PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

COGNITIVE APPROCHES TO BEHAVIOUR

Assumptions
1. Mental processes can be studied scientifically.
2. Mental representations guide behavior
3. Cognitive process does not function in isolation
4. Biases in cognitive processes can be systematic and predictable

Memory cognitive process used to encode, store and retrieve

information.
 Implicit memory (unconscious)
 Procedural memory
 Skills, habits, emotional responses
 Expressed through performance
 Explicit memory (conscious)
 Includes semantic and episodic memory
 Expressed through recollection

Memory models provide a framework for an understanding of conceptualization of human

memory processes over time. Examples relevant to the study of memory models include
explicit/ implicit memory, sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory,
central executive, phonological loop, episodic buffer, and visuospatial sketchpad.

Schemas
Schema is a mental representation that organizes your knowledge,
believes and expectations. (file cbainets in your head for anything and
everything in the world)
1. Schemas help you recall information.
2. Schemas guide your behavior.
3. Schemas helps you makes sense of your current experiences.

3 types of schemas-:
1. Social schema
 The information and knowledge you have about people.
(stereotypes, relationships)
2. Scripts
 Sequence of habits and events (how to tie a shoelace, how to book a
flight ticket) (procedure or a habit)
3. Self-schema
 Your own values, believes and how you view yourself (body image,
self-esteem)

Schemas cannot be studied directly. We can only study them in how they
influence the 3 memory stages- encoding, storage, retrieval.

Schema theory
humans actively process information, relate it to existing knowledge and
use it. We interpret, integrate and make sense of our experiences, but are
not always aware of it.
Schemas effect encoding can be seen through bransford and johnson
Schemas effect retrical can be seen from andersona dn pitcher.
Bransford & Johnson, 1972 - schemas influence encoding
Evaluation
W1- sampling bias- small number- occupation- age- geographical location-
low generalizability
W2- The study used an independent samples design; participant
variability with regard to experience with washing clothes may be a
confounding variable.
S1- The findings of the study have been applied successfully to education,
helping students to improve reading skills and retention of information.
S2- ethical study- no one was harmed etc.
Anderson & Pitchert, 1978 - schemas influence retrieval
Link to schema theory
Perspective in this situation is a type of schema. The study supports the
idea that schemas influence the process of retrieval of already stored
information from memory.
Evaluation
W1- sampling bias- small number- occupation- age- geographical location-
low generalizability
W2- Low internal validity because it is not measuring what it says to
measure. The sample cannot relate to both the perspective because they
don’t relate to it.
S1- relatively Ethical study cuz there was no deception, informed consent
would have been taken.
S2- Standardized study- easy to replicate and test it for reliability.

Evaluation of schema theory-:

S1- schema theory helps us understand why we forget information and
why we have false memories.
S2- Enough research evidence to support that schemas do effect memory.
W1- not sure how schemes are formed and how exactly they influence a
cognitive process.
W2- sometimes you remember information that is not consistent with your
schema.
W3- the theory does not explain why schemas inconsistent info is
remembered.

Thinking and decision making

 Thinking is a cognitive process for modifying encoded information.
 Thinking is a process of using knowledge and information. Different
components of thinking are decision making and problem solving.
 Decision making is another cognitive process of choosing between
given alternatives.
 Decision making is the process of looking at alternatives and
choosing the right option based on one's values and preferences
 Thinking and decision making are higher order cognitive processes.

Dual process model of thinking and decision making.

Dual process model is one model of thinking.it consist of 2 systems-:
System 1- Quick and intuitive way of thinking (effortless, everyday
decision making) (its not based on logic hence it is prone to error) (you
use heuristics)
Heuristics are mental shortcuts that you use to make quick decisions. We
tend to sometimes make wrong judgements.
System 2- Concentration and focused ways of thinking (slow conscious
rational way of thinking)

Tversky and Kahneman anchoring bias 1974

Anchoring bias-: when you rely too heavily on the first piece of information
offered when making decisions. The first piece of information becomes the
anchor. It is a bias because you are not using logic which makes the
decision prone to error.

Tversky and Kahneman framing effect 1986.

