sensors

Article
Performance Analysis of Global Navigation Satellite
System Signal Acquisition Aided by Different Grade
Inertial Navigation System under Highly
Dynamic Conditions
Chunxi Zhang, Xianmu Li *, Shuang Gao, Tie Lin and Lu Wang
School of Instrument Science and Opto-electronics Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China;
[email protected] (C.Z.); [email protected] (S.G.); [email protected] (T.L.);
[email protected] (L.W.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-150-1108-4220

Academic Editors: Cheng Wang, Julian Smit and Ayman F. Habib

Received: 23 February 2017; Accepted: 24 April 2017; Published: 28 April 2017

Abstract: Under the high dynamic conditions, Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) signals
produce great Doppler frequency shifts, which hinders the fast acquisition of signals. Inertial Navigation
System (INS)-aided acquisition can improve the acquisition performance, whereas the accuracy of
Doppler shift and code phase estimation are mainly determined by the INS precision. The relation
between the INS accuracy and Doppler shift estimation error has been derived, while the relation
between the INS accuracy and code phase estimation error has not been deduced. In this paper, in order
to theoretically analyze the effects of INS errors on the performance of Doppler shift and code phase
estimations, the connections between them are re-deduced. Moreover, the curves of the corresponding
relations are given for the first time. Then, in order to have a better verification of the INS-aided
acquisition, a high dynamic scenario is designed. Furthermore, by using the deduced mathematical
relation, the effects of different grade INS on the GNSS (including Global Positioning System (GPS)
and BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS)) signal acquisition are analyzed. Experimental results
demonstrate that the INS-aided acquisition can reduce the search range of local frequency and code
phase, and achieve fast acquisition. According to the experimental results, a suitable INS can be chosen
for the deeply coupled integration.

Keywords: INS-aided acquisition; Doppler shift estimation error; code phase estimation error;
high dynamic; GNSS signal

1. Introduction
The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), using space satellites to achieve positioning
and navigation, is widely used in civil and military applications, such as positioning, timing, and
navigation. At present, the main GNSS in the world include the Global Positioning System (GPS) of the
United States, the Global Navigation Satellites System (GLONASS) of Russia, the BeiDou Navigation
Satellite System (BDS) of China and the Galileo Navigation Satellite System (Galileo) of the European
Union [1,2]. However, their performance may be subject to the impact of environmental factors,
including signal interference and dynamic factors. The Inertial Navigation System (INS) can provide
continuous high-precision position, velocity and attitude data for a short time, but after a while gyro
and accelerometer errors accumulate and the navigation errors grow. The integration of GNSS/INS
has many peculiarities and offers a way for high-accurate positioning. There are three architectures
of integrated navigation systems: loosely coupled, tightly coupled and deeply coupled (also called
ultra-tightly coupled) [3–5]. The deeply coupled integration has been widely studied in recent years,

Sensors 2017, 17, 980; doi:10.3390/s17050980 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2017, 17, 980 2 of 16

