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Control Systems

UNIT- 3

Time response analysis of control systems:

Introduction:
Time is used as an independent variable in most of the control systems. It is important to
analyze the response given by the system for the applied excitation, which is function of time.
Analysis of response means to see the variation of out put with respect to time. The output
behavior with respect to time should be within these specified limits to have satisfactory
performance of the systems. The stability analysis lies in the time response analysis that is when
the system is stable out put is finite

The system stability, system accuracy and complete evaluation is based on the time
response analysis on corresponding results.

DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF TIME RESPONSE

Time Response:
The response given by the system which is function of the time, to the applied excitation is
called time response of a control system.
Practically, output of the system takes some finite time to reach to its final value.
This time varies from system to system and is dependent on different factors.
The factors like friction mass or inertia of moving elements some nonlinearities present etc.
Example: Measuring instruments like Voltmeter, Ammeter.

Classification:

The time response of a control system is divided into two parts.

1 Transient response ct(t)
2 Steady. state response css(t)
. . c(t)=ct(t) +cSS(t)
Where c (t) = Time Response
Total Response=Zero State Response +Zero Input Response

Transient Response:
It is defined as the part of the response that goes to zero as time becomes very large. i,e,
Lim ct(t) = 0
t

A system in which the transient response do not decay as time progresses is an Unstable
system.

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Control Systems

C(t)
Ct(t) Css(t)
Step
ess
= study state
error

O
Time The transient response may be experimental
Transient time Study state
Time or oscillatory in nature.

2. Steady State Response:

It is defined the part of the response which remains after complete transient response
vanishes from the system output.
. i,e, Lim ct(t)=css(t)
t

The time domain analysis essentially involves the evaluation of the transient and
Steady state response of the control system.

Standard Test Input Signals:

For the analysis point of view, the signals, which are most commonly used as reference
inputs, are defined as standard test inputs.

 The performance of a system can be evaluated with respect to these test signals.
 Based on the information obtained the design of control system is carried out.
 The commonly used test signals are
1. Step Input signal.
2. Ramp Input Signals.
3. Parabolic Input Signal.
4. Impulse input signal.

Details of standard test signals

1. Step input signal (position function)

It is the sudden application of the input at a specified time as usual in the figure or
instant any us change in the reference input
Example :-
a. If the input is an angular position of a mechanical shaft a step input represent
the sudden rotation of a shaft.
b. Switching on a constant voltage in an electrical circuit.
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Control Systems

c. Sudden opening or closing a valve.

r(t)

O t
When, A = 1, r(t) = u(t) = 1

The step is a signal who's value changes from 1 value (usually 0) to another level A in
Zero time.
In the Laplace Transform form R(s) = A / S
Mathematically r(t) = u(t)
= 1 for t > 0
= 0 for t < 0

2. Ramp Input Signal (Velocity Functions):

It is constant rate of change in input that is gradual application of input as shown

in fig (2 b). r(t)
Ex:- Altitude Control
of a Missile
Slope = A

t
O

The ramp is a signal, which starts at a value of zero and increases linearly with
time.
Mathematically r (t) = A t for t  0
= 0 for t 0.

In LT form R(S) = A2
S
If A=1, it is called Unit Ramp Input

Mathematically
r(t) = t u(t)
{
t for t  0
In LT form R(S) = A2 = 1 2
S S = 0 for t  0

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Control Systems

3. Parabolic Input Signal (Acceleration function):

 The input which is one degree faster than a ramp type of input as shown in fig (2 c) or
it is an integral of a ramp.
 Mathematically a parabolic signal of magnitude

A is given by r(t) = A t2 u(t)

2
r 2
At for t  0 Slope = At
(
t
)

= 2
0 for t  0
t

In LT form R(S) = A
S3
 If A = 1, a unit parabolic function is defined as r(t) = t2 u(t)
2
ie., r(t)
{
In LT for
R(S) = 13 = t2 for t  0
S 2
0 for t  0
4. Impulse Input Signal :

It is the input applied instantaneously (for short duration of time) of very high amplitude
as shown in fig 2(d)
Eg: Sudden shocks i e, HV due lightening or short circuit.
It is the pulse whose magnitude is infinite while its width tends to zero.
r(t)
ie., t 0 (zero) applied
momentarily
A

O t
∆t 0

Area of impulse = its magnitude

If area is unity, it is called Unit Impulse Input denoted as(t)
Mathematically it can be expressed as
r(t) = A for t = 0
= 0 for t  0
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Control Systems

In LT form R(S) = 1 if A = 1

Standard test Input Signals and its Laplace Transforms.

R(S)
r(t) 1/S
Unit Step 1/S2
Unit ramp 1/S3
Unit Parabolic 1
Unit Impulse

First order system:-

The 1st order system is represent by the differential Eq:- a1dc(t )+ao c (t) = bo r(t)------ (1)
dt

Where, e (t) = out put , r(t) = input, a0, a1 & b0 are constants.

Dividing Eq:- (1) by a0, then a1. d c(t ) + c(t) = bo.r (t)
a0 dt ao

T . d c(t ) + c(t) = Kr (t) ---------------------- (2)

dt

Where, T=time const, has the dimensions of time = a1 & K= static sensitivity = b0
a0 a0

Taking for L.T. for the above Eq:- [ TS+1] C(S) = K.R(S)

T.F. of a 1st order system is ; G(S) = C(S ) = K.

R(S) 1+TS
[ It's a dimensionless T.F.]
1.
If K=1, Then G(S) =
1+TS I

This system represent RC ckt. A simplified block diagram is as shown.;

R(S)+ 1 C(S)
TS
-

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Control Systems

Unit step response of 1st order system:-

Let a unit step i\p u(t) be applied to a 1st order system,

Then, r (t) = u (t) & R(S) = 1 . ---------------(1)
S
W.K.T. C(S) = G(S). R(S)
C(S) = 1 . 1 . = 1 . T . ----------------- (2)
1+TS S S TS+1

Taking inverse L.T. for the above Eq:-

slope = 1 .
then, C(t)=u (t) - e -t/T ; t.>0.------------- (3)
T
c (t)
At t=T, then the value of c(t)= 1- e -1 = 0.632.

The smaller the time const. T. the 0.632

1 - e -t/T
faster the system response.

The slope of the tangent line at at t= 0 is 1/T.