Framing effect- The way a question or a statement is phrased influences

your decision.

Reconstructive memory
Reconstructive memory states that we actively recreate an event when
we are trying to recall it. Post event information like misleading questions
can interfere with the memory of an event.
Post event information and leading question together know and
misleading information effect.

Biases In thinking and decision making.

Cognitive bias- Heuristics results in patterns of thinking and decision
making that are consistent but inaccurate. These patterns are known as
cognitive biases.
1:01:20

Flashbulb memory- highly detailed, vivid snapshots of an event that is

surprising and personally relevant.
In individualist cultures people define their personality in terms of their
own personal characteristics, their success and their unique features.
Among the strongest values in society are personal autonomy,
competitiveness and self-sufficiency. In collectivist cultures identity is
linked to the social group, and values associated with belonging to a group
take priority over personal values.

Kulkofsky-:
high internal validity - translation, back-translation, language is not a
confounding variable
S2: avoided interviewer effect
having a person from the same culture conduct the interview, hence
better rapport and recall of memories
W1: ecological fallacy- a
W2: It is an etic approach to researching cultural differences. It is
possible that cultural factors affected how information was self-reported.
It cannot be verified in this study whether those personal memories
actually exist but were not reported.
S3: generalizability (high or low)

BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO BEHAVIOR

Assumptions
1. Behavior is the product of physiology.
2. Behavior can be genetically inherited.
3. Animal research may inform our understanding of human behavior.

TECHNIQUES TO STUDY THE BRAIN.

1. MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
 High resolution
 3-dimensional image of the brain structure
 Investigates structure
 Principle of work
 It is based on the principle that some atomic nuclei in particular
hydrogen atoms can emit energy when placed in an external
magnetic field. When theses pulses are detected by the scanner, the
relative distribution of hydrogen atoms can be mapped.
Strengths/ advantages of MRI
 No radiation exposure.
 Better spatial resolution (helps detect abnormalities in the brain)
Limitations/ disadvantages of MRI
 Issue for claustrophobic people.
 People with metal in there body cannot undergo a MRI
 Lying still for a long time might be problematic for children.
 Expensive
 Lengthy procedure
2. FMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)
 Image obtained in the scan is dynamic.
 Investigates process.
 It shows the ongoing brain process
  Principle at work
 This method uses the BOLD (blood-oxygen-level dependent) signal.
When a brain region is active during the performance of a task, the
organism supplies it with oxygenated blood. When oxygenated blood
is placed in an external magnetic field, it emits pulses of energy, but
this response depends on the blood flow and level of oxygenation.
Since we know that the most active brain areas are supplied with the
most blood, this also allows us to see which brain areas are most
active during the performance of a particular task.
Strengths/ advantages of FMRI
 Excellent spatial resolution (up to 1-2mm)
 It allows us to see brain processes.
Limitations/ disadvantages of FMRI
 Poor temporal resolution
 Issue for claustrophobic people.
 People with metal in there body cannot undergo a FMRI
 Lying still for a long time might be problematic for children.
 Expensive
 Lengthy procedure

LOCALIZATION
Localization of function refers to the theory that specific parts of the brain
control specific aspects of brain function.

Neuroplasticity
It is the ability of the brain to change its neural pathways and synapses as
a result of one’s experiences such as learning a new skills or bodily
injuries.

The ability of the brain to change itself in response to environmental

demands.

Structure of your brain physically changes.

Neural pruning- when there is a decrease in the number of synapses as a

result of the removal of dendritic branches.

Maguire:
neuroplasticity occurs in natural settings. Redistribution of grey matter
(coordination of movement) in the hippocampus (spatial memory and
learning) observed in taxi drivers due to their driving experience
When neurons fire continually as a result of stimulation in the environment
(known as long term potentiation), the neurons sprout new dendrites –
known as dendritic branching. This increases the number of synapses
available for the behaviour.
The branching of neurons in the brain is called grey matter.
Conclusion: By repeatedly firing the neurons required to remember the
spatial layout of the city of London, the number of synapses was
increased, creating a greater neural network.
Draganski
- neuroplasticity occurs in response to regular learning
Another way that our brain can change is through neural pruning - which
is a decrease in the number of synapses as a result of the removal of
dendritic branches.
Pruning can be the result of neuron cell death, hormones such as cortisol
or the lack of use of a neural pathway.
The exact mechanism of neural pruning is not yet fully understood.
Conclusion: When learning a new skill, new neural networks were created.
However, when the behavior stopped and those neurons were no longer
activated, the neurons were pruned.