Sensors 2017, 17, 980 2 of 16

deeply coupled (also called ultra-tightly coupled) [3–5]. The deeply coupled integration has been
widely studied in recent years, due to the fact that it can achieve the fusion of GNSS and INS
information
due to the fact atthat
the itsignal processing
can achieve level.ofWhat’s
the fusion GNSS and more, INSit information
has better performances in highly
at the signal processing
dynamic
level. What’senvironments
more, it has due bettertoperformances
the adaptable dynamic
in highly characteristics
dynamic environments of INS. due to However, most
the adaptable
research characteristics
dynamic about GNSS/INS integration
of INS. However,ismost concentrated
research about on integration
GNSS/INSarchitectures
integration isand solutions
concentrated
instead
on of the signal
integration acquisition
architectures issues. instead of the signal acquisition issues.
and solutions
Acquisitionisisthethe
Acquisition firstfirst
step step
of theof the processing
signal signal processing
for a GNSS forreceiver,
a GNSS and receiver, and it is a
it is a time-consuming
time-consuming
process. Under highly process. Under conditions,
dynamic highly dynamic conditions,
the Doppler shiftthe Doppler
between theshift
carrierbetween
and the thesatellite
carrier
and the greatly,
changes satelliteresulting
changesingreatly,
a largerresulting
frequencyinsearch a larger
range frequency
and longer search
searchrange
time.and longer search
According to the
time. According to the nature of signal acquisition, the common
nature of signal acquisition, the common approach for improving signal acquisition performance is approach for improving signal
acquisition
by reducing the performance is by reducing
carrier frequency and code phase the carrier
searchfrequency
range. Compared and code withphase unaided search range.
acquisition
Compared
methods, thewith unaided
INS-aided acquisition
acquisition has many methods, the INS-aided
advantages under highly acquisition
dynamic has manyenvironment
and harsh advantages
under highly
conditions, such dynamic and harsh
as the lower C/N0environment
(carrier to noise conditions, suchacquisition
ratio) signal as the lower forC/N 0 (carrier
the higher to noise
sensitivity
ratio) signal
receivers, andacquisition
the accurate forestimation
the higherofsensitivity receivers,shift
Doppler frequency andand the code
accurate
phase estimation
to reduceof theDoppler
search
frequency
space [6,7]. shift
Because andofcode
thesephase to reduce
outstanding the search
performance space it[6,7].
features, Because
has been studied of for
these manyoutstanding
different
performance[7–11].
applications features, it has been studied for many different applications [7–11].
Progri and
Progri andAlbanAlbanmade made thethe effort
effort to investigate
to investigate the methodology
the methodology of the Doppler
of the Doppler estimation estimation
[12,13].
[12,13]. In [14], the effects of IMU accuracy on the Doppler estimation
In [14], the effects of IMU accuracy on the Doppler estimation error were analyzed. Ye and He presented error were analyzed. Ye and
He INS-aided
the presented the INS-aided
acquisition acquisition
scheme and analyzedscheme the andacquisition
analyzed the acquisition[15,16].
performance performance
Reference [15,16].
[17]
Reference [17]
presented a fast presented
acquisitiona fast acquisition
method for GPS method for GPS
receivers aidedreceivers
by INSaided by INS information
information and performed and
performed acquisition
acquisition experimentexperiment
under lowunder low dynamics.
dynamics. However,However, the addressedthe addressed
methods methods
have some have
some disadvantages:
disadvantages: (i) the(i)traditional
the traditional INS-aided
INS-aided acquisition
acquisition mostlymostlyusesusesINSINS velocity
velocity information
information to
to estimate the carrier Doppler frequency shift without reducing
estimate the carrier Doppler frequency shift without reducing the uncertainty of code phase search; the uncertainty of code phase
search;
(ii) (ii) the mathematical
the mathematical model ofmodel Doppler of shift
Doppler shift phase
and code and code phase estimation
estimation errors contributed
errors contributed by the INS
by the INS
velocity errorvelocity error and
and position position
error were not error were not
derived derived
in detail; inthe
(iii) detail; (iii) the
literature hasliterature has been
been focused on
focused on low dynamics, and not on high dynamics situations.
low dynamics, and not on high dynamics situations. Hence, due to the small Doppler shift caused Hence, due to the small Doppler
shift
by lowcaused
dynamics, by low dynamics,
the former studies thehaveformer studies success
had limited have had limitedany
in proving success
INS-aided in proving
acquisitionany
INS-aided acquisition
performance improvement. performance
Furthermore, improvement.
concerningFurthermore,
the limitations concerning
under high the limitations
dynamics, thereunder
is a
high related
little dynamics, there is
literature. a little
Thus, the related
performance literature.
analysisThus, the performance
of GNSS analysis
signal acquisition aidedof GNSS signal
by different
acquisition
grade aidedhigh
INS under by different
dynamicgrade INS under
conditions is stillhigh dynamic conditions is still necessary.
necessary.
Figure 1 1illustrates
Figure illustratesin ain a schematic
schematic diagram diagram
the search thescope
searchunder scope
threeunder
conditions:threenon-assisted
conditions:
non-assistedINS
acquisition, acquisition, INS velocity-assisted
velocity-assisted acquisition and INS acquisition and INS velocity,
velocity, position-assisted position-assisted
acquisition. Both the
acquisition.
range Both the
of carrier range frequency
Doppler of carrier Doppler
and code frequency
phase are andreduced
code phase by are
using reduced by using and
INS velocity- INS
velocity- and position-assisted
position-assisted acquisition. acquisition.

search scope
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the search scope under
under three
three conditions.
conditions.
Sensors 2017, 17, 980 3 of 16