Since dc = 1 .e -t/T = 1 . at t .=0. ------------- (4)

d T T t
t T

From Eq:- (4) , We see that the slope of the response curve c(t) decreases monotonically from 1
. at t=0 to zero. At t=
T

Second order system:-

The 2nd order system is defined as,

a2 d22c(t) + a1 dc(t) + a0 c(t) = b0 .r(t)-----------------(1)
d dt
t

Where c(t) = o/p & r(t) = I/p

-- ing (1) by a0,

a2 d2 c(t) + a1 . dc (t) + c(t) = b0 . r(t).

a0 dt2 a0 dt a0

a2 d2 c(t) + 2a1 . a2 . dc (t) + c(t) = b0 . r(t).

a0 dt2 2a0 a0 . a2 dt a0

3) The open loop T.F. of a unity feed back system is given by G(S) = K . where,
S(1+ST)
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Control Systems

T&K are constants having + ve values. By what factor (1) the amplitude gain be reduced so
that (a) The peak overshoot of unity step response of the system is reduced from 75% to 25%
(b) The damping ratio increases from 0.1 to 0.6.

Solution: G(S) = K.
S(1+ST)

Let the value of damping ratio is, when peak overshoot is 75% & when peak
overshoot is 25%

Mp = 
e 1-2

ln 0. 75 = .  0.0916 = .
  1-2  1-
2

1 = 0.091 (0.0084) (1-2) =2

2 = 0.4037 (1.00842) = 0.0084
 = 0.091

K/( S + S2T ) .
w.k.t. T.F. = G(S) = 1+ K . .= K
1+ G(S) . H(S) (S+S T)2 S + S T+K
2

T.F. = K/T .
S +S+K.
2

TT

Comparing with std Eq :-

Wn = K. , 2Wn = 1 .
T T

Let the value of K = K1 When=1 & K = K2 When =2.

Since 2Wn = 1 . , = 1. = 1.
T 2TWn 2 KT
1.
 1 . = 2 K1T = K2 .
2 1 K1
2 K2T

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Control Systems

0.091 = K2 . K2 . = 0.0508

0.4037 K1 K1

K2 = 0.0508 K1

a) The amplitude K has to be reduced by a factor = 1 . = 20

0.0508
b) Let = 0.1 Where gain is K1 and
 = 0.6 Where gain is K2
 0.1 = K2 . K2 . = 0.027 K2 = 0.027 K1
0.6 K 1 K1

The amplitude gain should be reduced by 1 . = 36

0.027

4) Find all the time domain specification for a unity feed back control system whose open loop
T.F. is given by

G(S) = 25 .
S(S+6)

Solution:
25 .
G(S) = 25 . G(S) .= S(S+6) .
S(S+6) 1 + G(S) .H(S) 1 + 25 .
S(S+6)
= 25 .
S2 + ( 6S+25 )

W2n = 25 , Wn = 5, 2Wn = 6 = 6 . = 0.6

2x5
Wd = Wn 1- = 5 1- (0.6) = 4
2 2

tr = - , = tan -1 Wd  =Wn = 0.6 x 5 = 3

Wd

 = tan-1 ( 4/3 ) = 0.927 rad.

tp =  . = 3.14 = 0.785 sec.

Wd 4

MP =  = - 0.6 . x3.4 = 9.5%

e  1-2 e1- 0.62

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Control Systems

ts = 4. for 2% = 4 . = 1.3 3sec.

Wn 0.6 x 5

5) The closed loop T.F. of a unity feed back control system is given by
Determine (1) Damping ratio (2) Natural
C(S) = 2 5 .
R S + 4S +5 undamped response frequency Wn. (3) Percent
( peak over shoot Mp (4) Expression for error
S resoponse.
)

Solution:

C(S) = 2 5 . , Wn 2 = 5 Wn =5 = 2.236

R S + 4S +5
(
S
)

2Wn = 4 = 4 . = 0.894. Wd = 1.0018

2 x 2.236

MP = = 0.894 . X 3.14 = 0.19%

e  1-2 e
 1-(0.894)2

W. K.T. C(t) = e-Wnt Cos Wdt r + . sin wdt r

 1-2

= e-0.894x2.236t Cos 1.0018t + 0.894 . sin 1.0018t

 1-(0.894)2

6) A servo mechanism is represent by the Eq:-

d2 + 10 d = 150E , E = R- is the actuating signal calculate the

dt2 dt value of damping ratio, undamped and damped
frequency of ascillation.
= 150r - 150.
d22 + 10 d = 15 ( r
Soutions:-
- ) ,

d dt
t

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Taking L.T., [S2 + 10S + 150] (S) = 150 R (S).

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Control
Systems
.
 (S) = 2 150

R S + 10S + 15O
(
S
)

Wn2 = 150 Wn = 12.25. .rad

sec .1

2Wn = 10 = 10 .=
0.408.
2x
12.25

Wd = Wn 1 - 2 = 12.25 1- (0.408)2 = 11.18. rad

1sec.

7) Fig shows a mechanical system and the response when 10N of force is applied to the
system. Determine the values of M, F, K,.

x(t)inm
t
K
f 0.0 0.0019
( 2 3 The T.F. of the mechanical system
t
) is ,
X(S) =
M F( M 21 .
S) S + FS =
K
f(t) = Md2X + F dX +
KX
F x dt2
dt
F(S) = (MS2 + FS + K)
x (S)
12345

Given :- F(S) = 10
S.
 X(S) = 10
.
S(MS2 + FS +
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K)
SX (S) = 10
.
MS + FS +
2

The steady state value of X is By applying final value

theorem,

lt. SX(S) = 10 . = 10 = 0.02 ( Given from

Fig.)
S O M(0) + F (0) + K K. (K
= 500.)

MP = 0.00193 = 0.0965 =
9.62%
0.02

Mp =


e 1-
2

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Control Systems

0.744 = .  0.5539 = 2 .

 1 -2  1 -2

0.5539 - 0.55392 =2

 = 0.597 = 0.6
t p = =  .
Wd Wn 1
-2
 . Wn = 1.31 rad / Sec.
3= Wn (1 - (0.6)
2
)

S x(S) = 10/ M .
2
(S + F S + K )
M M

Comparing with the std. 2nd order Eq :-, then,

Wn2 = K  Wn = K (1.31)2 = 500 . M = 291.36 kg.

M M M

F = 2Wn F = 2 x 0.6 x 291 x 1.31

M F = 458.7 N/M/ Sec.