Neurotransmission
Neurons are nerve cells. Their role is to communicate or transfer
messages from one cell to another so that our body knows how to respond
to stimuli. Neurons communicate with each other by sending and
receiving neurotransmitters to one another and this process is called
neurotransmission.

Neurotransmission definition-:
 Information in our body travels through neural networks.
How does information travels?
 Dendrites and neurons gets stimulated. It is when an electrical
charge or electrical potential will start from the dendrites. And travel
through the axon and goes to the nerve endings and
neurotransmitter gets released.

 Neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that gets released at the

nerve ending.
Acetylcholine-It plays a role in memory and learning.
Scopolamine-
Dopamine- pleasure, satisfaction, and motivation. Reward center.

Studies
1. Antonova
2. Setiawan (themantic education)

Exhitatory- they are able to do their job.

Inhibitory- the neurotransmission is not able to do their job.

 Excitatory neurotransmitters increase the likelihood of a neuron firing

by depolarizing the neuron. Excitatory neurotransmitters include
acetylcholine.
 Inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing
by hyperpolarizing the neuron. Inhibitory neurotransmitters include GABA.
 Excitatory Neurotransmission: This refers to the process in which neurotransmitters
increase the likelihood of an action potential being generated in the receiving neuron.
Excitatory neurotransmitters, such as glutamate, depolarize the postsynaptic membrane,
making it more likely for the neuron to fire and propagate the signal.

 Inhibitory Neurotransmission: This refers to the process in which neurotransmitters

decrease the likelihood of an action potential in the receiving neuron. Inhibitory
neurotransmitters, such as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), hyperpolarize the
postsynaptic membrane, making it less likely for the neuron to fire, thereby reducing or
regulating neural activity.

Agonist- a chemical that enhances the action of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist- a chemical that inhibits the action of a neurotransmitter.
Hormones
Hormones are chemical messengers that effect behavior. Endocrine
glands release hormones directly into the blood stream. They take longer
to produce changes in behavior but the effect last longer. There are many
types of hormones with different functions and testosterone is one type of
hormones. Testosterone is a male hormone produced in the testes. It plays
a role in the development of men during puberty. This hormone does not
cause aggression but plays a role in aggressive behavior. Higher levels of
testosterone are linked to higher levels of aggression. (Dabbs and Goetz).
Aggression is a behaviour intended to harm someone who doesn’t want to
be harmed.

Start of second para for ERQ

Testosterone is a male sex hormone, produced by the testes, which is
significant in puberty for males.

Why should we study testosterone?

Studying testosterone helps us understand how this hormone influences
the behavior of men such as aggressiveness, competitiveness, sex drive.

What are the challenges in studying it?

When you study 42-43:10--- rec 350

Dabbs conducted a study on male prisoners to test the correlation

between testosterone level and aggression.

Evaluations
W1- Sampling bias- ethnicity is only for male Africans, low generalizability.
W2- low internal validity, we didn’t see the prisoners commit the crime,
they could be falsely accused.
S1- collected objected data in the form of saliva to measure testosterone
level and they classified the crimes committed by the prisoners as either
violent or non-violent crime.

Goetz examined the influence of testosterone on amygdala activity using

males.

High levels of testosterone influence relationship between frontal lobe and

amygdala. The role of Frontal lobe is to inhibit aggressive behaviour and
the role of amygdala is to control emotions. High levels of testosterone
means a lot of signal is being sent to the hypothalamus. Which in
response releases stress hormones like adrenaline, which make you more
aggressive.

