INSTITUTO SUPERIOR DE FORMACIÓN DOCENTE N°21 DR RICARDO ROJAS

PRÁCTICAS DISCURSIVAS DE LA COMUNICACIÓN ESCRITA 2

WRITING AND GRAMMAR MODULE

Instituto Superior de Formación Docente N°21

‘Dr. Ricardo Rojas’

Profesorado de Inglés

Prácticas Discursivas de la
Comunicación Escrita II
Writing and Grammar

Profesora a cargo: Prof. Lic. Yanina Giracca

Cursos: 2°1° 2°2°

Ciclo lectivo: 2020

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AN INTRODUCTION TO GENRE AND THE GENRE-BASED APPROACH

The Nature of Genre

Etymologically, the word ‘genre’ derives from the French language meaning ‘form’ or ‘type’. In Biology,
science means ‘genus’ referring to the classification of flora and fauna (Stokes, 2006; Himawan, 2007).
This means that the early concept of genre is to classify the species into a certain class due to its typical
similar characteristics (Dirgeyasa, 2015).

The term genre developed overtime. In music, for example, genre is used to refer to any music categories
such as pop, gospel classic, etc, whereas in movie, that there are also many types of genres like drama,
western, science picture, and so forth. In literature, novel, drama, poetry etc.

Genre is also used in linguistics study.

Definition of Genre-Based Approach

Many experts try to introduce and present their concept about genre.
 “Genre is a technical tem for a particular instance of a text type.” Christie (2005:233)
 “Genre is a term for grouping texts together, representing how writers typically use
language to respond to recurring situations.” Hyland (2007:4)
 “Genre is a purposeful, socially constructed oral or written communicative event, such
as narrative, a casual conversation, a poem, a recipe, or a description. Different genres
are characterized by a particular structure or stages, and grammatical forms that reflect
the communicative purpose of the genre in question.” Nunan (1999:308)
 “Genre is an organizing concept for our culture practices, any field of genres
constitutes a network of contrasts according to a variety of parameters, genre
is a place occasion, function, behavior, and interactional structure; it is very
rarely useful to think of it is a kind of ‘text’, genre is culture competence involves
knowing the appropriateness principle for any genre, knowing the kind of
margin you have with it, being able to vary it, knowing how to shift from one to
another and how many factors would be involve in any such shift." Knapp and
Watkins (2009:21)
 “The schematic structure of a text which helps it to achieve its purpose.” Derewianka
(1990)
 “Genre is a communication event in which the members have a set of communication
goal.” Swales (1990)
 This theory addresses the relationship between language and its social functions and
sets out to show language as a system from which users make choices to express
meaning. Halliday argues that the language users have to use and develop the specific
ways of using language to accomplish goals, which means that texts are related to social
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context and the other texts. Broadly, when a set of texts share the same purpose, they
will often share the same structure, and thus, they belong to the same genre. Halliday &
Hasan (1989)

1. Considering the aforementioned definition, complete the one below using the italicized words.
There are two extra ones which you need not use:
Language -features- discourse- linguistic- community- advertisements- setting and purpose-
paragraph

. Genres are types of spoken and written ____________ recognized by a discourse ________________.
Examples are lectures, conversations, speeches, notices, ________________, novels, diaries, shopping
lists. Each genre has typical_______________. Some may be __________________ (grammatical or
lexical choices), some paralinguistic (e.g. print size, gesture) and some contextual and pragmatic (e.g.
______________________) (Blackwell reference)

The process of Teaching and Learning through Genre Approach

Martin (1999) states that genre writing as a process of teaching and learning can be developed and
conducted through a number of phases to follow in. He proposes three main phases of genre writing
process consisting of a) modeling, b) deconstruction, and c) language understanding. In accordance to the
implementation of genre based writing to teaching and learning writing as a kind of a model of wheel
literacy (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993

This shows that Cope and Kalantzis (1993) suggest that in the modeling stage, a certain genre is given to
the students by the teacher. The teacher and students then analyze it in order to know the nature of its
features in terms of linguistics features, structures of the text and the communicative purpose. It is
important to know why each type of genre has its own linguistic features, structural patterns and
communicative purpose as well. In the second phase, the students do the exercise by manipulating and
modifying the text given in terms of relevant language usages. Finally, the students try to produce a certain
genre type by using their previous understanding and knowledge. Firkins, Forey, and Sengupta (2007)
elaborate in detail and more comprehensive way how it is done. They propose three stages which must be
followed and implemented during the teaching and learning process. The three stages are a) modeling a
text, b) joint construction of a text, and c) independent construction of a text.

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ESSAY WRITING

These seven steps are based on what we have observed successful essay writers do.

1. Successful essay writers begin Step One by carefully analysing the essay brief or question to make
sure that they are clear about what is required.
2. Step Two is that they develop a thesis statement, which is a sentence that concisely expresses the
essay’s big idea or focus.
3. With this thesis statement in mind, they read and make notes Step Three.
4. Step Four, they organise and select from their notes to develop the points they will use to support
the thesis statement.
5. Step Five, they turn these notes and points into paragraphs, the body paragraphs (not the
introduction nor the conclusion yet), to support the thesis statement.
6. Step Six, they write the introductory paragraph and the concluding paragraph. These form a frame
around the body consisting of the middle paragraphs of the essay.
7. And last but not least Step Seven, they edit and proof-read the draft before they submit it.

WHAT IS AN ESSAY?

An essay is an extended piece of writing that presents and supports a thesis or proposition. The word
‘essay’ derives from the Latin word ‘exagium’, meaning the presentation of a case.

When you write an essay you are making a case for the validity of a particular point of view, analysis,
interpretation, or set of facts or procedures.

There are many types of essays…

 argumentative,
 descriptive,
 synoptic,
 analytical,
 exploratory,
 review,
 and so on

… but they all have the common objective of presenting and defending a topic and a stance to the reader.

Consequently, essays all rely not only on the validity of the facts they communicate but also on the
selection, critical evaluation, organisation, and presentation of these facts.

The Essay Model Diagram

An essay model is a theoretical frame work that can be used as the structural basis of assessment essays
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STEP 1: ANALYSE THE BRIEF

Reading the essay brief seems a very obvious and straightforward process, but the many students who
lose marks for misreading essay briefs suggests that this is actually a process that needs careful thought.

Consider the following seven points when reading an essay brief and deciding exactly what’s required of
you.

1. Read the essay brief out loud

Reading out loud forces you to pay attention to every word and to familiarise yourself with the brief in its
entirety instead of focusing on only part of it.

2. Underline and define key words

Make sure you understand exactly what is required in the essay. Identify the key words and underline them.
If there are any words you are unfamiliar with or whose precise meaning you are unclear about, look them
up in a dictionary (never just guess at a word’s meaning).

3. Underline directive verbs

Directive verbs are those that give instructions about what you are required to do in the essay. Make sure
you understand these words. Below is a list of the more common directive verbs used in essay briefs.

Example of Directive Verbs

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Analyse Interpret
Break something down to identify the main ideas and Give the meaning. You give your own opinions,
component parts then show how they are related and backed by evidence.
why they are important.

Comment on Justify
Discuss, criticise or explain the meaning of a Show why you think it is right. Give reasons for your
situation or statement. statement or conclusion.

Compare Outline
Show both the similarities and the differences. Give a general summary of the main ideas,
supported by secondary ideas. Omit minor details.

Contrast Prove
Compare by showing the differences. Show by argument or logic that it is true. You must
provide adequate evidence.

Define Relate
Give the exact meaning. Show connections.

Discuss Review
Examine, giving the details and the points for and Make a survey in which you look critically at the
against. You must develop a logical argument important parts.
backed by sound evidence.

Enumerate State
List, name, and specify and describe the main ideas. Specify the main points in precise terms. Omit minor
details.

Evaluate Summarise
Give your judgement, after showing the advantages Give a concise account of the main ideas. Omit
and disadvantages. details and examples.

Explain Trace
Make plain, interpret, and account for in detail. Follow the progress or history of a topic.

Illustrate
Explain or make it clear by concrete
examples. Sometimes you may use a figure or a
diagram.

4. Identify key issues

Always read the essay brief with the following factors in mind: the unit outline, its desired learning
outcomes, what you have heard in lectures or read in prescribed texts; direct and indirect indications from
your lecturer about which aspects, themes, or topics are most important in the unit. Keep focused on the
key issues.

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5. Clarify in your mind what the lecturer is looking for by making connections between the essay brief in context of the course
unit

As well as focusing on the key issues, it’s useful to think of the essay in terms of why the lecturer set this
particular essay brief and what they will be looking for in your completed essay. Think about how you can
most convincingly demonstrate to them that you have satisfactorily transformed information into your own
knowledge and that the learning process has been successful.

6. Note the number of words required

The number of words specified in the essay brief is a good guide to the depth and level of complexity and
detail required in your essay. Given the tight assignment schedules in most courses, it is useful to develop
a sense of how much research and note-making is required for different lengths of essay. Making
enough detailed notes for a 10,000-word essay when you are required to write only a 1,000-word essay is
not economical use of your time. It’s also more difficult to manage large quantities of detailed notes, so
keep the level of note-making appropriate to the length of essay. As a general guide, academic paragraphs
are 100 – 200 words. Therefore a 500-word essay should be no longer than 5 paragraphs, while a 1000-
word essay could be between 5 and 10 paragraphs.

7. Analyse the marking guide

Although the most heavily weighted component is ‘evidence that the topic is understood’ (25%), it is clear
that the lecturer also wants you to give evidence that you’ve understood and can apply to your own work
the scholarly conventions of citation and referencing. This is typical of the emphasis in marking guides for
first-year essays, as lecturers encourage students to engage with the basics of writing in an academic
context.