8) Measurements conducted on sever me mechanism show the system response to be c(t) =

1+0.2e-60t - 1.2e-10t , When subjected to a unit step i/p. Obtain the expression for closed
loop T.F the damping ratio and undamped natural frequency of oscillation .

Solution:
C(t) = 1+0.2e-60t -1.2e-10t
Taking L.T., C(S) = 1 . + 0.2 . - 1.2 .
S S+60 S+10

C(S) . = 600 / S .
S2 + 70S + + 600

Given that :- Unit step i/p r(t) = 1  R(S) = 1 .

C(S) . = 600 / S .R(S)

S + 70S + + 600
2

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Control Systems

Comparing, Wn2 = 600, 24.4 ..rad / Sec

2Wn =
70, = 70 . = 1.428
2 x 24.4

10) A feed back system employing o/p damping is as shown in fig.

1) Find the value of K1 & K2 so that closed loop system resembles a 2nd order system with
= 0.5 & frequency of damped oscillation 9.5 rad / Sec.
2) With the above value of K1 & K2 find the % overshoot when i/p is step i/p
3) What is the % overshoot when i/p is step i/p, the settling time for 2% tolerance?

K1 1. R +C
S(1+S)
__
K2S

K
.
1
C.= 2

R S + ( 1 + K2 ) S + K1

Wn2 = K1 Wn =  K1
2Wn = 1 + K2 = 1 + K2
2 K1
Wd = Wn 1 -2  Wn = 9.5 . 10.96 rad/Sec
 1 - 0.52

K1 = (10.96)2 = 120.34
2Wn = 1 + K2 , K2 = 9.97

Mp = 
e 1-2

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Control Systems

Mp = 16.3%

Ts = 4.= 4. = 0.729 sec

Wn 0.5 x 10.97

Steady state Error :-

Steady state errors constitute an extremely important aspect of system
performance. The state error is a measure of system accuracy. These errors arise from the nature
of i/p's type of system and from non-linearties of the system components. The steady state
performance of a stable control system is generally judged by its steady state error to step, ramp
and parabolic i/p.

Consider the system shown in the fig.

G(S)
R(S) E(S) C(S)

H(S)

C(S) = G(S) . (1)

R(S) 1+G(S) . H(S)

The closed loop T.F is given by (1). The T.F. b/w the actuating error signal e(t) and the
i/p signal r(t) is,

E(S) = R(S) - C(S) H(S) = 1 - C(S) . H(S)

R(S) R(S) R(S)

= 1- G(S) . H(S) . = 1 + G(S) . H(S) - G(S)H(S)

1 + G(S) . H(S) 1+G(S) . H(S)

= 1 .
1 + G(S) . H(S)

Where e(t) = Difference b/w the i/p signal and the feed back signal

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Control Systems

 E(S) = 1 . .R(S) .(1)

1 + G(S) . H(S)
The steady state error ess may be found by the use of final value theorem
and is as follows;

ess = lt e(t) = lt SE(S)

t S O

Substituting (1), ess = lt S.R(S) . .(2)

S O 1+G(S) . H(S)

Eq :- (2) Shows that the steady state error depends upon the i/p R(S) and the forward T.F.
G(S) and loop T.F G(S) . H(S).
The expression for steady state errors for various types of standard test signals are
derived below;
1) Steady state error due to step i/p or position error constant (Kp):-

The steady state error for the step i/p is I/P

r(t) = u(t). Taking L.T., R(S) = 1/S.
From Eq:- (2), ess = lt S. R(s) .= 1 .
S O 1 +G(S). H.S 1 + lt G(S). H(S)
SO

lt G(S) . H(S) = Kp
(S O )
Where Kp = proportional error constant or position error const.
 ess = 1.
1 + Kp
(1 + Kp) ess = 1  Kp = 1 - ess
ess

Note :- ess = R . for non-unit step i/p

1 + Kp

2) Steady state error due to ramp i/p or static velocity error co-efficient (Kv) :-
The ess of the system with a unit ramp i/p or unit velocity i/p is given by,

r ( t) = t. u(t) , Taking L -T, R(S) = 1/S2

Substituting this to ess Eq:-

 ess = lt S . . 1 . = lt 1 .
SO 1 + G(S) . H(s) S S O S +S G(S) H(s)S
2

lt = SG(S) . H(S) = Kv = velocity co-efficient then

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Control Systems

SO

ess = lt 1.  ess = 1.
SO (S + Kv) Kv

Velocity error is not an error in velocity , but it is an error in position error due to a ramp
i/p

3) Steady state error due to parabolic i/p or static acceleration co-efficient (Ka) :-

The steady state actuating error of the system with a unit parabolic i/p (acceleration i/p)
which is defined by r(t) + 1 . t2 Taking L.T. R(S)= 1 .
2 S3

ess = lt S .1. lt 1 .
2
S S 3
SO S + S G(S) . H(S)
2




G
(
S
)

H
(
S
)

2
lt
S
G(S) . H(S) = Ka.
SO

 ess = lt 1. = 1.
SO S + Ka
2 Ka

Note :- ess = R . for non unit parabolic.

Ka

Types of feed back control system :-

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The open loop T.F. of a unity feed back system can be written in two std, forms;

1) Time constant form and 2) Pole Zero form,

 G(S) = K(TaS +n1) (TbS +1)..
S (T1 S+1) (T2S + 1).

Where K = open loop gainn.

Above Eq:- involves the term S in denominator which corresponds to no, of
integrations in the system. A system is called Type O, Type1, Type2,.. if n = 0, 1,
2, .. Respectively. The Type no., determines the value of error co-efficients. As
the type no., is increased, accuracy is improved; however increasing the type no.,
aggregates the stability error. A term in the denominator represents the poles at the origin
in complex S plane. Hence Index n denotes the multiplicity of the poles at the origin.
The steady state errors co-efficient for a given type have definite values. This is
illustration as follows.

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Control Systems

1) Type - O system :- If, n = 0, the system is called type - 0, system. The

steady state error are as follows;
..
Let, G(S) = K. [ . H(s) = 1]
S+1

ess (Position) = 1 . = 1 .= 1.
1 + G(O) . H(O) 1+K 1 + Kp
..
. Kp = lt G(S) . H(S) = lt K. =K
S0 S0 S+1

ess (Velocity) = 1 . = 1 .=

Kv 0

Kv = lt G(S) . H(S) = lt S K . = 0.
S0 S 0 S + 1

ess (acceleration) = 1 . = 1 .=

Ka 0

Ka = lt S2 G(S) . H(S) = lt S2 K . =0
S0 S 0 S+1

2) Type 1 -System :- If, n = 1, the ess to various std, i/p, G(S) = K.