Goetz weaknesses

Repeated sample design which may result in participant biases and order
effects. This study is particularly susceptible to the interference effect as
being having seen the images before they may be less likely to percieve
them as as threatening as the first time

Lacks generalizability to other genders

Lacks population validity

Lacks ecological validity as participants may react differently in an fMRI

scanner looking at images of faces when they know they are being
observed than how they would act in a natural setting with a real threat

Pheromones
Pheromones are chemical messengers. They communicate information
about fertility and sexual attractiveness from one member of a species to
another. We know it is present in animals but the role is debatable in
humans. It Is believed that the pheromones are processed in the AOB
(accessory all factory bulb) and the VNO in the brain. Human fetuses have
AOB (accessory all factory bulb) but after birth it either regresses or
disappears. Pheromone found in male semen and sweat and EST is a
pheromone found in females urine. Androstadienone (AND), Estratetraenol
(EST).

Challenges- : 52- 53—rec 350

Zhou results- Smelling AND biased hetero females and gay males to
perceive the stick figure as masculine but not hetero males
Smelling EST biased hetero males and lesbian females to perceive the
stick figure as female but not hetero females

Smelling AND biased hetero females and gay males to perceive the stick
figure as masculine but not hetero males
Smelling EST biased hetero males and lesbian females to perceive the
stick figure as female but not hetero females

Zhou eval-:
S1- cause and effect relationship
W1-low reliability- ppl were not able to replicate it
W2- low ecological validity- The dose of AND and EST used in this study
was significantly higher than humans naturally secrete. This means that
although Zhou's study determined a significant effect, it is unlikely that
this represents actual human behavior .demand characteristics cuz they
knew they were smelling smtg.
S2-sample was representative- the number was small but they included
ppl with 4 different sexual orientation.

Pheromones influence communication of information in a sex specific way

Wedikend
Eval
56- 1hr

Genetics
What is a gene?
Genes are sequences of DNA found in the chromosomes.

Behavioral genetics

How genes effect behaviors?

The effects of this gene expression on brain activity could be how genes
influence human behaviour.
Why is it imp to study genes?
What are the challenges in studying genes? Only erq
What Diathesis stress model
When a gene is expressed, it get activated and this happens because of
an environmental trigger.

Caspi
Eval
S1- large sample- more representative- generalizability
W1- The study is correlational, so no cause-and-effect relationship can
be determined.
W2- Later studies have not been able to show similar results. Risch et al
(2009) carried out a meta-analysis of attempted replications and found
that the results were not able to be replicated. It appears that the study
has low reliability

Twin studies
We have 2 types of twins-:
monozygotic (identical) twins= 100% genes
dizygotic (fraternal) twins = 50% genes
heritability refers to whether genes are the reason for individual differences in people
heritability of depression is 37%
which means the individual differences between people developing
depression is 37
*is 37% because of genetic factors

concordance rate (the probability that the same trait will be present in
both members of a pair of twins.)

Strength of twin studies:

- can identify role of genes in MZ and role of env in DZ
Limitation:
difficult to eliminate role of enc factors as MZ and DZ usually grow up
together
- twins separated at birth adds more validity but not representative
- indirect measure of inheritance

Kendler-:
Reduces the validity of the study:
W1: correlational study. no cause-effect relationship
W2: no single gene related to depression was identified or studied
W3: no official diagnosis of depression- only an interview. self report-
demand characteristics, social desirability bias

S1: large sample size: higher representativeness of Swedish population-

can be generalized
S2: confirms previous research findings (prior meta analysis found 37%
heritability depression
S3: both MZ and DZ twins were studied, questions about shared
environment were also asked so it covered environmental factors as well.

Genetic similarities
How similar are the genes that we inherit from our parents.
How similar indivisuals are is it because of genes or environment.
What are genes
How r they inherited
Different levels f genetic similarity- 100? For twins, 50%- siblings, 12.5%
1st cousin.

