fonseca, Susana M. S. R., 1
Campante, Maria Inês, 251
Carvalho, Ana Branca, 1
Carvalho, João Vidal, 291, 357
G
Carvalho, Margarida, 385
García, Daniel, 357
Carvalho, Milene, 1
Gonçalves, Célia Talma, 251
Carvalho, Rui Miguel Ferreira, 71
Gonçalves, Maria José Angélico, 251
Carvalho, Sandro, 291
Chim-Miki, Adriana Fumi, 303 Guia, Ana, 1
Costa, Adriano, 157
Costa da, Rui Augusto, 303
Costa, Elga, 483 H
Coutinho Mateus, Lígia, 191, 241 Huang, Hui-Wen, 25

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 545
to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024
J. V. Carvalho et al. (eds.), Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems,
Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies 384,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9758-9
546 Author Index

L Ribeiro, Alexandrino, 173

Liberato, Dália, 95, 437, 455, 471, 483 Ribeiro, Joaquim, 483
Liberato, Pedro, 437, 455, 471, 483 Rocha, Helena Carina Ferreira, 229
Llamuca-Pérez, Silvia Lorena, 495 Rodrigues, Ana, 37
Lopes, Maria Carlos, 95, 471 Rodrigues, Cristina, 437
Lozano, Carmen, 15 Rodrigues, Paula, 373
Rojo, Carlos Jesus Rivas, 215

M
Mancheno-Saá, Marcelo Javier, 495 S
Marques, Célio Gonçalo, 191, 203, 241 Santana, C. M., 523
Marques, Jorge, 51, 395 Santos, Bárbara, 385
Martins, Ana Filipa, 51 Santos, Vasco, 269
Martins, Cláudia S., 279 Scalabrini, Elaine, 129, 215
Martins, Márcio Ribeiro, 303 Sepulveda, Lina, 357
Mateus, Lígia, 203 Silva, Fátima Matos, 395
Mendes, Benedita, 455 Silva, João Carlos, 291
Mendes, José, 329 Silva, Luís M., 51
Mendes, Teresa, 437 Silvério, Ana Cristina, 111, 129
Mestre, Lucía, 215 Simões, João Tomaz, 71, 191, 203, 241
Monroy, Hazael Cerón, 15 Sousa, Bruno, 269
Morales Molina, Tania, 495
Mota, Catarina, 533
Mota, Miguel, 1, 37 T
Moutinho, Nuno, 81 Tao, Jiahao, 25
Teixeira, João Paulo, 215
Tiangco, Joseph Anthony Narciso Z., 25
N
Nogueira, Sónia, 415
V
Vareiro, Laurentina, 173, 415
O Vaz, Márcia, 143, 215
Oliveira, Adriana, 347 Vaz, Roberto, 143
Oliveira, Marina, 61 Veiga, Tiago, 291
Ostapenko, Svitlana, 373 Vieira, Ana, 437
Vieira, Bruno, 385
Vieira, Elvira, 373, 385
P Vieira, Isabel, 37
Peña, Alejandro, 357 Villares, Marta, 405, 507
Pereira, Ana, 347
Pereira, Diogo, 471
Perez-Muñoz, Natalia, 357 W
Prentice, Catherine, 61 Wu, Sumei, 25

R X
Rebolledo, José Ángel Díaz, 15 Xavier, Gysele, 415