S (S + 1)

ess (Position) = 1 .=O

1+

Kp = lt G(S) . H(S) = lt K . =

SO
S 0 S( S + 1)
lt SK. =K
S 0
Kv = S(S+1)

ess (Velocity) = 1 .
K

ess (acceleration) = 1 . =

0

ECE/ 63

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Control Systems

Ka = lt S2 K . = 0.
S0 S (S + 1)

3) Type 2 -System :- If, n = 2, the ess to various std, i/p, are , G(S) = K.
S (S + 1)
2

Kp = lt K .=
S 0 S (S + 1)
2

.
.. ess (Position) = 1 . = 0

Kv = lt S 2 K .=
S0 S (S + 1)
.
.. ess (Velocity) = 1 . = 0

2
Ka = lt S 2 K . = K.
S0 S (S + 1)
.
.. ess (acceleration) = 1 .
K

3) Type 3 -System :- Gives Kp = Kv = Ka = & ess = 0.

(Onwards)

The error co-efficient Kp, Kv, & Ka describes the ability of the system to eliminate the steady
state error therefore they are indicative of steady state performance. It is generally described to
increase the error co-efficient while maintaining the transient response within an acceptable
limit.

PROBLEMS;

1. The unit step response of a system is given by

C (t) = 5/2 +5t - 5/2 e-2t. Find the T. F of the system.

T/P = r(t) = U (t). Taking L.T, R(s) = 1/S.

Response C(t) = 5/2+5t-5/2 e-2t

1+2-1
S S2 S+2

ECE/ 64

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Control Systems

Taking L.T, C(s) = 5 1 +5 15 1 = 5

2 S S2 2 (S+2) 2

C(s) = 5 S(S+2)+2(S+2)-
S2 = 5 S2+2S+2S+4—
2 s2 S2 (S+2) 2 S2(S+2)

S2 (S+2) 10 (S+1)
=

T.F = C (S) = 10 (S+1) S = 10 (S+1)

R (S) S2(S+2) S(S+2)

2. The open loop T F of a unity food back system is G(s) = 100

S (S+10)
Find the static error constant and the steady state error of the system when subjected to an i/p
given by the polynomial

R(t) = Po + p1t + P2 t2
2
G(s) = 100 position error co-efficient
S (S+10)

KP = lt G(s) = lt 100 =

S 0 S 0 S (S+10)

Similarly KV = lt SG(s) = lt 100 x s = 100 = 10

S 0 S 0 S (S+10)
10

lt 100 x s2 = 0
Ka = lt S2 G(S)
0 S 0 S (S+10)
S

ECE/ 65

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Control Systems

Given :- r(t) = Po+P1t +P2 t2

2
R1 R2 R3
Therefore steady state error ess + +
1+Kp Kv Ka

R1 R2 P0 P1
R3+ = P2
ess +
1+ 10 0 + +
1+ 10 0
 

Ess = 0+0.1 P1 + =

3. Determine the error co-efficeint and static error for G(s) = 1

And H(s) = (S+2) S(S+1) (S+10)

The error constants for a non unity feed back system is as follows
Kp = lt G(S) H(S) = (0+2)
lt (S+2) =
S 0 G(S).H(S) =S 0(0+1) (0+10)
0 S(S+1) (S+10)

Kv = lt G(S) H(S) = (0+2)

lt = 1/5 = 0.2
S 0 S 0(0+1) (0+10)
0
Ka = 0

Static Error:-

Steady state error for unit step i/p = 0

1 = 1 =5
Unit ramp i/p
Kv 0.2

Unit parabolic i/p = 1/0 =

ECE/ 66

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Control Systems

50
4. A feed back C.S is described as G(S) =
H(S)=1/s. S (S+2) (S+5)

For unit step i/p,cal steady state error constant and errors.

Kp = lt G(S) H(S) = 50
S 0 S 0 S2 =
(S+2) (S+5)

Kv = lt G(S) H(S) = lt 50 x S
S 0 S =
0 S2 (S+2) (S+5)

Ka = lt G(S) H(S) = lt S2 x 50 50
S 0 S = =5
0 S2 (S+2) (S+5) 10

Ess = lt S. 1/S Lt S2 (S+2) (S+5)

The steady state error S 0 1+50
S 0 S2 (S+2) (S+5) + 50
S2(S+2)(S+5)
= 0/50 = 0
K
H(S) = 1
5. A certain feed back C.S is described by following C.S G(S) = S2 (S+20) (S+30)

Determine steady state error co-efficient and also determine the

value of K to limit the steady to 10 units due to i/p r(t) = 1 + 10 + t 20/2 t2.

Kp = lt G(S) H(S) = lt 50
S 0 S 0 =
S (S+20) (S+30)
2

ECE/ 67

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Control Systems

Kv = lt S K
S 0 S2 (S+20) (S+30) =

Ka = lt S22 K K
S 0 S (S+20) (S+30) 600

Steady state error:- 1 1

Error due to unit step i/p 1+Kp + 1+ =0



Error due o r(t) ramp i/p

10 10
+ =0
Kv


12000
20 40 20 x 600 =
= = K
Error due to para i/p,
Ka 2Ka K
,

r (t) = (0+0 12000 )/K= 10 = K = 1200

First order system:-

The 1st order system is represent by the differential Eq:- a1dc(t )+aoc (t) = bor(t)------ (1)
dt

Where, e (t) = out put , r(t) = input, a0, a1 & b0 are constants.

Dividing Eq:- (1) by a0, then a1. d c(t ) + c(t) = bo.r (t)
a0 dt ao

T . d c(t ) + c(t) = Kr (t) ---------------------- (2)

dt

ECE/ 68
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Control Systems

Where, T=time const, has the dimensions of time = a1 & K= static sensitivity = b0
a0 a0

Taking for L.T. for the above Eq:- [ TS+1] C(S) = K.R(S)

T.F. of a 1st order system is ; G(S) = C(S ) = K.