Family studies – weissman

- sibling share 50% genes
- grandparents and grand children share 25% genes
- first cousins share 12.5% genes
inter-rater reliability- the extent to which results of 2 different raters match.
Results:
1. if 2 gen were depressed, grandchild was at high risk
- if both GP and P were depressed, child was at high risk compared to non-depressed first gen
2. if GP are not depressed but parents are depressed, this did NOT affect grandchildren
concordance rates will increase if heritability is high and vice versa
S1: population is more representative
W1: difficult to eliminate role of env
W2: indirect measure of genetic inheritance

Twin – kendler
No adoption study
Adoption studies
- most direct comparison of genetic and environmental influences of
behaviour

- share 50% of genes with biological parents and none with adoptive
parents.

if the heritability of a behaviour is high and the environment has little part
to play, then the behaviour of adopted children should correlate more
strongly with the behaviour of their biological parents than their adoptive
parents

S1: can isolate variables such as intelligence and study them

W1: selective placement
W2: not representative
W3: knowing/not knowing adoption can affect behaviour
W4: ethical issue of privacy

Evolutionary explanation of behavior

- Evolution is when the traits that are best for the gene pool survive -
"survival of the fittest."- 1 principle of theory of evolution

- Evolution is the result of genetic mutation

Natural selection- Genes of better-adapted organisms survive and are

passed on to further generations

Sexual selection the best mate is chosen to produce and protect the most
healthy offspring

Evolutionary psychologists attempt to apply this theory to explain

observed variation in human behaviour. One such behaviour is
interpersonal attraction.

Reason to study evolutionary psychology-:

Limitation to study evolutionatry psychology-:

Evalution of evolutionary argument

Based on the assumption that behaviours are inherited. As we know from
our study of genetics, this is not necessarily true. It is difficult to know the
extent to which certain behaviours are, in fact, genetically inherited. There
is usually not a single gene, but a combination of genetic coding which
may lead to certain behaviours. If the behaviour is not inherited, then it is
difficult to argue that it is the result of sexual selection.

Difficult to test empirically some evolution-based theories, researchers

may be susceptible to confirmation bias—that is, they see what they
expect to see.

Low ecological validity- highly artificial, does not depict everyday life
circumstances

Evolutionary arguments often underestimate the role of cultural influences

in shaping behaviour.

Do not establish cause and effect, but are overly descriptive in nature.
They are correlational in nature and often seem to make the behaviour fit
the theory.

Little is known about the behaviour of early humans, so statements about

how humans “used to be” are hypothetical.

Ethics in genitic research

Undue stress/harm:
Information obtained from genetic research may be misused and
problematic for the participant and/or their family. It can be stigmatizing
and may affect job opportunities and insurance
- Unrevealed adoptions
- Misattributed paternity
- Being informed that one carries the gene for a genetic disorder
- Genetic testing in children could change the parent-child relationship.
Parents are overprotective of their child/disengaging from the child

Anonymity:
Sample and info cannot be linked. This protects sensitive data from
insurance companies, employers, etc.

ANIMAL RESEARCH HL EXTENTSION

Possible question-:
1. Ethics
2. Insights
3. Values of using animal model.

Animal model-:
 It is the concept that you use animals in a research study to test a
cause and effect relationship about a human behaviour.
OR
 When animals are used in a research study to test the cause and
effect relationship about a human behaviour.

3 things must be mentioned in the animal modles and they are-:

 1. Behaviour being tested
2. Types of species
3. Causial factors- Independent Variable and Dependant Variable

Why should we use animal and not humans? And To what extent
are animals similar to humans?
There are different area where animals and humand are very similar.
Researches show that some part of the human brain is very similar to the
brain sturcture of animals.Since the brain structures are similar our
psychological functions could also be similar. (assumption). What happens
is we have a basic brain structure and as we evolve as a specieces more
and more structures got added on to the original brain structure. Animals
brain is a more primative and older model and the human brain is more
advanced model. The more primative and older brain sturcture is found in
animals and a more advanced version of that brain structure is found in
humans so this is proof that the brain structures of both humans and
animals are similar.
Premack said- We cannot only look at the brain structure. We also have
to compare the psychological function. If you are looking at the brain
structure you should alos look at the psychological function. Premack also
believed that you shoud not only look at the similarities you should also
look at the dissimilarities of the human brain and the animaml brain. So
that you know to what extent can we generalize the findings and what are
the limitations.