Some lecturers use a more holistic marking scheme that evaluates the essay as an organic whole rather
than in terms of its individual parts.

STEP 2: FORMULATE A PROVISIONAL THESIS STATEMENT

As we saw in the Essay Model diagram, the thesis statement is positioned as the last sentence in the first
paragraph – the Introduction. The preceding sentences in the introduction prepare the reader to consider
the THESIS STATEMENT, which is the most important sentence in the entire essay. If you were asked to
summarise, in one sentence, your 500-word or 10,000-word essay, that sentence would be the thesis
statement.

In an expository or descriptive essay, the thesis statement should group together the various aspects of
the topic that you will be describing; in an analytical essay, it should state your findings; and in
an argumentative essay, it should express the position you’re taking on an issue.

The following points are important to remember when you’re formulating your thesis statement:

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 The thesis statement is a sentence that says clearly, precisely, and concisely what the essay is all
about.
 The thesis statement is the essay’s ‘big idea’

 The thesis statement must be explained, supported, or defended in the paragraphs that make up
the body of the essay.
 Everything relates back to the thesis.
 The thesis statement needs to be both arguable (it sets out a hypothesis, position, or perspective –
not just the facts – and supportable (there must be adequate evidence or points of argument to
convince the reader of the validity of the thesis).
 The thesis statement needs to be concise.

To demonstrate, let’s develop a thesis statement for Model Essay One (descriptive) and Model Essay Two
(argumentative).

500 words equates to three to five paragraphs. Using a five paragraph model, the essay looks like this: one
introductory paragraph, three middle paragraphs, and one concluding paragraph – the three middle
paragraphs represent the body of the essay, in which you present your evidence or argument.

A paragraph can be made up of any number of sentences, but generally, a paragraph is around 3 to 5
sentences.

Paragraphs one and five function as the opening and closing frames of the case or argument you are
presenting. The three middle paragraphs are where you present your argument or evidence supporting the
thesis statement. This means that you can reasonably present three points of argument or evidence (each
paragraph should make just one main point).

In Model Essay One, you’re asked to identify the characteristics that make a successful essay. You could
probably identify many characteristics, but you have only three paragraphs, so you need to tailor your
response to fit your 500-word essay. A simple solution is to focus on one characteristic for each paragraph.
Your provisional thesis statement might therefore be:

A successful essay has three key elements: A, B, and C.

This sets clear parameters for your reading and note-making. It also gives you a hook to hang your essay
on; you will refine it as you read to gather research material on the characteristics of a successful essay.
From your reading, you will identify three elements that you will make a case for as the most important.
Although you won’t be developing a ‘for and against’ argument, you will have to convince your reader of
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your case. In this example, there’s no definitive ‘right’ answer – there are many important characteristics
from which to choose – but you will have to justify your choice and convince your reader of its validity.

As we saw in the Directive Verbs section, ‘discuss’ means that you have to ‘examine, giving the details
and the points for and against’ and that you must ‘develop a logical argument backed by sound evidence’.
Usually the essay topic is complex and, therefore, cannot be addressed by a simple ‘for’ or ‘against’
argument; there will always be both points for and points against, and all these points need to be
acknowledged.

However, to write an effective argumentative essay, you will need to begin by taking a definite position on
your topic, and expressing your position in a clear, arguable thesis statement, which you then defend with
evidence and logic. In Model Essay Two, you have to take a position either ‘for’ or ‘against’ the validity of
essay writing as a component of student assessment. As you read and research, you may want to modify
your thesis statement or even take the opposite position from the one you started with – this is why at this
stage we call it the provisional thesis statement.

A provisional thesis statement for Model Essay Two might be:

 Setting essay assignments as a component of student assessment at university is a valid

practice.

Alternatively, it might be:

 Setting essay assignments as a component of student assessment at university is not a

valid practice.

In supporting either of these thesis statements, you need to build a reasoned argument in the middle
paragraphs (rather than simply presenting an organised list of points as you would in a descriptive essay).

As they read through the essay, the reader needs to see the thesis being
supported.

STEP 3: GATHER DATA (READ AND MAKE NOTES)

Do you read fiction for pleasure? Maybe you read detective novels or action thrillers. What makes you turn
each page? What questions do you ask? If the story is exciting or it captures your imagination, you
probably ask, ‘What happens next?’ or ‘Who is the murderer?’, and you read on to find answers to your
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questions.
The experience of reading a text book or a journal article is usually quite different from reading fiction, but
when you read for study purposes rather than for pleasure it is just as important to ask questions. When
you’re reading to gather information for an essay, instead of asking, ‘What happens next?’ you ask, ‘How
does this point relate to my thesis statement?’ or ‘How can I use that point in developing an argument to
support my thesis statement?’

Reading as an active experience

To make reading for an essay an active experience, you need to:

Always remember your purpose in reading: gathering information to support your thesis statement with
evidence and argument.

STEP 4: ORGANISE DATA AND IDEAS, REVISE THESIS STATEMENT

Now that you have analysed the essay brief, formulated a provisional thesis statement, and read and made
notes, the next step is to organise the information that you have gathered. Your objective here is to
transform this information into the basis of clear, logical paragraphs that convincingly support or argue the
validity of your thesis statement. One approach to this task is a visual approach – a concept map. A
concept map has the advantage of allowing you to see small details and the big picture all at the same
time. Applied to essay writing, concept mapping is very useful because you can map out all the information
that you have and you can link pieces of information together and to see how each of these relates to the
thesis statement, that is, to the main message of the essay.

When you have gathered your data/made your notes, you must organise them to answer the essay brief
with your provisional thesis statement in mind. Following are some suggestions for organising your data,
using Model Essay One and Model Essay Two as examples.

In organising your notes and ideas, you might find that a visual approach can help you to categorise,
connect, and develop your data. Many students find concept mapping useful.

The advantage of a visual approach over a linear approach is that it allows you to see in one view the
whole picture as well as the individual points. By making associations and connections between individual
points and seeing how they relate to the provisional thesis statement, you can develop a conceptual
structure for your essay.

The following concept maps, applied to the two model essay briefs, are intended to give you an idea of
visual planning techniques. Your own maps will be more complicated and messy as you cover them with
scribbled notes, references, connecting lines, and crossings-out in the process of organising and
manipulating your data. Remember they are for your eyes only and can take any form you personally find
useful.

Model Essay One – provisional thesis statement

A successful essay has three key elements: A, B, and C.

In your reading, you will find more than three characteristics of an effective essay. Using a concept map
that displays all the characteristics you have found helps you to evaluate each characteristic in relation to
the others, and to select the most significant for your list of three. Alternatively, you might group a number
of related individual characteristics under three larger general characteristics.

Thematic Map (An example of one type of map)

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Assuming that there are three themes or points that you will develop as your three key elements, you can
draw a map with three category sections, into which you will sort your data.

In using this map, you may find that some of your notes do not fit into any of the thematic categories you’ve
set up. This may mean that points covered in those notes “while they may be interesting” are not relevant to
your essay. Remember that an essay does not have to say everything about a topic, so it is sometimes
advisable to discard some points rather than trying to force them into thematic categories where they do not
really belong.
The decision not to use some of the information that you’ve painstakingly gathered can be difficult, but in
fact the process of sorting your gathered material and selecting what most convincingly supports your
thesis statement is an essential part of essay writing.

The next stage in using a thematic map is to give a name to each of the thematic categories; to use these
names in your revised thesis statement; and to develop a paragraph on each of them.

STEP 5: WRITE THE MIDDLE PARAGRAPHS

When you have revised your provisional thesis statement and mapped out the supporting points you will
develop in your essay, you can start writing the body of the essay.

It’s advisable to begin with the middle paragraphs of the essay rather than the introductory paragraph
because it’s the middle paragraphs that support the thesis statement and constitute the argument of the
essay. The introductory paragraph leads up to your thesis statement and the concluding paragraph begins
by restating your thesis and then wraps up the essay; first and last paragraphs function as a frame around
your essay’s argument, but are not part of the argument. Once you have developed your argument through
the middle paragraphs, you are better able to write an opening paragraph that positions the reader to
engage with your argument.

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Paragraphs
Keep the following points in mind when constructing your middle paragraphs:

 A paragraph is a unit of thought.

 Each paragraph should make one point.
 A new paragraph signals to the reader that the writer has moved to a new topic or point of
evidence.
 Paragraphs should have internal cohesion.
 Paragraphs should be linked logically to each other.

The length of a paragraph depends on the complexity of the topic, the purpose of the writing, the medium,
and the anticipated needs of the reader. Because most academic writing is formal writing that involves
complex topics and a critical reader, it is advisable to aim for at least 100 words (up to 200 words) when
you write an academic paragraph.

Paragraph Structure
Structure is important not only in the essay as a whole but also in every paragraph that makes up the
essay. There are three parts of a paragraph: the topic sentence, which introduces the paragraph’s topic;
middle sentences, which constitute the body of the paragraph; and the wrap sentence, which concludes the
paragraph.

The topic sentence

The middle sentences

The wrap sentence

To demonstrate this structure, we can look at the second paragraph of Model Essay One and the third
paragraph of Model Essay Two.

Model Essay One paragraph two

In the strategic plan, paragraph two had ‘focus’ as its topic. (Note that apart from its last sentence ‘the
thesis statement’ the introductory paragraph has not been written at this stage.)

Thesis statement:
A successful essay has three key elements: focus, organisation, and clarity.

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Analysis
Sentence 1 (topic sentence) introduces the topic of ‘focus’, which is developed further in sentences 2, 3,
and 4. Sentence 5 (wrap sentence) sums up how ‘focus’ can be achieved in writing the thesis statement.