R(S) 1+TS
[ It's a dimensionless T.F.]
1.
If K=1, Then G(S) =
1+TS I

This system represent RC ckt. A simplified bloc diagram is as shown.;

R(S)+ 1 C(S)
TS
-

Unit step response of 1st order system:-

Let a unit step i\p u(t) be applied to a 1st order system,

Then, r (t)=u (t) & R(S) = 1 . ---------------(1)
S
W.K.T. C(S) = G(S). R(S)

C(S) = 1. 1. = 1. T. ----------------- (2)

1+TS S S TS+1

Taking inverse L.T. for the above Et/T:- q

t e - ; t.>0.-------------
h (3)
e
n
,

C
(
t
)
=
u

(
t
)

-
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slope = 1 . T
At t=T, then the value of c(t)= 1- e -1 = c (t)
0.632.
0.632 1 - e -t/T
The smaller the time const. T. the
faster the system response.
The slope of the tangent line at at t= 0 is 1/T.
Since dc = 1 .e -t/T = 1 . at t .=0. ------------- (4)
d T T t
t T

From Eq:- (4) , We see that the slope of the response curve c(t) decreases monotonically from 1
. at t=0 to zero. At t=
ECE/ 69

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Control Systems

Second order system:-

The 2nd order system is defined as,

a2 d22c(t) + a1 dc(t) + a0 c(t) = b0 .r(t)-----------------(1)
d dt
t

Where c(t) = o/p & r(t) = I/p

-- ing (1) by a0,

a2 d2 c(t) + a1 . dc (t) + c(t) = b0 . r(t).

a0 dt2 a0 dt a0

a2 d2 c(t) + 2a1 . a2 . dc (t) + c(t) = b0 . r(t).

a0 dt2 2a0 a0 . a2 dt a0

Step response of 2nd order system:

The T.F. = C(s) = Wn2 Based on value

2+2W S+ W
R(s) 3 n n2

The system may be,

2) Under damped system (0<<1)
3) Critically damped system (=1)
4) Over damped system (>1)

1) Under damped system :- (0<<1)

In this case C(s) can be written as
R(s)

C(s) = Wn2
R(s) (S+wn + jwd ) (S+wn - jwd )
1- The Freq. wd is called damped
Where wd = wn  natural frequency
2

For a unit step i/p :- [ R(t)= 1 R(S) = 1/S]

ECE/ 70
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Control Systems

C(S) = Wn2 . X R (S) = Wn2 .= 1.

(S2+2 Wn S+ Wn2) (S2+2 WnS+ Wn2) S

C(S) = 1 . S+2Wn .
S S2+2 WnS+ Wn
2

= 1. S+Wn . __  Wn . --------------- (5)

2
S (S+ Wn) + W 2 (
d

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C(S) = 1. S+Wn . __ . Wd .

S (S+Wn) + Wd2
2  1- 2 (S+ Wn) + Wd2
2

Taking ILT, C(t) = 1-e-Wnt COS Wdt +  . Sin Wdt ------------ (6)
 1-2

The error signal for this system is the difference b/w the I/p & o/p.

 e(t) = r(t) c(t) .

= 1 c(t)

= e-Wnt COS Wdt +  . Sin Wdt --------------------- (7)

 1- 2 t > o.

At t =, error exists b/w the i/p & o/p.

If the damping ratio= O, the response becomes undamped & oscillations continues
indefinitely.
The response C(t) for the zero damping case is ,
c(t) =1-1(COS wnt) =1- COS wnt ; t > O --------------------- (8)

From Eq:- (8) , we see that the Wn represents the undamped natural frequency of the system. If
the linear system has any amount of damping the undamped natural frequency cannot be
observed experimentally. The frequency, which may be observed, is the damped natural
frequency.
Wd =wn 12 This frequency is always lower than the undamped natural frequency. An
increase in would reduce the damped natural frequency Wd . If is increased beyond unity,
the response over damped & will not oscillate.

Critically damped case:- (=1).

ECE/ 71

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Control Systems

If the two poles of C(S) are nearly equal, the system may be approximated by a
R(S)
Critically damped one.

For a step I/p R(S) = 1/S

 C(S) = Wn2 .  1.
S2+2 Wn S+ Wn2 S

= 1. 1 . Wn 2 .
S (S + Wn) ( S+ Wn)

= 1. Wn2 2.
S ( S + Wn ) S
Taking I.L.T.,

C(t) = 1 - e -Wnt (1+wnt)

Over damped system :- ( > 1)

If this case, the two poles of C(S) are negative, real and unequal.
R(S)
For a unit step I/p R(S) = 1/S , then,

C(S) = Wn2 .
(S+ Wn + Wn2 - 1 ) ( S+ Wn - Wn2 - 1)
1 . e ( +2 - 1) Wn
T 2 2
- 1 (+ - t.
1)

1 .e ( + (2 - 1)) Wn t.

S (2 - 1 )[(+ (2 - 1)]

C(t) = 1+ Wn . e-S1t . - e-S2t . ;t>O

S 2 - 1 S1 S2

Where S1 = ( +2 - 1) Wn
2
S2 = ( - - 1) Wn

Time response (Transient ) Specification (Time domain) Performance :-

ECE/ 72

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Control Systems

The performance characteristics of a controlled system are specified in terms of the

transient response to a unit step i/p since it is easy to generate & is sufficiently drastic.
The transient response of a practical C.S often exhibits damped oscillations before
MP

reaching steady state. In specifying the transient response characteristic of a C.S to unit step
i/p, it is common to specify the following terms.

1) Delay time (td)

2) Rise time (tr)

Response curve
3) Peak time (tp)
4) Max over shoot (Mp)
5) Settling time (ts)

1) Delay time :- (td)

for the 1st
It is the time required for the response to reach 50% of its final value
time.

2) Rise time :- (tr)

It is the time required for the response to rise from 10% and 90% or 0% to

100% of its final value. For under damped system, second order system the 0 to 100% rise
time is commonly used. For over damped system, the 10 to 90% rise time is commonly used.

3) Peak time :- (tp)

It is the time required for the response to reach the 1st of peak of the overshoot.

ECE/ 73

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Control Systems

4) Maximum over shoot :- (MP)

It is the maximum peak value of the response curve measured from unity. The amount
of max over shoot directly indicates the relative stability of the system.

5) Settling time :- (ts)

It is the time required for the response curve to reach & stay with in a range about the
final value of size specified by absolute percentage of the final value (usually 5% to 2%).
The settling time is related to the largest time const., of C.S.
Transient response specifications of second order system :-

W. K.T. for the second order system,

T.F. = C(S) = Wn2 . ------------------------------(1)

R(S) S 2+2 W S+ W 2
n n

Assuming the system is to be underdamped (< 1)

Rise time tr
W. K.T. C(tr) = 1- e-Wnt Cos Wdtr + . sin wdtr
 1-2

Let C(tr) = 1, i.e., substituting tr for t in the above Eq:

Then, C(tr) = 1 = 1- e-Wntr Cos wdtr + . sin wdtr

 1-2

Cos wdtr + . sin wdtr = tan wdtr = - 1-2 = wd .