The Doppler frequency shift is related to the relative position and velocity of the receiver with
respect to the transmitter. The former research mainly concentrated in low dynamic environments, such
as vehicles and handheld devices. The velocity and position changes are small under such conditions,
so the Doppler frequency shift is relatively small. However, in a high dynamics environment, such as
missiles and aircrafts, the Doppler frequency shift is large. Therefore, this paper defines a high dynamic
scene which includes acceleration, uniform motion, turning and climbing. In this high dynamic scene,
the GNSS acquisition performance aided by different grade INS can be fully verified.
In the INS-aided acquisition, the INS accuracy has crucial effects on the Doppler and the code
phase estimation errors. Different grade INS devices afford different velocity errors and position
errors. In order to analyze the influence of different INS grades on acquisition performance, the
mathematical model between them is deduced in detail. Furthermore, the relationships between INS
accuracy, Doppler estimation error, code phase error and acquisition performance are verified by
signal acquisition experiments which use the trajectory of the above high dynamic scene. Finally, the
influences of different grades of INS on the acquisition performance and the tracking performance
are analyzed.
BDS is the independently developed Chinese global navigation satellite system, which has many
similarities with GPS. Based on the analysis of the characteristics of GPS L1 frequency and BDS B1I
signals modulation, the INS-aided acquisition performance is proved by using GPS/BDS dual-mode
software receiver.
This paper is structured as follows: Section 2 shows the characteristics of the GPS L1 and BDS B1
signals, and then presents the INS-aided acquisition methodology. In Section 3, the frequency shift
and code phase estimation theory are described. In Section 4, the Doppler shift estimation error and
the code phase estimation error caused by INS velocity error and position error are derived in detail.
Furthermore, the acquisition experiments assisted with different grade INS under high dynamics are
performed in Section 5. In Section 6, the final conclusions are given.

2. The Principle of INS-Aided Acquisition

2.1. Characteristics of GPS L1 Frequency and BDS B1 Frequency Signals Modulation

The C/A and P(Y) signals in the GPS L1 frequency can be written as [2]:

SL1 (t) = AC C(t) D(t) sin(2π f L1 t + φL1 ) + AP Y (t) D(t) cos(2π f L1 t + φL1 ) (1)

where SL1 (t) is the signal at L1 frequency, AC is the amplitude of the C/A code, C(t) represents the
phase of the C/A code, f L1 is the L1 frequency, φL1 is the initial phase, AP is the amplitude of the P(Y)
code, Y (t) represents the phase of the P(Y) code, D(t) represents the data code.
The in-phase component (I) and the quadrature component (Q) signals in the BDS B1 frequency
are also in quadrant phase of each other and they can be described as follows [18]:

SB1 (t) = AB1I CB1I (t) DB1I (t) cos(2π f B1 t + ϕB1I ) + AB1Q CB1Q (t) DB1Q (t) sin(2π f B1 t + ϕB1Q ) (2)

where SB1 (t) is the signal at B1 frequency, AB1I is the amplitude of the I component, CB1I (t) represents
the phase of the I component, f B1 is the B1 frequency, ϕB1I is the initial phase, AB1Q is the amplitude of
the Q component,CB1Q (t) represents the phase of the Q component, DB1Q (t) represents the data code.
The BDS B1 frequency signal and the GPS L1 frequency signal have many similarities in the center
frequency, signal modulation and signal characteristics. A comparison of the characteristics of the BDS
B1 frequency signal and GPS L1 frequency signal is shown in Table 1, so the INS–aided acquisition can
be verified in GPS/BDS dual-mode software receiver.
Sensors 2017, 17, 980 4 of 16

Table 1. Comparison of the characteristics of the BDS B1 frequency signal and the GPS L1
frequency signal.

Parameter BDS B1 Signal GPS L1 Signal

Center Freq. (MHz) 1561.098 MHz 1575.42 MHz
Modulation Type QPSK-CDMA BPSK-CDMA
Code Rate (MHz) 2.046 1.023
Code Length (chip) 2046 1023
Symbol Rate GEO 500 bps, MEO/IGSO 50 bps 50 bps