Note that the word ‘focus’ is repeated throughout the paragraph, reinforcing the paragraph topic.

Model Essay Two paragraph three

In the strategic plan, paragraph three concedes (as the essay brief states) that essays are not written in the
workplace, then counters the concession by asserting that the skills required are transferable to the
workplace.

Thesis statement:
Setting essay assignments as a component of student assessment at university is a valid practice.

Analysis

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Sentence 1 (topic sentence) introduces the topic of ‘professional performance’. Sentence 2 concedes the
point that essay writing may seem irrelevant to professional performance. Sentence 3, signalling a change
of direction with the transition marker ‘however’, shows the limitations of the conceded point, and presents
the counter-argument that essay skills are transferable from an academic to a professional context.
Sentence 4 identifies these skills, and sentence 5 (wrap sentence) affirms the relevance of essay writing to
the professional skills identified.

Note that the word ‘skills’ is used throughout the paragraph, reinforcing the paragraph topic.

Cohesion
An effective essay is a coherent whole, in which sentences within paragraphs and paragraphs themselves
are connected, flowing on from one to another, leading the reader through the essay.

One of the ways to create cohesion between sentences is by using transition markers. Transition markers
are words or phrases used to link sentences and paragraphs and to help the reader follow the direction of
your argument.

A Few Transition Markers

Adding: Conceding a point:

and, also, in addition, moreover, furthermore, although true, even though, although, despite this,
Summing up:
Contrasting: to summarise, to conclude, in conclusion, clearly
however, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the contrary, then
on the other hand, by contrast,
Endorsing:
Clarifying: clearly, in particular, importantly, naturally,
in other wrds, that is, in effect, to simplify, obviously

Sequencing: Stating a logical conclusion:

to begin with, firstly, secondly, lastly, finally therefore, thus, hence, as a result, consequently,
accordingly, for that reason.
Exemplifying:
for example, for instance, in particular, to illustrate,

While transition markers are an effective way of emphasising for the reader the relationship between one
sentence and the next, there is little value in using them when the logical relationship between the
sentences is already clear. In fact, over-using transition markers reduces their effectiveness; save them for
the places where you need to guide the reader.

Transition marker example 1

Transition marker example 2

Faulty Transitions

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When using transition markers like ‘therefore’, ‘thus’, or ‘consequently’, be careful that the sentence
beginning with the marker really is a logical conclusion of the preceding sentence.

Faulty transition example

Over the last five years there has been an increase in cases of student plagiarism. However, universities
need to impose heavier penalties on students who plagiarise.

In this example, the second sentence, although related, is not a logical contrast of the first sentence:
imposing heavier penalties is a possible response that universities could make to the issue of plagiarism,
but it is not an inevitable outcome of the issue.

Repeat Idea Transition

In a repeat idea transition, ideas from the first sentence are referred back to in the following sentence. The
above faulty transition example can be revised using a repeat idea transition.

Repeat idea transition example 1

Repeat idea transition example 2

Writing From Sources

In developing your middle paragraphs, you will be using your lecture, tutorial, or reading notes to develop
an argument or case supporting your thesis statement. Here, it’s useful to remember the process diagram
from the Introduction of this course, in particular the arrow indicating the transformation needed to turn
information into knowledge.

When your lecturer reads your essay, they are looking for evidence not only that you’ve attended lectures
and tutorials and read the required textbooks and journal articles but also that you have been engaged in a
learning process that transforms information into knowledge. To convince your lecturer that the learning
process has been successful, you must express ‘in your own words’ what you have learned. If you use the
words of the source text, your lecturer can’t tell whether you’ve understood the source material or whether
you are just copying it.

Writing in your own words does not mean that you take what the author has written and change some of
the original words. Rather, it involves a process of understanding the information carried by the source
text, critically evaluating and selecting information relevant to your essay, processing it through notes,
concept maps, and summaries, and incorporating this processed material into your essay. Your lecturer
wants to hear your own ‘scholarly voice‘ through your writing. This voice is informed by the authority of the
texts you have read on your topic but expresses your own way of thinking about the topic.

Getting the balance right between the authority of the source text and your own interpretation, perspective,
and opinion takes some practice. Always remember that if your reader wanted to know what the source text
says they would read the source text, but when they read your essay they want to know what you have to
say. You take the raw material of the source text, but then you process this appropriated material so that
you can use it for your essay.

The following diagram represents the appropriation of material from the source text and
theincorporation into your text. Note in particular that there is no direct link between source texts and your
essay. Everything that you take from a source text must be processed thoroughlybefore becoming part of
your essay.

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The three most commonly used techniques for incorporating material from source texts into your own
essay are:

 quoting,
 paraphrasing, and
 summarising.

All of these techniques require citation within the text and in the bibliography or reference list at the end of
the essay.

Referencing Conventions
There are a number of different referencing conventions: APA, Chicago, Harvard, and Vancouver are
probably the most common. You do not have to memorise these; just make sure that you know which
convention is required in your course of study and consult the relevant referencing guide, using dedicated
software programs, following it carefully for in-text citations, reference lists, and/or bibliographies.

Quoting
Quoting means copying the author’s exact words directly from the source text. Use quotations when you
want to add the power of an author’s words to support your argument or you want to highlight particularly
powerful or effective phrases.

Guidelines
 Keep direct quotations short.
 Use direct quotations sparingly. To demonstrate your own understanding of a topic to your reader,
it’s better to paraphrase or summarise in your own words.
 Use quotations for a specific reason, not because it’s easier to quote the original text than to
process it as a paraphrase or summary.
 Reference quotations accurately both in-text and in your bibliography or reference list.
 Always include page numbers in your in-text reference.
When quoting, always copy verbatim that is, always copy exactly what the author has written.

Original text

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The green tree frog is found in the forests of eastern Australia. It is an attractive shade of green and grows
up to ten centimetres long. It eats insects and spiders, which it catches with its long sticky tongue. Some
Australian green tree frogs have been known to live up to twenty years.

When you quote from this original passage, you must keep the author’s original words.

Quotation

 Croke (2004, 42) writes, ‘Some Australian green tree frogs have been known to live up to twenty
years.’
 Croke (2004 , 42) claims that ‘some Australian green tree frogs’ have been known to live up to
twenty years.’
 Claims have been made that Australian green tree frogs ‘have been known to live up to twenty
years’ (Croke 2004, 42).
If you are in doubt about where to place punctuation in relation to quotation marks, consult a style manual
such as Fowler’s Modern English Usage (review).

Spelling in quotations
You must keep the original spelling of quotations. If you normally use Australian spelling conventions, but
the passage or phrase you want to quote uses American English, you must keep the American spelling.

Quotation

 The work of New York abstract expressionist painter Jasper Shmirk is characterised by its bold
colour contrasts. In the foreword of his Major Retrospective Catalogue (1984, 27) he writes, ‘The
clash of colors in my “Nightsong Series” represents the experience of modern urban life.’
In this example, the writer is using the Australian spelling ‘colour’ in the text, but reproduces exactly
Shmirk’s American spelling when quoting him. Note that you may use either single or double quotation
marks (just make sure you use them consistently), but distinguish a quote within a quote as above. The
following two versions are equally acceptable:

Quotation

 “The clash of colors in my ‘Nightsong Series’• represents the experience of modern urban life.”
 ‘The clash of colors in my “Nightsong Series” represents the experience of modern urban life.•’
Omitting words from quotations
If you omit some words from the original text, you must alert the reader by replacing the omitted words with
an ellipsis.

Changing words in a quotation

Sometimes you will want to change the form of a word so that the quoted material can be incorporated
grammatically into your own sentence. You must signal to the reader any changes you make by enclosing
the changed word or words in square brackets.

Original text

The predominant soil type in coastal areas of Sarawak is peat. Roads built on peat soils are particularly
subject to subsidence and the development of corrugation. This makes road-building a continuing civil
engineering challenge.

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Quotation

 Arshad and Chow (2004, 76) note that ‘the predominant soil type in coastal areas of Sarawak is
peat…[making] road-building a continuing civil engineering challenge.’

Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing means putting the author’s thoughts into your own words.

Use paraphrasing when:

 You want to use your own ‘voice’ to present information.

 You want to incorporate the author’s ideas into your own writing.
 You want to avoid over-quotation.
Faulty paraphrasing is the source of many cases identified by lecturers as ‘plagiarism’. The problem is
usually that the raw material of the source text is not sufficiently processed. Paraphrasing is primarily a
cognitive process; that is, it’s about concepts rather than words alone. Playing with language – changing
words and phrases in the original text – is not paraphrasing.

Paraphrasing requires you to extract not the words but the meaning from the original text and to express
this meaning in your notes. When you communicate the meaning of the original text in your own writing, try
to work independently from the original text, drawing instead on your own notes or concept maps.

Original Text

Since the end of the Second World War, internationalisation of Australian higher education has gone
through stages of ‘aid’ (primarily through the Colombo Plan and, more recently AAS) and ‘trade’ (the
marketing of Australian university courses on- and off-shore). In the twenty-first century, Australian
universities have entered a third, more mature, stage that builds on the earlier stages to constitute a more
comprehensive internationalisation that involves university communities engaging with internationalisation
as global citizens.

Paraphrase

 Smith (2005, 64) suggests that over the last sixty years international education has gone through
three stages: aid, trade, and engagement.
Paraphrasing Exercise

Summarising
Summarising means providing a broad overview of one or a number of authors’ main ideas.

Use summaries when:

 You want to establish the background to a topic.

 You want to offer an overview of a topic.
 You want to describe common knowledge from several sources about a topic.
 You want to communicate the main ideas of a single source.

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Example

Studies of the Australian green tree frog and its environment reveal the possibility that the species could
become extinct within the next fifty years (Ribbett 2002; Lillee 2003; and Croke 2004).