 1-2  

jW

Thus, the rise time tr is , jWd

tr =1 . tan-1 - w d =- secs Wn 1-2  Wn

Wd  wd
When must be in radians. -

W
n

S- Plane

Peak time :- (tp)

ECE/ 74
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Control Systems

Peak time can be obtained by differentiating C(t) W.r.t. t and equating that
derivative to zero.
dc = O = Sin Wdtp Wn . e-Wntp
dt t = t p  1-st2
Since the peak time corresponds to the 1 peak over shoot.
 Wdtp = = tp = .
Wd

The peak time tp corresponds to one half cycle of the frequency of damped oscillation.

Maximum overshoot :- (MP)

The max over shoot occurs at the peak time.

i.e. At t = tp = .
Wd

M -
-(/ Wd) or e ( / 1-2)
p

Settling time :- (ts)

An approximate value of ts can be obtained for the system O < <1 by using the
envelope of the damped sinusoidal waveform.

Time constant of a system = T = 1.

W
n
Setting time ts = 4x Time constant.
= 4x 1 . for a tolerance band of +/- 2% steady state.
W
n

Delay time :- (td)

The easier way to find the delay time is to plot Wn td VS. Then approximate
the curve for the range O<< 1 , then the Eq. becomes,
Wn td = 1+0.7
 td = 1+0.7
Wn

PROBLEMS:

(1) Consider the 2nd order control system, where = 0.6 & Wn = 5 rad / sec, obtain the
rise time tr, peak time tp, max overshoot Mp and settling time ts When the system is subject
to a unit step i/p.,
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Given :- = 0.6, Wn = 5rad /sec, tr = ?, tp = ?, Mp = ?, ts = ?

ECE/ 75

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Control Systems

Wd = Wn 1-2 = 5 1-(0.6) 2 = 4

 =Wn = 0.6 x 5 = 3.

tr = -, = tan-1 Wd = tan-1 4 = 0.927 rad

Wd  3

tr = 3.14 - 0.927 = 0.55sec.

4

tp = = 3.14 = 0.785 sec.

Wd 4
.  =e  / Wd 

 1-
MP =e 2

MP
(3/4) x 3.14 = 0.094 x 100 = 9.4%
=e

ts :- For the 2% criteria.,

ts = 4 . = 4 . = 1.33 sec.
Wn 0.6x5

For the 5% criteria.,

ts = 3 = 3 = 1 sec
 3
EXERCISE:

(2) A unity feed back system has on open loop T.F. G(S) = K.
S ( S+10)
Determine the value of K so that the system has a damping factors of 0.5 For this value of K
determine settling time, peak over shoot & time for peak over shoot for unit step i/p

LCS

The error co-efficient Kp, Kv, & Ka describes the ability of the system to eliminate the steady
state error therefore they are indicative of steady state performance. It is generally described to
increase the error co-efficient while maintaining the transient response within an acceptable
limit.

PROBLEMS;

ECE/ 76
Control Systems
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2. The unit step response of a system is given by

C (t) = 5/2 +5t - 5/2 e-2t. Find the T. F of the system.

T/P = r(t) = U (t). Taking L.T, R(s) = 1/S.

Response C(t) = 5/2+5t-5/2 e-2t

1+2-1
S S2 S+2 Taking
1+ 5 1 -5 1 = 5 L.T, C(s)
=5

2S S2 2 (S+2) 2

C(s) = 5 S(S+2)+2(S+2)-
= 5
S2 S2+2S+2S+4—

2 s2 S2 (S+2) 3 S2(S+2)

S2 (S+2) 10 (S+1)
=

T.F = C (S) = 10 (S+1) S = 10 (S+1)

R (S) S2(S+2) S(S+2)

2. The open loop T F of a unity food back system is G(s) = 100

S (S+10)

Find the static error constant and the steady state error of the system when subjected to an i/p
given by the polynomial

R(t) = Po + p1t + P2 t2
2
G(s) = 100 position error co-efficient
S (S+10)

KP = lt G(s) = lt 100 =

S 0 S 0 S (S+10)

ECE/ 77

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Control Systems

Similarly KV = lt SG(s) = lt 100 x s = 100 = 10

S 0 S 0 S (S+10)
10

lt 100 x s2 = 0
Ka = lt S2 G(S)
0 S 0 S (S+10)
S

Given :- r(t) = Po+P1t +P2 t2

2
R1 R2 R3
Therefore steady state error ess + +
1+Kp Kv Ka
R2 R3
R1 P0 P1 P2
+ 10 + 0 ess + =+
1+ 1+ 10 0
 

Ess = 0+0.1 P1 + =

3. Determine the error co-efficeint and static error for G(s) = 1

And H(s) = (S+2) S(S+1) (S+10)

The error constants for a non unity feed back system is as follows

(S+2)
G(S).H(S) =
S(S+1) (S+10)

G(S) H(S) = lt (0+2)

Kp = lt =
S 0 S 0 0(0+1) (0+10)
78
ECE/

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Control Systems

G(S) H(S) = (0+2)

Kv = lt = 1/5 = 0.2
0
lt 0(0+1) (0+10)
S

Ka = 0

Static Error:-

Steady state error for unit step i/p = 0

1 = 1 =5
Unit ramp i/p
Kv 0.2

Unit parabolic i/p = 1/0 =

50

4. A feed back C.S is described as G(S) = S (S+2) (S+5)

H(S)=1/s.

For unit step i/p,calculate steady state error constant and errors.

Kp = lt G(S) H(S) = 50
lt =
S 0 S S2 (S+2) (S+5)
0
Kv = lt G(S) H(S) = 50 x S
lt =
S 0 S S (S+2) (S+5)
2

Ka = lt G(S) H(S) = lt S2 x 50 50
ECE/ 0 S S S2 (S+2) (S+5) = =5 79
0 10
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Control Systems

Ess = lt S. 1/S Lt S2 (S+2) (S+5)

S 1+50
The steady state error 0 S S2 (S+2) (S+5) + 50
0

S2(S+2)(S+5)
= 0/50 = 0
K
S H(S) = 1
5. A certain feed back C.S is described by following C.S G(S) 2
= (S+20) (S+30)

Determine steady state error co-efficient and also determine the value of K to limit the steady to
10 units due to i/p r(t) = 1 + 10 + t 20/2 t2.