Different experimental manipulatiosn we can do in animal models -:

1. Genetic manipulation -: This manipulation is where you breed the
animal in a particular way. You may remove a particular gene or give
it a gene or see what happens to the next generation due to the
manipulation. So you basically manipulate the genes and breed
them in one particular way in the lab or in a secluded area.
2. Invasive maniplarion with the nervous system -: stimulate one part
of the brain and see what happens. For example-: a part of the brain
of an animal is cut or some part is remove or electrick shock is
given, we will how it stimulates the brain and what happens.
3. Invasive manipulation with other body parts -: Simulate some body
part of the animal. Either remove it, damage it or add a body part
happens.
4. Behavioural and environemental manipulation -: you might put them
in one cage or give them an electric shock. s

Advatages of working with animal models

1. Humans and animals are biologically and genetically identical
2. Successful treatments for dieseas. Eg- diabeties and malaria
3. Animals make a good and effective test subject
4. Unethical to do on humans
5. Animals are easily available and inexpensive compared to humans
6. Highly controlled subjects
Disadvantages of working with animal models
 1. Psychological differences between humans and animals
2. Brains of animals and humans are similar not the same. Needs to be
tested on humans again before comeing to a conclusion.
3. What works in animals might not work on humans. Eg- hiv , asprin
4. Low ecological validity – rec-381
5. Difficult to relicate psychological factors
6. Ethical considerations with animals

Ethics in animal research

APA is for humana and animals both
Ethics in animal resarch – APA guidlines
1. Justified choice – scientific purpose, increases schientific knowledge,
Minimum number required, best chosen species for your study
2. Inflicting pain- if a procedure causes pain in humans we have
assume it causes pain for animals, specie specif behaviour research
team should know, minimum amount of discomort, euthanize the
animal if they r in pain, shouldn’t be released in the wild.
3. obtaining approval- submit to the ethics community

BPS – britidh psychological sociaty

BPS guidelines
1. replacements- animals should be used if there are no alternative
replacmenst abkable
2. reduction- minimum number of animals to be used
3. refinement- least amount of didtress and discomfort possibel

Sapolky (1990, 2005)

Longitudnal study
Evaluation of sapolky
Strengths
S1- high ecological validity- happened in the natural habitat and can see
changes over time
S2- high internal validity as highly conrolled extraneous variables-
collected the blood sample at the same time everyday so that the change
in the harmonal level doesn’t effect the data. Since corosol levels are
different during differet times of the day.
- never collected blood sample right after sex, sickness and fight.
- always collected the blood sample from a blow dart gun when they were
relaxed and didn’t expect it.
Limitations
W1- Be careful when is comes to generalization. Social rank is a much
more complex concept in human beings. Be causios in genralization. Its
not only the social rank that affects chronic there are other things that
play a role like aggression.

Rosenzweig and bennett 1972

Quizelet se get the information
Labrotary experiment
Evaluation
Strengths
S1- Good internal validity- highly controlled condition- where they will live,
stay with, how much water they get.
S2- environemental manipulation- unethiclal to do in humans, rats have a
short life span. We can do it becausee it is in animals we were able to
control them and study the brain and later on euthanized them.
Weakness
W1- low ecological validity- Rats were in cages and not in their natural
habitat
W3- we are able to generalizibility due to touch and contact.

Albert et al (1986)
A. Castration
B. Castration followed by implanting of tubes with testosterone
C. Castration followed by implanting of empty tubes
D. A “sham” castration followed by implanting of empty tubes
results
Those that had the operations that reduced testosterone levels (e.g.
Group A and C) had a decrease in aggressiveness (e.g. attacking and
biting) but those that had the operations that kept testosterone levels in
tact (Group B and D) didn’t have a significant change in aggression levels.

It was followed by a second operation so that those that had the surgery
that decreased testosterone had another operation that increased
testosterone (e.g. Group C had their tubes filled with testosterone). Those
alpha rats that had their testosterone replaced showed returned levels of
aggressiveness similar to those in the “sham” castration group.

when a subordinate male (one that is not the alpha) is placed in the same
cage as an alpha rat that has been castrated the lower rat (subordinate)
becomes the dominant (alpha) rat in the cage.
testosterone may facilitate behaviour associated with social dominance in
rats.