In this example, you are indicating to your reader that the authors Ribbett, Lillee, and Croke all make the
same claim that the species could become extinct within fifty years.

Introducing a Quotation, Paraphrase of Summary

Whenever you quote, paraphrase, or summarise from a source text, you need to integrate the appropriated
material within own work don’t just insert it. The following are just a few examples of how you might
introduce the appropriated material.

Examples

 Croke (2004) claims that some tree frogs have been known to live up to twenty years.
 Croke’s argument (2004) is that environmental degradation is threatening the continued existence
of the green tree frog.
 As Croke (2004) asserts, green tree frogs are facing extinction.
Verb Tense
Getting the verb tenses correct when you appropriate material from source texts and incorporate them in
your own text can be tricky. Here are a few guidelines to help you.

The convention of the historical present tense applies when a writer has made a statement that you
appropriate and engage with in your own writing.

Example

Croke (2004) discusses environmental threats to the Australian green tree frog.

Although Croke wrote his journal article in 2004, you are engaging with it in the present and so you use
present tense ‘discusses’ (not ‘discussed’). Similarly,

Example

According to Croke (2004), the life cycle of the green tree frog is uniquely adapted to the Australian climate.
He speculates that tree frogs originated in Asia and migrated south during the Mesozoic period.

Here, you as a reader are engaging with Croke’s speculation in the present, so you use the present tense
‘speculates’. However, Croke is speculating about events that happened in the past, so you need to use the
past tense verbs ‘originated’ and ‘migrated.’

Whenever you discuss case studies or work that the author has undertaken in the past, use the past tense.

Example

Croke (2004) claims that the green tree frog faces extinction within the next half century. He bases his
claim on field studies he conducted in the Katoomba area from 1998 to 2002. In these studies
he tagged eight hundred frogs and tracked their movements over the study period.

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STEP 6: WRITE INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION
Introductory and concluding paragraphs function together as the frame around the argument of your essay.
Or, using the visual image of book-ends holding the books – the body of your essay – together. It is
important to write the introduction and the conclusion in one sitting, so that they match in mirror image to
create a complete framework.

The Introductory Paragraph

When you’ve finished writing the middle paragraphs, the body of your essay, and you’re satisfied that the
argument or case you’ve presented adequately supports your thesis statement, you’re now ready to write
your introduction.

The introduction

 Introduces the topic of your essay,

 ‘Welcomes’ the reader with a general statement that engages their interest or that they can agree
with,
 Sets the scene for the discussion in the body of the essay,
 Builds up to the thesis statement,
 Prepares the reader for the thesis statement and your argument or case, but does not introduce
points of argument,
 Concludes with the thesis statement.

In preparing the reader for the thesis statement, there are many approaches in writing an
introduction that can be taken. The following are just a few:

 Provide historical background,

 Outline the present situation,
 Define terms,
 State the parameters of the essay,
 Discuss assumptions,
 Present a problem.

The following examples from Model Essays One and Two show how introductory paragraphs are
developed.

Analysis

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The first six sentences in this introductory paragraph prepare the reader for the thesis statement in
sentence 7 that the three key elements of a successful essay are ‘focus, organisation, and clarity‘

1. Sentence 1 makes the generalisation that students ‘find essay writing difficult and frustrating’, and
2. Sentences 2 and 3 expand on this generalisation.
3. Sentence 4 reinforces the idea of difficulty.
4. Sentence 5 turns the paragraph away from the difficulties of essay writing towards a way of
addressing the difficulties by breaking the essay into components. (The word ‘however’ signals this
change of direction.)
5. Sentence 6 suggests that there are three of these components, preparing the way for the thesis
statement that ‘focus, organisation, and clarity’ are these components.

Title
Just as the introductory paragraph is written after the argument or case of the middle paragraphs has been
written, so the title is written after the essay is completed. In this way, it can signpost what the reader can
expect from the essay as a whole.

Note that the thesis statement has been re-worded, picking up the idea from the first sentence that the
essay has had a long history in the phrase ‘continues to be‘ and strengthening ‘valid’ to ‘valuable‘.

Analysis
The first four sentences in this introductory paragraph prepare the reader for the thesis statement
in sentence 5 that the essay ‘continues to be a valuable learning and assessment medium’.

1. Sentence 1 makes the generalisation that despite the age of the genre, essays are still set as
assessment tasks.
2. Sentence 2 notes that the genre has changed but some characteristics remain, and;
3. Sentence 3 lists some of these characteristics.
4. Sentence 4 asserts essay writing is demanding, but the ‘learning dividends are high’, which leads
into the thesis statement.

The Concluding Paragraph:

The concluding paragraph completes the frame around the essay’s argument, which was opened in the
introductory paragraph.

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The conclusion

 Begins by restating the thesis,

 Should be a mirror image of the first paragraph,
 Sums up the essay as a whole,
 Contextualises the argument in a wider scope, but does not introduce new points,
 Leaves the reader with a sense of completion.

The following examples from Model Essays One and Two show how concluding paragraphs are developed.

Analysis

1. Sentence 1 restates the thesis that focus, organisation, and clarity are the key elements of a
successful essay. The phrase ‘Clearly then’ implies that, having read the case for focus,
organisation, and clarity being identified as the ‘key elements’, the reader agrees with the thesis.
2. Sentence 2 acknowledges the importance of the essay’s content but asserts that sound content
isn’t enough for success.
3. Sentence 3 sums up the points made in the middle three paragraphs.
4. Sentence 4 restates the generalisation the essay started with – that students find essay writing
difficult – but then ends on a high note with the prediction that addressing the key elements
discussed in the middle paragraphs will ensure success.

STEP 7: EDIT AND PROOFREAD

Editing
When you’ve finished writing your essay draft, make sure you set time aside to thoroughly edit it. Usually
essays are written to a tight deadline, so it’s important to plan ahead to ensure you have sufficient editing
time. Ideally, you should put the draft aside for at least a day before you start editing and proofreading,
because this will allow you to read your essay more closely to a reader’s position. You as the writer may
know exactly what you mean by a certain phrase, but the reader only has the words on the page to
interpret; consequently, you must ensure that there is no ambiguity or lack of clarity in what you write.

Proofreading
After you’ve edited your draft, you must proofread carefully to avoid handing in your essay with errors that
detract from the competence and professionalism of your work. Proofreading picks up typographical errors,
irregular spacing, omissions, and other errors you’ve missed in your earlier revision and editing.

Here are a few hints for effective proofreading.

 Read the document aloud,

 proofread as many times as possible (it’s surprising how many errors slip through),
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 select only one feature of writing to check in each proofread,
 get others to proofread your document (but don’t rely on their competence or thoroughness), and
 make sure you’ve ticked off all the boxes in the Editing/Proofreading Checklist

Editing/Proof-ReadingChecklist

Content - what the document says

Is the essay title appropriate for the topic and content?

Is all material included accurate, relevant, and up-to-date?

Have you used technical terminology correctly?

Have you given sufficient definition, clarification, illustration, or examples of

complex concepts?

Is your argument logically sound and supported by evidence?

Have you appropriately acknowledged your sources?

Have you omitted everything that is irrelevant?

Structure - how the content is organised

Does every paragraph have clear topic and wrap sentences?

Are the main points easily identifiable to the reader?

Are paragraphs adequately developed to support main points?

Are there too many ideas in any paragraph?

Is there a new paragraph every time there is a shift in topic?

Are there adequate transition markers between paragraphs?

Does the introduction adequately prepare the reader for the middle paragraphs?

Does the conclusion draw together the main points?

Style - how the content is expressed

Can each sentence be understood on the first reading?

Are any sentences too long, complex, or awkwardly constructed?

Is your writing clear and concise?

Have you varied sentence length to add interest to your writing?

Have you used language appropriately and unambiguously?

Hint: poor style often shows up when you read your work out loud.

Mechanics - writing conventions

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Is your grammar correct? Check that:

sentence subject and verb agree,

pronouns and antecedent nouns agree,

there are no ambiguous pronouns,

you have used parallel construction correctly,

there are no misrelated modifiers,

prepositions and articles are correct,

verb tenses are correct and consistent.

Is your punctuation correct? Check that:

commas serve correct structural function,

there are no comma 'splices' or run-on sentences,

commas are correctly used with 'which' and 'who',

apostrophes are used to indicate possession, not plurals,

colons (:) and semi-colons (;) are correctly used,

quotation marks (') or (") are used consistently.

Is spelling correct?

Is capitalisation correct?

Does the syntax (word order) follow English conventions?

Format - how the document looks

Have you followed academic guidelines? Check for consistency in:

 type font and size,

 spacing,
 margin width,
 page numbering.

Have I picked up all typographical, word spacing, etc. errors?

Referencing - acknowledging sources

Have you acknowledged everything that has to be acknowledged?

Where you have quoted directly, have you done so accurately?

Have you applied you citation system (Chicago, Harvard, APA, etc). correctly?

Have you included all texts cited in your Reference List?

Have you included all texts consulted in your Bibliography?

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Model essay 1

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Model essay 2

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NARRATIVE ESSAYS
In a narrative essay you tell a story, often about a personal experience, but you also make a point. So, the
purpose is not only to tell an entertaining tale but also show the reason for the story and the importance of
the experience.
A narrative essay uses all the story elements - a beginning, middle and ending, plot, characters, setting and
climax - all coming together to complete the story.

