Switchgear and Protection

Switchgear and Protection

Course No.: EEEEC19
(Course Credit – 04)

Lecture 05
Protection of Transmission Lines
Overcurrent Protection
• A protective relay which operates when the load current exceeds a preset value, is
called an overcurrent relay.
• The value of the preset current above which the relay operates is known as its
pick-up value.
• Overcurrent relays offer the cheapest and simplest form of protection. These relays
are used to protect distribution lines, large motors, power equipment, industrial
systems, etc.
• Overcurrent relays are also used on some sub-transmission lines which cannot
justify more expensive protection such as distance or pilot relays.
• An overcurrent protection scheme may include one or more overcurrent relays.
Time Current Characteristics
1. Definite-time Overcurrent Relay
The operating time is constant, irrespective of the magnitude of the current above
the pick-up value. The desired definite operating time can be set with the help of an
intentional time-delay mechanism provided in the relaying unit.

2. Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay

The operating time is constant, irrespective of the magnitude of the current, There is
no intentional time delay. It operates in 0.1s or less. Sometimes terms like “high set”
or “high speed” are used for very fast relays having operating times less than 0.1s.
Time Current Characteristics
3. Inverse-time Overcurrent Relay
The operating time depends on the magnitude of the operating current. The
operating time decreases as the current increases.
4. Inverse Definite Minimum Time Overcurrent (I.D.M.T) Relay
This type of relay gives an inverse-time current characteristic at lower values of the fault
current and a definite-time characteristic at higher values of the fault current.
Generally, an inverse-time characteristic is obtained if the value of the plug setting
multiplier is below 10. For values of plug setting multiplier between 10 and 20, the
characteristic tends to become a straight line, i.e. towards the definite time characteristic.
5. Very Inverse-time Overcurrent Relay
A very inverse-time overcurrent relay gives more inverse characteristics than of a plain
inverse relay or the I.D.M.T. relay. The very inverse characteristic gives better
selectivity than the I.D.M.T. characteristic. Its recommended standard time-current
characteristic is given by
Very inverse time-current relays are recommended for cases where there is a substantial
reduction of fault current as the distance from the power source increases. They are
particularly effective with ground faults because of their steep characteristic.
6. Extremely Inverse-time Overcurrent Relay
When I.D.M.T. and very inverse relays fail in selectivity, extremely inverse relays are
employed. The time-current characteristic of an extremely inverse relay is 𝐼 2 𝑡 = 𝐾. An
extremely inverse relay is very suitable for the protection of machines against
overheating.
Method of Defining Shape of Time-current Characteristics
Current Setting and Time setting
Example: The current rating of an overcurrent relay is 5 A. The relay has a plug
setting of 150% and time multiplier setting (TMS) of 0.4. The CT ratio is 400/5.
Determine the operating time of the relay for a fault current of 6000 A. At TMS = 1,
operating time at various PSM are given in the Table below

PSM 2 4 5 8 10 20
Operating time in sec. 10 5 4 3 2.8 2.4
Overcurrent Protective Schemes
A radial feeder may be sectionalized and two or more overcurrent relays may be
used, one relay for the protection of each section of the feeder.