Evaluation
Strengths
S1-
S2-
Weakness
W1-
W2-
Cases et al

Ferguesan et al
Evaluation
Guide- page 12
Evaluation
Strngths
S1- cause and effect rleationship
S2- can be applied to huma n beings the result
Weakness
W1- difficult to replicate in humans
W2- irrepresable damge to the animal- ethically wrong.
Results-
Normal mouse- exposed to the same female mouse 4 times
time spent with the female mouse kept reducing. highest in the first trial and lowest in the fourth
trial
When 5th trial, new female mouse was introduced, dishabituation happened
spent as much time with her as they did with the first female mouse in the first rial

SOCIOCULTURAL APPROCH TO BEHAVIOUR

Assumptions:
1. Culture influences behaviour
2. Human beings are social animals and we have a basic need to
“belong”.
3. Our behaviour is influenced by others, even when we believe that
we are acting independently.
4. Social context - that is, situational factors - play a key role in human
behaviour.
5. We have both an individual and a social self.
INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP
Social identity theory
SIT- what u think about urself in agroup situation.
Concepts-
Social idnentification/ social identity- categorise urself with a group and
take on the believes of that group

social identity is how you identify yourself with one group, adopt their
values and this is how you see yourself in a social situation

Social categorisation – process by which u group people together on a

basic of certain charecteristics and u sssume everyone in that group
shares those charecteristics
Out group homogenuinty effect- assuming that people in the outgroup all
share certain charecteristics.
When u catergorize urself the gorup u belong to become in group and
other groups become out group
Social comparison- u compare in group and out group. The goal of this
camparison is to create positive distinctiveness for your own group.
2 reasons for social comparison:
- Positive distinctivness-
 - Self esteem hypothesis- innate desire to increase our self-esteem by
viewing our group as better.(u increase the self esteem by thinking
ur geoup is better)
Salience- when you are made aware or remmineded of your social identity
It influences the decision u make and the way u behave.

SAQ
INTRO
1. Social idnetity
2. Social categorisation- ingroup favourtism and out group
homogenuity
3. Social comparison- postive distinceness and self esteem hypothesis
4. Salience

Social cognitive theory

Social learning theory
Observational learning—learning that occurs as a result of observing other
people perform actions as well as the consequences of these actions
4 factors needed to be present to observe a immitated behaviour:
Attention- pay attention to the behaviour consequences and form a
schema of it.
Retention-memory of the behaviour
Motivation-the motivation or the desire to imitate it
Potential-
Outcome expectancy-

Self efficacy-

Stereotypes- Stereotype: a preconceived notion, a cognitive belief about a

group of people. It is intended to make generalizations about entire
groups.

illusory correlation-: cognitive mechanism that leads a person to perceive

a relationship between two events when in reality they are not related.

Effects of stereotypes
people who hold a stereotype may influence the behaviour of the stereotyped group

Self-fulfilling prophecy—a change in an individual’s behaviour as a result of others’

expectations about this individual

rosenthal and jacobson

confounding variable-w1- L1: low internal validity- confounding variables
L2: unethical that only IQ of exp group increased significantly
S1: good ecological validity
S2: low participant bias- single blind study

members of the stereotyped group itself may reinforce the stereotype by changing their
behaviour as a result of increased anxiety or apprehension.
Aronson and steele
S1: good internal validity- standardized procedure
S2: establish a cause-effect rs, manipulated the IV- instruction
L1: participant variability
L2: artificial condition

Enculturation-
Aculturation-
Culture- unique meaning and information system, shared by a group and
transmitted across generations (Matsumoto 2007)

Social group- A social group is defined as two or more people who interact with one
another and share similar characteristics
Cultural norms-the unique set of attitudes, beliefs and behaviours
specifc to a particular culture

Cultural dimensions-General factors underlying crosscultural differences

in values and behaviour; they have been identified on the basis of
massive cross-national surveys

Hofsteade’s survey
Came up with 6 dimensions
1. Collectivism and individualism
2. PDI
3. Masculinity and feminity
4.
Individualism versus collectivism.
In individualist cultures people define their personality in terms of their
own personal characteristics, their success and their unique features.
Among the strongest values in society are personal autonomy,
competitiveness and self-sufficiency.
In collectivist cultures identity is linked to the social group, and values
associated with belonging to a group take priority over personal values.