The focus of a narrative essay is the plot, which is told using enough details to build to a climax. Here's
how:
 It is usually told chronologically.
 It has a purpose, which is usually stated in the opening sentence.
 It may use dialogue.
 It is written with sensory details and bright descriptions to involve the reader. All these details relate
in some way to the main point the writer is making.
All of these elements need to seamlessly combine. A few examples of narrative essays follow. Narrative
essays can be quite long, so here only the beginnings of essays are included:

Learning Can Be Scary

This excerpt about learning new things and new situations is an example of a personal narrative essay that
describes learning to swim.
“Learning something new can be a scary experience. One of the hardest things I've ever had to do was
learn how to swim. I was always afraid of the water, but I decided that swimming was an important skill that
I should learn. I also thought it would be good exercise and help me to become physically stronger. What I
didn't realize was that learning to swim would also make me a more confident person.

New situations always make me a bit nervous, and my first swimming lesson was no exception. After I
changed into my bathing suit in the locker room, I stood timidly by the side of the pool waiting for the
teacher and other students to show up. After a couple of minutes the teacher came over. She smiled and
introduced herself, and two more students joined us. Although they were both older than me, they didn't
seem to be embarrassed about not knowing how to swim. I began to feel more at ease.”

The Manager. The Leader.

The following excerpt is a narrative essay about a manager who was a great leader. Notice the intriguing
first sentence that captures your attention right away.
“Jerry was the kind of guy you love to hate. He was always in a good mood and always had something
positive to say. When someone would ask him how he was doing, he would reply, 'If I were any better, I
would be twins!' He was a unique manager because he had several waiters who had followed him around
from restaurant to restaurant. The reason the waiters followed Jerry was because of his attitude. He was a
natural motivator. If an employee was having a bad day, Jerry was there telling t

“Jerry was the kind of guy you love to hate. He was always in a good mood and always had something
positive to say. When someone would ask him how he was doing, he would reply, 'If I were any better, I
would be twins!' He was a unique manager because he had several waiters who had followed him around
from restaurant to restaurant. The reason the waiters followed Jerry was because of his attitude. He was a
natural motivator. If an employee was having a bad day, Jerry was there telling the employee how to look
on the positive side of the situation.”
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The Climb
This excerpt from The Climb also captures your attention right away by creating a sense of mystery. The
reader announces that he or she has "this fear" and you want to read on to see what that fear is.
“I have this fear. It causes my legs to shake. I break out in a cold sweat. I start jabbering to anyone who is
nearby. As thoughts of certain death run through my mind, the world appears a precious, treasured place. I
imagine my own funeral, then shrink back at the implications of where my thoughts are taking me. My
stomach feels strange. My palms are clammy. I am terrified of heights. Of course, it’s not really a fear of
being in a high place. Rather, it is the view of a long way to fall, of rocks far below me and no firm wall
between me and the edge. My sense of security is screamingly absent. There are no guardrails, flimsy
though I picture them, or other safety devices. I can rely only on my own surefootedness—or lack thereof.”

Disneyland
The following narrative essay involves a parent reflecting on taking his kids to Disneyland for the first time.
“It was a hot, sunny day, when I finally took my kids to the Disneyland. My son Matthew and my daughter
Audra endlessly asked me to show them the dreamland of many children, with Mickey Mouse and Snow
White walking by and arousing a huge portion of emotions. Somehow these fairy-tale creatures can make
children happy without such 'small' presents as $100 Lego or a Barbie house with six rooms and garden
furniture. Therefore, I thought that Disneyland was a good invention for loving parents.”

The Sacred Grove of Oshogbo by Jeffrey Tayler

The following essay contains descriptive language that helps to paint a vivid picture for the reader of an
interesting encounter.
“As I passed through the gates I heard a squeaky voice. A diminutive middle-aged man came out from
behind the trees — the caretaker. He worked a toothbrush-sized stick around in his mouth, digging into the
crevices between algae'd stubs of teeth. He was barefoot; he wore a blue batik shirt known as a buba,
baggy purple trousers, and an embroidered skullcap. I asked him if he would show me around the shrine.
Motioning me to follow, he spat out the results of his stick work and set off down the trail.”

Playground Memory
This excerpt from “Playground Memory” has very good sensory details.
“Looking back on a childhood filled with events and memories, I find it rather difficult to pick on that leaves
me with the fabled “warm and fuzzy feelings.” As the daughter of an Air Force Major, I had the pleasure of
traveling across America in many moving trips. I have visited the monstrous trees of the Sequoia National
Forest, stood on the edge of the Grande Canyon and have jumped on the beds at Caesar’s Palace in Lake
Tahoe. However, I have discovered that when reflecting on my childhood, it is not the trips that come to
mind, instead there are details from everyday doings; a deck of cards, a silver bank or an ice cream flavor.
One memory that comes to mind belongs to a day of no particular importance. It was late in the fall in
Merced, California on the playground of my old elementary school; an overcast day with the wind blowing
strong. I stood on the blacktop, pulling my hoodie over my ears. The wind was causing miniature tornados;
we called them “dirt devils”, to swarm around me.”

Christmas Cookies
This excerpt from “Christmas Cookies” makes good use of descriptive language.
“Although I have grown up to be entirely inept at the art of cooking, as to make even the most wretched
chef ridicule my sad baking attempts, my childhood would have indicated otherwise; I was always on the
countertop next to my mother’s cooking bowl, adding and mixing ingredients that would doubtlessly create
a delicious food. When I was younger, cooking came intrinsically with the holiday season, which made that
time of year the prime occasion for me to unite with ounces and ounces of satin dark chocolate, various
other messy and gooey ingredients, numerous cooking utensils, and the assistance of my mother to cook
what would soon be an edible masterpiece. The most memorable of the holiday works of art were our

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Chocolate Crinkle Cookies, which my mother and I first made when I was about six and are now made
annually.”

Tips on Writing a Narrative Essay

When writing a narrative essay, remember that you are sharing sensory and emotional details with the
reader.
 Your words need to be vivid and colorful to help the reader feel the same feelings that you felt.
 Elements of the story need to support the point you are making and you need to remember to make
reference to that point in the first sentence.
 You should make use of conflict and sequence like in any story.
 You may use flashbacks and flash forwards to help the story build to a climax.
 It is usually written in the first person, but third person may also be used.

Remember, a well-written narrative essay tells a story and also makes a point.

More tips to make your essay shine

Planning Pays

Although it may seem like a waste of time – especially during exams where time is tight – it is almost
always better to brainstorm a bit before beginning your essay. This should enable you to find the best
supporting ideas – rather than simply the first ones that come to mind – and position them in your essay
accordingly.

Your best supporting idea – the one that most strongly makes your case and, simultaneously, about which
you have the most knowledge – should go first. Even the best-written essays can fail because of
ineffectively placed arguments.

Aim for Variety

Sentences and vocabulary of varying complexity are one of the hallmarks of effective writing. When you are
writing, try to avoid using the same words and phrases over and over again. You don’t have to be a walking
thesaurus but a little variance can make the same idea sparkle.

If you are asked about "money," you could try "wealth" or "riches." At the same time, avoid beginning
sentences the dull pattern of "subject + verb + direct object." Although examples of this are harder to give,
consider our writing throughout this article as one big example of sentence structure variety.

Practice! Practice! Practice!

In the end, though, remember that good writing does not happen by accident. Although we have
endeavored to explain everything that goes into effective essay writing in as clear and concise a way as
possible, it is much easier in theory than it is in practice.

 Read the essay below and the feedback that the teacher (Susan) gives.

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GRAMMAR

SECTION 1. LANGUAGE AND STRUCTURE

Like all languages, English is a coded system: the most effective way for adult writers to begin doing this is not by
memorising the code rules (although these are important) but by coming to terms with the structure of written
language. From this structural understanding, we are better able to rationalize the rules for ourselves and in this way
gain confidence in applying them.

Before going further, think about structure. Look around you for a moment. Tables and chairs, libraries and gardens,
plants and sentences: each has an underlying structure that enables it to function effectively. In fact, structure is
always a key factor in functional effectiveness.

Consider, for example, the structure of a bridge. Similarly, sentences are structured to carry meaning; the more
soundly the sentence has been constructed, the more effectively the meaning can be transmitted by the writer and
understood by the reader.

SIMPLE SENTENCES
Structuring Sentences
Sentences are not just strings of words that make meaning. Each sentence has a structure and this sentence
structure is the key to punctuation and grammar. Learning about sentence structure, therefore, helps us to avoid
punctuation and grammar mistakes and, more importantly, to write stronger, clearer, and more ‘reader-
friendly’ sentences.

There are three basic sentence types

 simple sentence (control unit= MAIN CLAUSE)

 complex sentence (control unit plus support unit)
 compound sentence (control unit plus control unit)

There are only two structural units: the control unit and the support unit.

Sentence type one: Simple sentences

A simple sentence (also called a control unit) is the basis of every sentence. A simple sentence is made up from two
structural components: the subject and the predicate.

The subject contains the word or group of words that does something or is something.

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The predicate contains the word or group of words that is used to express action (hit, run) or state of being (is, will be,
am). That is, the predicate always includes a verb (‘doing’ word).

A sentence must have a verb; if you leave out the verb you have a sentence fragment, which is
ungrammatical and should be avoided.

Punctuation implications

Because subject and predicate together make one control unit, do not separate them with a comma. In simple
sentences (i.e. control units ) use commas only to separate nouns ( ‘naming’words ), adjectives ( ‘describing’ words ),
verbs ( ‘doing’ words ), or items in a list within the subject or within the predicate, but not between subject and
predicate.

In the following examples, the subject is in bold type and the predicate is in normal type.

COMPLEX SENTENCES

Support Units (SUBORDINATING)

A support unit is a group of words supporting the meaning of the control unit by adding more meanings to it. In the
following examples, the control unit is highlighted in orange to emphasise the fact that it carries the main meaning of
the sentence.