Kp = lt G(S) H(S) = lt 50
S 0 S =
0 S2 (S+20) (S+30)

S K
Kv = lt 0 2 =
S (S+20) (S+30)
S

Ka = lt S22 K K
S 0 S (S+20) (S+30) 600

Steady state error:- 1 1

+ =0
Error due to unit step i/p 1+Kp 1+


Error due o r(t) ramp i/p 10 10

+ =0
Kv

20 40 20 x 600 12000
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Error due to para i/p, = = =

Ka 2Ka K K
ECE/ 80

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Control Systems

r (t) = 0+0 12000 = 10 = K = 1200

K

3) The open loop T.F. of a unity feed back system is given by G(S) = K . where,
S(1+ST)
T&K are constants having + Ve values.By what factor (1) the amplitude gain be reduced so
that (a) The peak overshoot of unity step response of the system is reduced from 75% to 25%
(b) The damping ratio increases from 0.1 to 0.6.

Solution: G(S) = K.
S(1+ST)

Let the value of damping ratio is, when peak overshoot is 75% & when peak
overshoot is 25%

Mp = . 
e 1-2

ln 0. 75 = .  0.0916 = .
  1-2  1-
2

1 = 0.091 (0.0084) (1-2) =2

2 = 0.4037 (1.00842) = 0.0084
 = 0.091

k.
2
S+S T .
w.k.t. T.F. = G(S) = 1+ K 2 . = K2 .
1+ G(S) . H(S) S+S T S + S T+K

T.F. = K/T .
S2 + S+ K.
TT

Comparing with std Eq :-

Wn = K. , 2Wn = 1 .

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T T
Let the value of K = K1 When=1 & K = K2 When =2.
Since 2Wn = 1 . , = 1. = 1.
T 2TWn 2 KT
1.
 1 . = 2 K1T = K2 .
2 1 K1
2 K2T

0.091 = K2 . K2 . = 0.0508

0.4037 K1 K1

K2 = 0.0508 K1

a) The amplitude K has to be reduced by a factor = 1 . = 20

0.0508
b) Let = 0.1 Where gain is K1 and
 = 0.6 Where gain is K2
 0.1 = K2 . K2 . = 0.027 K2 = 0.027 K1
0.6 K1 K1

The amplitude gain should be reduced by 1 . = 36

0.027

4) Find all the time domain specification for a unity feed back control system whose open loop
T.F. is given by

G(S) = 25 .
S(S+6)

Solution:
25 .
G(S) = 25 . G(S) .= S(S+6) .
S(S+6) 1 + G(S) .H(S) 1 + 25 .
S(S+6)
= 25 .
S2 + ( 6S+25 )

W2n = 25 , Wn = 5, 2Wn = 6 = 6 . = 0.6

2x5
Wd = Wn 1- = 5 1- (0.6) 2 2 =4
tr = - , = tan -1 Wd  =Wn = 0.6 x 5 = 3
Wd

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Control Systems

 = tan-1 ( 4/3 ) = 0.927 rad.

tp =  . = 3.14 = 0.785 sec.

Wd 4

MP = .  = 0.6 . x3.4 = 9.5%

e  1-2 e  1- 0.6 2

ts = 4. for 2% = 4 . = 1.3 3sec.

Wn 0.6 x 5

5) The closed loop T.F. of a unity feed back control system is given by
Determine (1) Damping ratio (2) Natural
C(S) = 2 5 .
R S + 4S +5 undamped response frequency Wn. (3) Percent
( peak over shoot Mp (4) Expression for error
S resoponse.
)

Solution:

C(S) = 2 5 . , Wn 2 = 5 Wn =5 = 2.236

R S + 4S +5
(
S
)

2Wn = 4 = 4 . = 0.894. Wd = 1.0018

2 x 2.236

MP = . = 0.894 . X 3.14 = 0.19%

e 1-2 e 1-(0.894)2

W. K.T. C(t) = e-Wnt Cos Wdt r + . sin wdt r

 1-2

= e-0.894x2.236t Cos 1.0018t + 0.894 . sin 1.0018t

 1-(0.894)2

6) A servo mechanism is represent by the Eq:-

d2 + 10 d = 150E , E = R- is the actuating signal calculate the

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Control Systems

dt2 dt value of damping ratio, undamped and damped

frequency of ascillation.

Soutions:- d2 + 10 d = 15 ( r - ) , = 150r - 150.

dt2 dt

Taking L.T., [S2 + 10S + 150] (S) = 150 R (S).

 .

(
S
)

1
5
0

R S + 10S + 15O
(
S
)

Wn2 = 150 Wn = 12.25. .rad sec .1

2Wn = 10 = 10 . = 0.408.

2 x 12.25

Wd = Wn 1 - 2 = 12.25 1- (0.408)2 = 11.18. rad 1sec.

7) Fig shows a mechanical system and the response when 10N of force is applied to the system.
Determine the values of M, F, K,.

x(t)inmt
K
f ) 0.00193
(
t
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The T.F. o f the mechanical system is ,

0.02
M X(S) = 1 .
F(S) MS2 + FS = K
f(t) = Md2X + F dX + KX
F x dt2 dt
2
12345 F(S) = (MS + FS + K) x (S)

Given :- F(S) = 10
S.

 X(S) = 10 .
S(MS2 + FS + K)
S MS 10 .
2
X + FS + K

(
S
)

The steady state value of X is By applying final value theorem,

lt. SX(S) = 10 . = 10 = 0.02 ( Given from Fig.)

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Control Systems

S O M(0) + F (0) + K K. ( K = 500.)

MP = 0.00193 = 0.0965 = 9.62%

0.02

0.744 = . 0.5539 = 2 .

 1 -2  1 -2

0.5539 - 0.55392 =2

 = 0.597 = 0.6
= 
tp = Wd Wn( 1 .
-2)

3=  . Wn = 1.31 rad / Sec.

Wn 1 - (0.6)2

Sx(S) = 10/ M .
(S + F S + K )
2

M M

Comparing with the std. 2nd order Eq :-, then,

Wn2 = K  Wn = K (1.31)2 = 500 . M = 291.36 kg.