If a fault occurs beyond C, the circuit breaker at substation C should trip. The circuit
breakers at A and B should not trip as far as the normal operation is concerned. If
the relay at C fails to operate, the circuit breaker at B should trip as a backup
protection.
Overcurrent Protective Schemes
The relays must be selective with each other. For proper selectivity of the relays, one
of the following schemes can be employed, depending on the system conditions.
1. Time-graded system
2. Current-graded system
3. A combination of time and current grading.
Overcurrent Protective Schemes
1. Time-graded system
In this scheme, definite-time overcurrent relays are used. When a definite-time relay
operates for a fault current, it starts a timing unit that trips the circuit breaker after a
preset time, which is independent of the fault current. The operating time of the
relays is adjusted in increasing order from the far end of the feeder.
The difference in the time setting of two adjacent relays is usually kept at 0.5 s.
The drawback of this scheme is that for faults near the power source, the operating
time is longer. If a fault occurs near the power source, it involves a large current and
hence it should be cleared quickly. This scheme is suitable for a system where the
impedance (distance) between substations is low. It means that the fault current is
practically the same if a fault occurs on any section of the feeder.
Overcurrent Protective Schemes
2. Current-graded system
The relays are set to pick up at progressively higher values of current towards the
source. The relays employed in this scheme are high-set (high speed) instantaneous
overcurrent relays. The operating time is kept the same for all relays used to protect
different sections of the feeder.
The current setting for a relay corresponds to the fault current level for the feeder
section to be protected.
Ideally, the relay at B should trip for faults anywhere between B and C. But it should
not operate for faults beyond C. Similarly, the relay at A should trip for faults
between A and B. The relay at C should trip for faults beyond C.
To obtain proper discrimination, relays are set to protect only a part of the feeder,
usually about 80%. Since this scheme cannot protect the entire feeder, this system is
not used alone. It may be used in conjunction with I.D.M.T. relays.
The current-graded scheme is used where the impedance between substations is
sufficient to create a margin of difference in fault currents.
The advantage of this system as compared to the time-graded scheme is that the
operating time is less near the power source.
Overcurrent Protective Schemes
3. A combination of time and current grading
I.D.M.T. relays are employed in this scheme. They have the combined features of
current and time-grading. I.D.M.T. relays have current as well as time-setting
arrangements.
The current setting of the relay is made according to the fault current level of the
particular section to be protected. The relays are set to pick up progressively at
higher current levels, towards the source.
Time setting is also done in a progressively increasing order towards the source. The
difference in operating times of two adjacent relays is kept at 0.5 s.
Example: 1. An earth fault develops at point F on the feeder shown in the figure
below, and the fault current is 16000 A. The IDMT relays at points A and B are fed via
800/5 A CTs: The relay at B has a plug setting of 125% and time multiplier setting
(TMS) of 0.2. The circuit breakers take 0.20 s to clear the fault, and the relay error in
each case is 0.15 s. For a plug setting of 200% on relay A, determine the minimum
TMS on that relay for it not to operate before the circuit breaker at B has cleared the
fault. Assume the following data:
The operating time at PSM of 16 for a TMS of 1 = 2.5 s
The operating time at PSM of 10 for a TMS of 1 = 3.0 s.
Example: 2. Two relays R1 and R2 are connected in two sections of a feeder. CTs are of
ratio 1000/5 A. The plug setting of relay R1 is 100% and R2 is 125%. The operating
time characteristics of the relays is shown in Table. The time multiplier setting of the
relay R1 is 0.3.
The time grading scheme has a discriminative time margin of 0.5 s between the relays. A
three-phase short circuit at F results in a fault current of 5000 A. Find the actual
operating times of R1 and R2. What is the time multiplier setting (TMS) of R2.
PSM 2 4 5 8 10 20
Operating time in sec. 10 5 4 3 2.8 2.4
Distance Protection
• Distance protection is a widely used protective scheme for protecting high and
extra high voltage (EHV) transmission and sub-transmission lines.
• This scheme employs many distance relays that measure the impedance or some
components of the line impedance at the relay location.
• The measured quantity is proportional to the line length between the location of
the relay and the point where the fault has occurred. As the measured quantity is
proportional to the distance along the line, the measuring relay is called a distance
relay.
• A distance protection scheme is a non-unit system of protection. A single scheme
provides both primary and backup protection.
Unit protection scheme:
• Unit-type schemes protect a specific area of the system i.e. a transformer, transmission
line, generator, or bus bar.
• The unit protection schemes are based on Kirchhoff's Current Law - the sum of the
currents entering an area of the system must be zero.
• Any deviation from this must indicate an abnormal current path.
• Certain types of unit protection are known by specific names, e.g. Restricted Earth
Fault and Differential Protection.
Non-Unit protection scheme:
• The non-unit schemes, while also intended to protect specific areas, have no fixed
boundaries.
• As well as protecting their own designated areas, the protective zones can overlap with
other areas.
• While this can be very beneficial for backup purposes.
• The non-unit type protection system includes the following schemes:
1. Time graded over-current protection
2. Current graded over-current protection
3. Distance or Impedance Protection
Distance Protection
• The most important and versatile family of relays is the distance-relay group. It
includes the following types:
1. Impedance relays
2. Reactance relays
3. MHO relays
4. Angle impedance relays
5. Quadrilateral relays
6. Elliptical and other conic section relays
1. Impedance relays
An impedance relay measures the impedance of the line at the relay location. When a
fault occurs on the protected line section, the measured impedance is the impedance of
the line section between the relay location and the point of fault.
In distance relaying terminology, the term impedance includes both resistance as well as
reactance.
Operating Principle
To realize the characteristics of an impedance relay, the current is compared with the
voltage at the relay location. The current produces a positive torque (operating torque)
and the voltage produces a negative torque (restraining torque).
Operating Principle

T = K1I − K 2V − K 3
2 2

K3 being the torque due to the control-spring effect.

T = K1I 2 − K 2V 2
K1I 2  K 2V 2 or K 2V 2  K1I 2
V 2 K1
2

I K2
V
 K where K is a constant
I
ZK
 Impedance Relay Characteristics

Operating characteristics of an
electromagnetic impedance relay

The operating time of the relay is constant, irrespective

of the fault location within the protected section.
2. Reactance relays
A reactance relay measures the reactance of
the line at the relay location and is not
affected by variations in resistance. Hence, its
performance remains unaffected by arc
resistance during the occurrence of a fault. In
case of a fault on the protected line, the
measured reactance is the reactance of the line
between the relay location and the fault point.
2. Reactance relays

T = K1I − K 2VI cos(90 −  ) − K 3

2

T = K1I − K 2VI sin  − K 3

2

V K1
sin  
I K2
Z sin   K or X K

Operating characteristic of a reactance relay

3. MHO relays or Admittance Relays
A MHO relay measures a component of admittance. But its characteristic, when plotted
on the impedance diagram (R-X diagram) is a circle, passing through the origin. It is
inherently a directional relay as it detects the fault only in the forward direction.

T = K1VI cos( −  ) − K 2V 2 − K 3
1 K2
K1VI cos( −  )  K 2V or cos( −  ) 
2
V K1
K2 1
Y cos( −  )  or K
K1 Y cos( −  )
Z
K or M K
cos( −  )
3. MHO relays or Admittance Relays

Characteristics of MHO relay Offset MHO characteristic

4. Angle Impedance (Ohm) relays
An angle impedance relay measures a component of the impedance of the line at the
relay location. It is also called an ohm relay. Its characteristic on the R-X diagram is a
straight line and it is inclined to the R-axis at any angle. The reactance relay is a
particular case of an angle impedance relay.

T = K1I 2 − K 2VI cos( −  ) − K 3

 5. Quadrilateral relays
The quadrilateral distance characteristic is not a
straightforward characteristic such as the Mho
distance elements, as the combination of distance
elements can create different shapes and
polygonal characteristics. The quadrilateral
characteristic is constructed from the following
elements:
1. A directional element;
2. A reactance element;
3. A right blinder resistance element;
4. A left blinder resistance element.
6. Elliptical relays
An elliptical characteristic is less affected by
power surges as it occupies less area on the
R-X diagram compared to other types of
distance relays.