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Support units cannot stand on their own: they need a control unit to complete the sentence.

In these examples, the meaning is incomplete because there is no control unit. The control unit carries the essential
action of the sentence.

Note that these support units begin with a word (called a “subordinator”) that tells the reader that the phrase
ahead does not stand alone but is subordinate to or dependent upon the control unit for its meaning. Some
common subordinators are:

although after when

because before where

since whenever which

while if who

as unless whom

whereas until whose

Support units may also begin with the “ing” form of verbs (verb participles).

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Punctuation Implications

As a general rule, keep a control unit and a support unit apart by using a comma or a pair of commas.

Note that support units may be placed at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a sentence.

(When support units are placed last, a comma may not always be necessary.)

Periodic Sentences

Reading is a linear, forward-moving process in which readers tend to move quickly over the first part of a sentence,
momentarily slowing down over the end of the sentence as they register the period (full stop).

The periodic sentence exploits this psychological phenomenon by placing all or part of the control unit at the end of
the sentence, thus creating a moment of suspense for the reader before delivering or completing the main statement
at the end of the sentence, where it impresses itself more forcefully on the reader’s mind.

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Transition Markers

Sentences may also have added to them phrases that connect them to other sentences within a paragraph or
between paragraphs. These phrases are called transition markers. They are particularly useful in academic writing,
because they allow you to communicate relationships between ideas or development of an argument, and in this way
give coherence to your writing.

Here are some examples of transition markers:

Adding also, in addition, moreover, furthermore

Comparing similarly, also, in the same way

Contrasting however, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, in contrast

Stating an effect therefore, thus, accordingly, as a result, consequently, as a consequence

Clarifying in other words, that is, in effect, put simply

Exemplifying for example, for instance, in particular, to illustrate

Conceding a point although true, even though, although, in spite of this

Summing up to summarise, to conclude, in conclusion, clearly then

Ordering points firstly, secondly, first of all, then, after that, next, last, finally

Adding also, in addition, moreover, furthermore

Comparing similarly, also, in the same way

Contrasting however, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, in contrast

Stating an effect therefore, thus, accordingly, as a result, consequently, as a consequence

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Clarifying in other words, that is, in effect, put simply

Exemplifying for example, for instance, in particular, to illustrate

Conceding a point although true, even though, although, in spite of this

Summing up to summarise, to conclude, in conclusion, clearly then

Ordering points firstly, secondly, first of all, then, after that, next, last, finally

Punctuating transition markers

Simple sentences that have transition markers added to them are punctuated in exactly the same way as complex
sentences. In the examples below, the control unit is highlighted in orange and the transition marker is underlined.

COMPOUND SENTENCES
A compound sentence is one in which there are two or more control units (simple sentences).

You cannot join control units with a comma alone; you must use either a comma plus a conjunction or a semicolon. If
you join control units with a comma, you have made an error called a ‘comma splice’.

Comma plus conjuction

Independent control units can be linked by the following conjunctions, preceded by a
comma: ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘for’, ‘nor’, ‘since’, ‘so’, ‘yet’. In the following examples, the control units are highlighted in orange.

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In Example 1, the first statement, that ‘she did well in her examination‘ is caused by the fact stated in the second
statement, that ‘she is a good student’ : the conjunction ‘for’indicates causality In Example 2, the
conjunction ‘yet’ indicates a contradiction between the first statement, that ‘he worked hard’, and the second
statement, that ‘he did not achieve high marks’.

Note that the ‘and’ in Example 4 has a comma before it because it functions as a conjunction joining control
units. It does not have a comma before it when it is joining words or phrases.

Semicolon

An alternative way of joining independent control units (simple sentences) is to use a semicolon.

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The semicolon is particularly useful in academic writing because it allows you to convey more subtle connections
between statements than can be expressed by conjunctions.

Example 1 The cultural aspects of presage are not simplycognitive acquisitions;they are, in fact,
essentialelements in the construction of subjectivity andsense of self (Dawson, 2003, p.42).

Example 2 In the Cultural Discussion, Chinese culture wasposed as incommensurable with Western
culture; toaffirm Chinese culture was to affirm a differentmodernity (Chang, 2002, p.73).

Summing up, the following sentences are correct

The following sentences are incorrect:

Fred was a conscientious worker, Harry was lazy.

Fred was a conscientious worker, however, Harry was lazy.

( These are comma splices and are incorrect ).

Exercise: Subordination/Coordination

In each of the following sentences, join the simple sentences to make

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new simple, complex, or compound sentences. Pay special attention to

punctuation.

1. Jetlag affects most long-distance travellers. Jetlag is the urge to sleep at

inappropriate times.

2. I enjoy watching football. I hate watching tennis.

3. Solar heating systems are economical to operate. The installation cost of solar
heating systems is very high.

4. Many international researchers attended the science convention. The

convention was very successful.

5. I was reading the newspaper. I noticed an advertisement for a job I could apply
for.

6. Indonesia is Australia’s closest northern neighbour. Indonesia is an

archipelago.

7. This blueprint presents details of the architect’s plans. It must be interpreted

correctly by the builder.

8. We needed to increase sales. We tried a new advertising campaign.

9. Thomas Edison was an inventor. He invented the incandescent light globe. The
incandescent light globe improved life for millions of people.

10. Effective writing is not easy. The ability to write effectively is a graduate skill.
Employers highly value effective writing.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE SENTENCES

In academic and professional writing it is important to understand active and passive sentences because it is
important to understand the advantages of each and to use them to best effect.

Sentences may be either actively or passively constructed (they are said to be in the active or passive ‘voice’).

An active sentence is one in which the subject is also the agent (or doer) of the action.

The sentence ‘Bill hit Joe.’ is an active construction, because the subject (‘Bill’) is also the agent of the action (‘hit’).

A passive sentence, by contrast, is one in which the subject is being acted upon.

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The sentence ‘Joe was hit by Bill’ is a passive sentence, because the subject is the receiver, not the agent, of the
action (‘Bill’ is the agent).

Identical information is being described in the two sentences, but where the active sentence focuses on Bill, the
passive sentence focuses on Joe. This difference in focus influences the way in which the reader interprets the
information in the sentence. If you wanted to draw the reader’s attention to Joe as a victim of violence, rather than to
Bill’s act of violence, you would use the passive voice. And, vise versa, if you wanted to draw the reader’s attention to
Bill’s act of violence, rather than Joe as a victim of violence, you would use the active voice.

When to use the passive voice

Generally speaking, the active voice is preferable to the passive, because it is more direct and uses fewer words.
However, there are some occasions when the passive voice must be used. Three occasions are:

1. Focus on the receiver of an action

When the agent is less significant than the receiver of the action, it is more appropriate to use the passive voice.

In fact, when you choose between the active and the passive, you are choosing to give emphasis either to the agent
or to the receiver of the action, and in this way you determine for the reader the comparative significance of the agent
and the receiver. Consider the following accounts of a soccer match:

Arsenal fans would probably choose the passive because from their perspective Arsenal’s loss is more important than
Manchester United’s win. Within an academic or professional context, you can use your understanding of this principle
to subtly influence the reader towards your point of view.

2. Scientific Writing
The convention in scientific writing is to focus on the phenomena rather than the agent, who is presumed to be
objective.

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In some sciences, especially the social sciences, the agency of the observer is acknowledged and consequently the
active voice is used; whenever you write, make sure you conform to the active/passive conventions of the discipline in
which you are writing.

3. Agentless passive

The agentless passive is used when the agent of the action is unknown, cannot be easily identified, or is already
understood or implied.

As these examples show, there are some cases in which using the passive voice is necessary or desirable, even
though it takes up more words. Always remember that clear, precise communication is your primary objective as an
academic or professional writer; conciseness is highly desirable, but it is secondary to clarity and precision.

SECTION 2: PUNCTUATION AND MEANING

Good punctuation makes for reader-friendliness: you want to make your meaning clear to your reader.

It is important that we use punctuation consistently when we write; for instance, in the following sentences, meaning
depends upon the absence or presence of commas.

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The Shannon-Weaver Model (1949)
The Shannon-Weaver Model was originally concerned with telephone interference in the winter-time. Ice would form
on the telephone lines and create crackling noises. This noise would interfere with the clear transmission of
messages. This notion of ‘noise’ can be applied to writing. Clear, reader-friendly writing, free from ‘noise’, will help you
transmit your message clearly to the reader. You should ask yourself, “Is there any way in which my decoder (reader)
can misinterpret my message.”

Virtual classroom

2.1 THE COMMA

The comma indicates structural breaks in a sentence.

1. To mark off a support unit from a control unit

2. To set off transition markers from the control unit

Similarly, the comma is used:

3. Before conjunctions that join control units (and, because, but, for, or, nor, since, so, yet)

4. To set off 'Yes' and 'No'

5. To set off words of address

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6. To separate the names of geographical locations where one location is included within the boundaries of the other

7. Similarly, to separate months from years

Commas are also used:

8. To introduce direct quotations

9. To separate items in a series

Notice that the comma before the ‘and’ at the end of a list is optional. Be consistent; either use the comma
before ‘and’ all the time or not at all.

The advantage of putting a comma before ‘and’ is that it avoids potential ambiguity. For instance, in the following
sentence, how many people did the journalist interview?

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Did the journalist interview one person (the CEO of Coca-Cola, who is a millionaire and a Harvard graduate) or is it
three separate people. It is difficult for the reader to decide. Using a comma before ‘and’ avoids this confusion.

The Comma With ‘Which’ And ‘Who’

When a phrase beginning with ‘which’ or ‘who’ is a support unit providing additional (but non-essential) information
about the control unit, it needs to be marked off from the control unit with a pair of commas. In the following examples,
the control unit is highlighted in orange. The support units add to the main meaning of the sentence.