Power distance index (PDI).

A higher PDI score indicates that hierarchy between the less powerful and
the more
powerful is firmly established in the society and rarely questioned. A lower
PDI score indicates that people question authority and believe that
authority figures are not particularly superior to themselves.

Evaluation for Kulkofsky:

S1: back translation maintained validity
S2: interview conducted by a member of the culture of the participant in
the native lanuguage- rapport, comfort, higher recall

W1: ecological fallacy- assuming Americans are individualistic

W2: etic approach- outsider- cultural differences
W3: self-report- people may have lied, no crosschecking of data- low
validity

Odden and rochat(2004)

Enculturation- is the process of learning about your own culture. This can
happen through observations or instructions or it can be direct personal
experience.
Aim- to investgate if obervational learning plays a role in a child learing
about their culture.

Longitudnal naturalistic observation.

They also did semi structure interviews and gave questionnaires.
Results
results
1. house chores learnt by 15yrs only through observation
2. learnt to fish very well by age 12 only through observation
3. parents and elders dont teach, encourage and engage with the children
4. no walls in houses. children only watch, observe and learn
5. children discouraged from asking Q as it is not respectful

conclusion
these children have learnt about their Samona community and the high
power distance concept by just observing and they follow the same

Evlauaation
S1- high ecological validity because natural observation people would be
authentics
S2- data traingulation
W1- researcher bias
W2- difflicult to replicate and there will be confounding variables, difficult
to standadize them.

PAPER-2
Abnormal psychology
3 main parts
- Diagnosis
- Etiologies and prevelance (main focus)
- Disorders

Mood disorder -: Mood disorders are characterized by severe disturbances

in mood and emotions---most often depppression, but also mania and
elation.
There are 2 types of mood disorders:
- Depressive disorder
o
- Bipolar disorders

Difference between mood and emotion-:

Mood-: Mood is long term.
Emotion-: Emotion is short term.
Mania is elated level of moods.
Just having sysmptons doesn’t disgnose the patient
There are 3 phases-:
 - Symptons
- Duration
- Effecting normal fucntioning
2 classification manuls-:
Manuals we use to classify disorders
- DSM-5- diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders
(current version running is 11) (American psychiatrist association)
- ICD-11- international classification of diseases (given by WHO)
(current version running is 5)

Case History- taking everything about that person

- Personal relationship
- Treatments
- Occupation
- Religion
- Past symptoms
- Medical history
Mental status examination (MSE)- Present status of that person.
- Observe the person
Go through the classification manuals

Steps a clinical psychologist will follow to diagnose a patient-:

1- Case history
2- MSE
3- Classification manuals

Etiology- a set of factors that cause a disorder.

3 types of etiologies -:
1. Biological
2. Cognitive
3. Sociocultural

Biological cause of a disorder looks at the neuro … rec 457 20 mins

Falconers model-:
1. Depression is heritable or not by using the falconers model.
2. To what extent gene heritability and environment play a role
Phenotypes are influenced by 3 things-:
1. A- Genetic inheritance
2. C- common/ shared environment
3. E- individual/unique environment
When these 3 things interact it decides what kind of a phenotype you
have.
There are 3 things that can interact and can cause a disorder-:
1.
Genetic heritability- Genetic heritability refers to the proportion of
variation in a trait (like depression) that can be attributed to genetic
differences between individuals in a population.
Three types of studies we do to find out to what extent a disorder in
inheritable-:
1. Twin studies- 26-28 mins
2. Adoption studies- 29 mins
3. Family studies- 29 min
Genotype- genes you inherit from your parents
Phenotype- observable characteristics 25 mins