M M M

F = 2Wn F = 2 x 0.6 x 291 x 1.31

M F = 458.7 N/M/ Sec.

9) Measur-ements co10tducted on sever me mechanism show the system response to be c(t) =

n
1+0.2e 60t - 1.2e- , When subjected to a unit step i/p. Obtain the expression for closed
loop T.F the damping ratio and undamped natural frequency of oscillation .

Solution:
C(t) = 1+0.2e-60t -1.2e-10t
Taking L.T., C(S) = 1 . + 0.2 . - 1.2 .
S S+60 S+10

C(S) . = 600 / S .
S + 70S + + 600
2

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Control Systems

Given that :- Unit step i/p r(t) = 1  R(S) = 1 .

S

C(S) . = 600 / S .R(S)

S2 + 70S + + 600

Comparing, Wn2 = 600, 24.4 ..rad / Sec

2Wn = 70, = 70 . = 1.428

2 x 24.4

10) The C.S. shown in the fig employs proportional plus error rate control. Determine the

value of error rate const. Ke, so the damping ratio is 0.6 . Determine the value of settling

time, max overshoot and steady state error, if the i/p is unit ramp, what will be the value

of steady state

10) A feed back system employing o/p damping is as shown in fig.

4) Find the value of K1 & K2 so that closed loop system resembles a 2nd order system with
= 0.5 & frequency of damped oscillation 9.5 rad / Sec.
5) With the above value of K1 & K2 find the % overshoot when i/p is step i/p
6) What is the % overshoot when i/p is step i/p, the settling time for 2% tolerance?

K1 1. + C
S(1+S)
__
K2S

K1
C.= S2+(1+K )S+K .

R
2 1

Wn2 = K1 Wn = K1

2Wn = 1 + K2 = 1 + K2

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Control Systems

2 K1
2
Wd = Wn (1 -  )   Wn = 9.5 . = 10.96 rad/Sec
 (1 - 0.52)

K1 = (10.96)2 = 120.34

2Wn = 1 + K2 , K2 = 9.97

MP = . = 16.3%
e  (1 -2)

ts = 4 .= 4 . = 0.729 sec
Wn 0.5 x 10.97

Types of feed back control system :-

The open loop T.F. of a unity feed back system can be written in two std, forms;

1) Time constant form and 2) Pole Zero form,

 G(S) = K(TaS +n1) (TbS +1)..
S (T1 S+1) (T2S + 1).

Where K = open loop gain.

Above Eq:- involves the term S n in denominator which corresponds to no, of
integrations in the system. A system is called Type O, Type1, Type2,.. if n = 0, 1,
2, .. Respectively. The Type no., determines the value of error co-efficients. As
the type no., is increased, accuracy is improved; however increasing the type no.,
aggregates the stability error. A term in the denominator represents the poles at the origin
in complex S plane. Hence Index n denotes the multiplicity of the poles at the origin.
The steady state errors co-efficient for a given type have definite values. This is
illustration as follows.

2) Type - O system :- If, n = 0, the system is called type - 0, system. The

steady state error are as follows;
..
Let, G(S) = K. [ . H(s) = 1]
S+1

ess (Position) = 1 . = 1 .= 1.
1 + G(O) . H(O) 1+K 1 + Kp

..
. Kp = lt G(S) . H(S) = lt K. =K
S0 S0 S+1

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Control Systems

ess (Velocity) = 1 . = 1 .=

Kv 0

Kv = lt G(S) . H(S) = lt S K . =0
S0 S0 S+1

ess (acceleration) = 1 . = 1 .=

Ka 0
lt S2 K . = 0.
Ka = lt S2 G(S) . H(S) = S 0 S+1
S0

2) Type 1 -System :- If, n = 1, the ess to various std, i/p, G(S) = K.

S (S + 1)

ess (Position) = 1 .=0

1+

Kp = lt G(S) . H(S) = lt K . =

S 0 S0 S( S + 1)

Kv = lt S K . =K
S 0 S(S+1)

ess (Velocity) = 1 .
K

ess (acceleration) = 1 . = 1 . =

0 0

Ka = lt S2 K . = O.
S0 S (S + 1)

3) Type 2 -System :- If, n = 2, the ess to various std, i/p, are , G(S) = K.
S2 (S + 1)
Kp = lt K .=

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Control Systems

SO S2 (S + 1)
.
.. ess (Position) = 1 . = O

Kv = lt S K .=
S O S2 (S + 1)
.
.. ess (Velocity) = 1 . = O

Ka = lt S 2 K . = K.
S O S2 (S + 1)
.
.. ess (acceleration) = 1 .
K

3) Type 3 -System :- Gives Kp = Kv = Ka = & ess = O.

(Onwards)

Recommended Questions
1. Define and classify time response of a system.
2. Mention the Standard Test Input Signals and its Laplace transform K . Where,
3. The open loop T.F. of a unity feed back system is given by G(S) =

S(1+ST)
T&K are constants having + Ve values.By what factor (1) the amplitude gain be reduced so that
(a) The peak overshoot of unity step response of the system is reduced from 75% to 25% (b)
The damping ratio increases from 0.1 to 0.6.

4. Find all the time domain specification for a unity feed back control system whose open loop
T.F. is given by

G(S) = 25 .
S(S+6)
5. The closed loop T.F. of a unity feed back control system is given by
5.
Determine (1) Damping ratio (2) Natural
C(S) =
R(S) S
2 undamped response frequency Wn. (3) Percent
peak over shoot Mp (4) Expression for error
+ resoponse.

4
S

+
5

6. A servo mechanism is represent by the Eq:-

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d2 + 10 d = 150E , E = R- is the actuating signal calculate the

dt2 dt value of damping ratio, undamped and damped
frequency of ascillation.

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Control Systems

7. Mea60turemen-t10t conducted on sever me mechanism show the system response to be c (t) =

s s
1+0.2e - 1.2e , When subjected to a unit step i/p. Obtain the expression for closed loop T.F -
the damping ratio and undamped natural frequency of oscillation .

8. A feed back system employing o/p damping is as shown in fig.

1) Find the value of K1 & K2 so that closed loop system resembles a 2nd order system with =
0.5 & frequency of damped oscillation 9.5 rad / Sec.
2) With the above value of K1 & K2 find the % overshoot when i/p is step i/p
3) What is the % overshoot when i/p is step i/p, the settling time for 2% tolerance?

R
K1 1. + C
S(1+S)
__
K2S

ECE/ 90

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