Phrases beginning with ‘which’ or ‘who’ can also be an integral part of the subject. If we omit the phrase, we change
the main meaning of the sentence. Therefore, we do not in these instances put a comma before ‘which’ or ‘who‘. In
the following two examples, the subject is highlighted in green.

In Examples 3 and 4 the word ‘which’ may be replaced by ‘that’; however, it would not be correct to
replace ‘which’ with ‘that’ in Example 1 because in Example 1 it is not an integral part of the subject.

Make sure that you don’t accidentally change the intended meaning by inserting a pair of commas. In the following
example, the subject of the sentence is in bold letters.

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In the first version of the sentence, the subject is ‘students; the sentence implies that all students are drunk and should
be expelled. In the second version, the subject is ‘students who are drunk; it is only this particular group of students
who should be expelled.

2.3 THE SEMICOLON

Semicolons are used to join independent control units whose relation to each other you want to assert.

In this example, it would be grammatically correct to use a full-stop in place of the semicolon. The semicolon,
however, emphasises the relation of meaning between the two clauses: the failure of the negotiations in the first
control unit and the continuation of the war in the second.

In these examples, the semicolon accentuates the symmetry of the two clauses. Used in this way, the semicolon is an
effective stylistic device for creating a sense of balance between the two ideas. As with all such stylistic devices,
however, it should be used sparingly for maximum effect.

The semicolon is also used to separate items in a list where some of the items need internal commas.

In these examples, the semicolon functions in the same way as a comma to separate items in a list.

 Never use a semicolon where a comma is sufficient.

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 Remember your aim is to write for reader friendliness towards clarity of meaning.

Although this is a long list introduced by a colon, a comma adequately separates each of the items.

Note, however, that if you want to add a phrase to only one of the items and need an internal comma, you
must use semicolons between all items.

To avoid having to use semicolons in Example 4, you could enclose ‘which he thought might be an emerald’ in
brackets.

2.4 THE COLON

The colon is used to introduce:

1. A list or series
2. An expansion of a point or idea, or
3. A quotation

1. Introducing a Series
The colon signals to the reader that a series is to follow.

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Note that not every list needs to be introduced by a colon: the latter examples in each of the following are incorrect
because there has to be a complete sentence on at least one side of the colon for the sentence to make sense. Think
of the colon as a full-stop.

2. Introducing an Expansion
The colon signals to the reader that what is to follow is a definition, clarification, illustration, or other expansion on the
point or idea that comes before the colon.

3. Introducing a Quotation

Use a colon to introduce a significant quotation. If the quotation is short, put it in quotation marks and carry on
immediately after the colon.

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If the quotation is lengthy, do not use quotation marks; instead, give the quoted material its own indented paragraph,
missing a line before and after it.

Exercise: Punctuation

Punctuate the following sentences with commas, semicolons, and colons.

1. Although it is important grammatical writing is only one aspect of effective

communication.

2. Don’t join control units with a comma use a semicolon instead.

3. Bali which is a province of Indonesia is a popular holiday destination.

4. Politicians who tell lies should be voted out of office.

5. Effective academic writing has three qualities clarity simplicity and conciseness.

6. Professor Ward will be visiting the university in June however she will not be
addressing students.

7. Henry and Mabel who just returned from their trip to China showed us a
photograph of them posing in front of the monument.

8. The architect who designed the Sydney Opera House was Scandinavian.

9. Utzon the architect who designed the Sydney Opera House was Scandinavian.

10. Blood sweat and tears these were the price of our success.

2.5 THE APOSTROPHE

Apostrophes are used in two ways:

1. To indicate that a letter or letters have been dropped from a word

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2. To indicate possession

In deciding whether to use an apostrophe and, if you do decide to use it, where to position it, there are two questions
you must ask:

Question_1: Is something being possessed?

Don’t assume that all nouns ending in ‘s are possessive: they may simply be plural. Before you insert an apostrophe,
make sure that there is possession.

Question 2: Who or what possesses?

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The apostrophe always comes directly after the name of the possessor or possessors. For instance, in Example
2, one boy possesses the bicycle; the apostrophe is inserted directly after boy and before the s. In Example 3, on the
other hand, the father is possessed by two or more boys, so the apostrophe is placed after boys.

Handy hint 1: To check if you have placed the apostrophe correctly, remember that the apostrophe takes the place of
the words of the.

In Example 2, the boy’s bicycle means the bicycle of the boy’ the apostrophe comes after boy ( boy’s ). In sentence 3,
the boys ‘father means the father of the boys’ the apostrophe comes after boys ( boys’ ).

Notice that in ‘men’s books’, the apostrophe comes before the s because ‘men’ is already plural; we would not say
‘the coats of the mens’. Similarly, in ‘children’s welfare, the apostrophe comes before the s because the noun
‘children’ is already plural; the welfare is possessed by ‘the children’, not ‘the childrens’.

Handy hint 2: Remember that ‘s is added to denote possession. Another way to think of using ‘s is to note if the word
does not end in s, then add ‘s. If the work already ends in s, then add ‘ (apostrophe minus s), unless s is pronounced
doubly as in the following:

Special Cases: Time and Money

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As we’ve seen, possessive apostrophes are most commonly used to show ownership by people or things: the boy’s
bicycle, the book’s cover, Australia’s flag, and so on. However, they are also used in relation to periods of time or
sums of money.

Miscellaneous
Sometimes nouns are used possessively without the second noun (which is understood by the reader).

The Dreaded ITS / IT’S Confusion

The its/it’s confusion arises from the fact that there are two categories of apostrophes:

Category 1 – dropped letter

Category 2 – possession

It’s always belongs to category 1.

It’s always means it is or it has.

The reason for the confusion is that its is a possessive pronoun, and so we may (wrongly) assume that it belongs to
category 2 and needs an apostrophe. However, as a possessive pronoun ( like ‘his’, ‘her’, or ‘their’ ), its already
indicates possession in the same way as ‘her’or ‘his’. Just as we wouldn’t write ‘hi’s life, we don’t write ‘it’s life’.

Exercise: Apostrophe

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Insert apostrophes where needed.

1. Its probable that the team will lose its most promising player.

2. The womens hockey team is raising funds for its trip to Pakistan.

3. The organisations trainers developed a program to improve employees

teamwork skills.

4. The demonstrators knocked off the policemens helmets and threw eggs at the
Premiers car.

5. Ahmed and Maliahs car was being repaired, so they had to travel by bus.

6. I cant agree with your point of view, and I dont think youll convince the other
council members.

7. The shareholders panic, the brokers are uneasy, but oil prices hold steady in
the worlds share markets.

8. Melissas and Karens boyfriends are both very handsome.

9. Refugees rights must be protected.

10. Someones bag was left in one of the librarys study rooms.

SECTION 3: GRAMMAR AND SYNTAX

Correct grammar clarifies the meaning of your sentences and increase reader-friendliness. By understanding the
basic grammatical rules, covered in this section, you can communicate your meaning to your reader more effectively.

GRAMMAR, SYNTAX AND CLEAR COMMUNICATION

“Grammar” refers to the ways in which sentence parts may be related to one another in any language system. For
instance, computer languages have a grammar, and if you don’t understand its basics you can’t write a computer
programme. The same applies to English grammar. Knowing at least the basic grammatical rules you can
communicate effectively. This is especially true of written communication.

As with all communication codes, grammar depends on consistency; it depends upon writer and reader being aware
of the same rules, which always apply. If, as writers, we ignore grammatical code rules, our readers may
misunderstand our meaning.
Because English has been shaped over many centuries by a variety of linguistic influences (in particular, Greek and
Latin, Anglo-Saxon, and French), the code rules of English grammar sometimes seem inconsistent. However, by
understanding how sentences in English are structured, we can avoid some of the more common grammatical errors.

Syntax simply means the grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence. Principles of syntax may relate to
grammatical correctness, to meaning, or to style.

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There are many other rules of grammar and you’re encouraged to consult the many useful texts that give a more
comprehensive and detailed coverage of grammar but these four code rules will help you avoid some of the more
common errors in academic and professional writing.

3.1 AGREEMENT BETWEEN SUBJECT AND VERB

In the grammatical code of English, a verb must agree with its subject according to whether the subject is singular or
plural: a singular subject takes a singular verb; a plural subject takes a plural verb.

When the subject of the sentence includes both singular and plural words, take care to identify the part of the
subject that controls the verb. In the following examples, the part of the subject that controls the verb appears in
bold letters and the verb is underlined.

In Example 1, it is not the ‘manufactured goods’ that are drawing crowds but, rather, the ‘exhibition’. Similarly, in
Example 2, it is not the ‘breakdown’ or the ‘equipment’ that has not yet been established; it is the ‘reasons’.

Errors of subject-verb agreement are nearly always the result of misidentifying the number (i.e. singular or plural) of
the subject. The following are some points to help you in deciding whether to use a singular or plural verb to agree
with the subject in particular cases.

Singular pronoun rule

The following pronouns are singular and are always followed by a singular verb:

each anybody

every anyone

either everyone

neither everybody

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Plural name for single entity rule

When a plural noun is in fact the name for a single item, it requires a singular verb. In the following examples, the
subject appears in bold letters and the verb is underlined.

This rule also applies

to amounts of money and periods of time.

Exceptions to the single entity rule:

The following words all require a plural verb.

barracks proceeds thanks

premises scissors trousers

pants statistics tweezers

Collective noun/singular verb rule

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A collective noun takes a singular verb. For instance, ‘a flock of sheep’ may be made up of many individual sheep, but
when we use the collective noun ‘flock’, we are referring to these sheep as a single entity.

However, sometimes when writing about a group, there is a need to distinguish individual members of the group from
one another. In the first of the following two examples, is referring to the group as one whole entity; in the second
example, it’s focusing on individual members.

Subject joined with 'and' rule

Two or more singular objects joined by ‘and’ require a plural verb.

Subject-support unit verb-rule

As in the Sentence Structure Section, when the subject is separated from the verb by a support unit such as ‘and
not’, ‘together with’, ‘with’, or ‘as well as’, the number (singular or plural) of the verb is not affected.

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Exercise: Subject-Verb Agreement

In the following sentences, choose the verb that agrees with the subject.

1. Pollution and traffic congestion threatens/threaten the future of the city.

2. The number of cases of violent assault recorded in Australia rises/rise every

year.

3. Ongoing revisions to the system is/are necessary.

4. Everyone, including the top students, finds/find academic writing difficult.

5. A flock of wild geese is/are flying above the lake.

6. Neither the foreman nor the supervising technician was/were present when the
accident occurred.

7. Stock prices on the Hang Seng index is/are showing an upturn.

8. Work with children with intellectual handicaps and other people with disabilities
reveals/reveal that regular therapy can lead to significant improvements in motor
ability.

9. The use of domestic security alarms has/have reduced the number of

burglaries in the neighbourhood.

10. The chief engineer, in addition to most of the electricians, is/are opposed to
the new roster.

Miscellaneous Exercise 1

Correct mistakes in grammar (subject-verb agreement, pronoun-antecedent

agreement, misrelated modifiers, and parallel construction) and add punctuation
(commas, semicolons, colons, and apostrophes) in the following sentences.

1. A large crowd of soldiers many of them heavily armed made their way towards
us.

2. Flexible hours, being treated as adults, and to receive good money are the
main features young people seek from employment.

3. Womens shoes are incredibly expensive.

4. The boats hull together with its fittings are made of fibreglass.

5. A fine will be imposed however it will not be heavy.

6. He was not only charged with stealing but also for possession of a deadly
weapon.

7. Its expected that the modification to the engine will improve its performance.

8. Carmen was wearing a hat decorated with bananas oranges lemons cherries

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and other fruit.

9. The lecturer although intelligent was boring.

10. The firemens struggle to save the house a building of historical importance
was unsuccessful.

3.2 AGREEMENT BETWEEN NOUN AND PRONOUN

A pronoun takes the place of a noun. The pronoun must agree with the noun it stands in for: a singular noun needs a
singular pronoun as well as a singular verb; a plural noun needs a plural pronoun as well as a plural verb. In the
following examples, pronouns and the nouns to which they refer appear in bold letters.

If the antecedent noun refers to both females and males, or if you do not know which sex it refers to, you must indicate
both male and female, as in the last example. Alternatively, you can use a plural antecedent noun and use ‘they’ as
your pronoun.

Note that language conventions change over time; it is gradually becoming acceptable to use the plural pronoun ‘they’
to refer to single entities.

Avoiding pronoun ambiguity

When two or more pronouns are used in a sentence, ambiguity must be avoided. The following sentence is
ambiguous:

Who will receive the cheque? Mr Brown or Mr Tan?

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It is impossible to tell from the sentence as it is written here.To make the meaning clear, it should be:

Here is another example of ambiguity:

Who will review the records? The manager or the assistant? It would be clearer to write:

The pronouns ‘it’ and ‘they’ in particular can cause problems when it is not clear which antecedent nouns they refer to.

What is’ caffeine-free? Mint? Mint tea? Herbal tea in general? It is difficult to tell. It would be clearer to write:

3.3 PARALLEL CONSTRUCTION

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Parallel construction is the repetition of a certain grammatical pattern. Use of parallel structure will add a sense of
order, balance, and control to your writing.

Parallel construction is particularly useful when writing a bulleted list.

When we use parallel construction, we must edit carefully to make sure that the parallelism is sustained.

In Example 1 above, each item listed follows the same grammatical pattern: a preposition ( ‘at’) followed by a
substantive noun ( ‘marine biology’, ‘nuclear physics’ , or ‘pictorial art’. In Example 2, the last item ( ‘painting
pictures’ ) breaks the pattern by using a verb followed by a noun.

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Whenever a sentence contains two or more similar elements, it is stylistically preferable to keep them parallel, no
matter how small they are.

Nouns
In a series of nouns ( ‘naming’ words ), each item should be a noun.

Adjectives
In a series of adjectives ( ‘describing’ words ), each item should be an adjective.

Verbs
In a series of verbs ( ‘doing’ words ), each item should be a verb. Within a sentence, make sure that all the verbs are
either active or passive, not a mixture of the two.

Adverbs
In a series of adverbs ( words that qualify verbs or adjectives ), each item should be an adverb.

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Pairs
As the last example suggests, the same principle of balance applies to pairs as well as to series. Pairs are usually
balanced on either side of ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘or’, ‘as well as’, ‘both . . . and’.

Prepositions & Article

If you repeat a preposition ( ‘for’, ‘by’, ‘to’, ‘in’, ‘at’, ‘with’, ‘under’, ‘over’, ‘from’, ‘before’, etc.) or an article ( ‘a’ or ‘the’ )
once, repeat it every time.

3.4 CORRECTLY RELATED MODIFIER

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A modifier is a grammatical unit that changes or adds meaning to an item within a sentence. A misplaced modifier
adds meaning to the wrong set of words. A modifying phrase should be clearly attached to the element of the
sentence it is modifying. Misplaced modifiers distort meaning or make it ambiguous.

It is the fish and not the Peel Inlet that has been considered extinct, so the modifier “has been considered extinct”
must be placed next to the noun it is modifying “a fish”.

Exercise: Modifier

Correct the following sentences.

1. Being made of stone, the builder expected the house to stand for a century.

2. While flying a kite, the wind stopped.

3. If found, I shall pay a reward for the dog.

4. The competition judges only selected one winner.

5. We gave orange juice to the children in paper cups.

6. To be sterile, you must boil the jars for fifteen minutes.

7. After searching for weeks, a suitable apartment was found.

8. Waiting for a bus, the rain soaked me.

9. On being declared unroadworthy, we had to take our car to the mechanic.

10. If the dog won't eat raw meat, cook it.

In this example, all the people on the tour bus were born in 1980, but (presumably) they were not all born on the bus.

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In this example, it is the crew who is setting sail, not their water supply on its own.

There is a category of modifiers called “limiting modifiers” that need to be placed carefully if you want your precise
meaning to be communicated clearly.This category includes ‘only’, ‘almost’, ‘just’, ‘even’, and ‘hardly’.

Before you write the sentence in Example 4, consider whether you want the word ‘almost’ to modify ‘every word’ or
‘understood’. Similarly, in Example 5 consider whether it was only Peter (and no-one else) who could sing the last
verse, or Peter could only sing (but not recite) the last verse, or Peter could sing only the last verse (and not the other
verses).

Changing the position of “only” changes the meaning of the sentence.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Some notes on verb tenses in context…
Everything that we write has a context. In that respect, it is vital to establish and maintain consistency in terms
of time and place. We do that in three ways:

1. We decide on the amount of information (data) that is needed

2. We develop a sequence (order) in which to present the information
3. We decide the best verb to use; this choice depends on the message the writer is trying to give – deciding on
the message’s purpose causes writers the most problems.

Here are three examples of the same paragraph written in different ways. Read all three examples and think about the
effect verb choice has on the overall context / meaning.

Example One

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Note: fictitious references

Using the present tense (historical present) and simple present gives the paragraph an immediacy that would be
missing if the writer chose to write in the past tense, for example. We are left with the idea that this is the situation
now.

Example Two

Placing the reported literature into the past and present perfect affects the readers’ connection with the paragraph.
Interestingly, given the particular choice of tenses above, we can anticipate that the writer will go on to talk about what
the situation is today.

Example Three

The historical present helps the reader to engage more meaningfully with the ideas of other authors. After the opening
sentence, using primarily the present continuous means the author is drawing the readers’ attention to the fact that
global and local patterns of agriculture are changing, which is the main idea of the paragraph.

Summary

Moving from verb tense to verb tense while maintaining correct subject-verb agreement

 Knowing the verb tenses is a necessity. Therefore, if you need to review the forms of the English tenses, this
is a good time to do so.
 Key verb tenses in academic writing are simple present, simple past, and present perfect, with some use
of present continuous and present perfect continuous.
 Think about the purpose of your writing. Is it exposition, narration, description, or argumentation? When you
know your purpose, you can make logical choices about moving among tenses in your paragraphs.

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Bibliography

Baker, S. (1973). The practical stylist. New York: Thomas Y. Cromwell.

Dawson, J. and Grant, D. (1995). Pocket guide to essay writing (2nd ed.) Perth: Black Swan Press

Dirgeyasa, Wy (2016) Genre-Based Approach: What and How to Teach and to Learn Writing .Canadian
Center of Science and Education

Novak, J. D. (1977). A theory of education. Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press

Oshima, A. (2007) An Introduction to Academic Writing. Pearson.

Zemak, Dorothy (2005) Academic Writing. From Paragraph to Essay. Macmillan

Oshima, A. (2007) An Introduction to Academic Writing. Pearson.

Web bibliography /Webliography

https://www.internationalstudent.com/essay_writing/essay_tips/

http://examples.yourdictionary.com/narrative-essay-examples.html#pMsWtmLXFEfz8sd4.99

https://www.kibin.com/essay-writing-blog/2-narrative-essay-examples-tell-fascinating-stories/
http://studyskills.curtin.edu.au
https://www.academia.edu/3515643/Genre_Approach_to_Teaching_Grammar
https://www.victoria.ac.nz/llc/llc_resources/academic-writing/pbuild2.html

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