2.2. INS-Aided Acquisition Methodology

As shown in Figure 1, the GPS and BDS signal acquisition process is a three-dimensional search,
including pseudo-random noise code (PRN), code phase and Doppler shift. The GPS satellites are
differentiated by 32 different PRN sequences, while the BDS satellites are differentiated by 35 (the number
before 2020 is 14) different PRN sequences [1]. From the code phase search direction, the C/A code in
GPS L1 frequency contains 1023 chips and the BDS B1I has 2046 chips, however the Doppler shift range
is the possible maximum frequency shift. Take the BDS B1I signal for example, there exist 4092 code bins
and 21 frequency bins, assuming that the bin width of the code phase search is 1/2 chip, the step size
of the Doppler search is 500 Hz and the Doppler span is ±5 kHz. Thus this results in a total of 85,932
search cells, so it is necessary to reduce the range in order to achieve faster acquisition.
The GNSS signal acquisition can be successfully achieved by exceeding the correlation threshold
between the local signal and the received signal. Taking the BDS B1I signal for example, the integration
output I P (n) and QP (n) are described as follows:

I P (n) = AD(n) R(∆τ )sinc(π∆ f Tcoh ) cos(π∆ f Tcoh + δϕ0 ) + N I (3)

QP (n) = AD(n) R(∆τ )sinc(π∆ f Tcoh ) sin(π∆ f Tcoh + δϕ0 ) + N Q (4)

where A is the signal amplitude; D(n) is the navigation data; R(∆τ ) is the I autocorrelation function;
∆τ is the code phase error between received signal and local signal; ∆ f is the frequency difference
between the received signal and local signal; δφ0 is the carrier phase error; Tcoh is the coherent
integration time; N I and N Q are the white noise.
From Equations (3) and (4), the correlation output is z I (n) = I P (n) + j · QP (n). The magnitude of
z I (n) can be written as:
q
Vi = Ii2 (n) + Q2i (n) = AR(∆τ )|sinc(∆ f Tcoh )| + NR (5)

Equation (5) shows that the smaller are the code phase error ∆τ and the frequency shift ∆ f , the
higher is the detection probability. Under the conditions of Tcoh = 1 ms and false alarm rate Pf a = 0.01,
Figure 2a,b show the detection probability when the ∆τ is 0, 1/8, 1/4, 1/2 chip and the ∆ f is 0, 200,
500, 800, 1200 and 1500 Hz, respectively.
From Figure 2, in the same C/N0 , the detection probability is gradually reduced with the increase
of the local carrier frequency estimation error and the code phase error. Considering that it is difficult
to improve C/N0 , an appropriate means of ensuring the detection probability is by reducing the
error of local carrier frequency estimation and code phase estimation. In the INS-aided acquisition,
according to the velocity, position information provided by INS and ephemeris, the Doppler frequency
shift and code phase can be calculated. The estimated carrier frequency and code phase offset are set
as the center of the search range, and the search boundary is set according to the uncertainty of INS
information, so this can greatly reduce the carrier frequency and code phase search range. At the same
time, the INS-aided acquisition can reduce the error of local carrier frequency estimation and code
phase estimation to enhance the detection probability.
Sensors 2017, 17, 980 5 of 16
Sensors 2017, 17, 980 5 of 16
Sensors 2017, 17, 980 5 of 16
T1 = 1ms,Pfa=0.01
T1 = 1ms,Pfa=0.01
1
1
 f=0 T1 = 1ms,Pfa=0.01
=0 T1 = 1ms,Pfa=0.01
0.91  f=200
0.91 =1/8
f=500
f=0
=1/4
 =0
0.8
0.9 f=800
f=200
0.8
0.9 =1/2
 =1/8
f=1200
f=500
=1/4
0.7
0.8 f=1500
f=800
0.7
0.8 =1/2
 f=1200

Probability
Probability

0.6 0.6
0.7  f=1500
0.7

Probability
Probability

0.5 0.5
0.6
0.6

Detection
Detection

0.4 0.4
0.5
0.5

Detection
Detection

0.3 0.3
0.4
0.4

0.2
0.3 0.2
0.3

0.1
0.2 0.1
0.2

0
0.1 0
0.1
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
C/N0(dB Hz) C/N0(dB Hz)
0 0
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
(a)
C/N0(dB Hz)
(b)
C/N0(dB Hz)

(a) (b)
Figure 2. The detection probability with different  and f : (a) the  is 0, 1/8, 1/4, 1/2 chip;
Figure
(b) the 2.
Figure f isdetection
2.The
The detection probability
0, 200, 500, with
800, 1200,
probability 1500
with different
Hz.
different  and
∆τand fthe
∆ f : (a) : (a)
∆τthe  is1/4,
is 0,1/8, 0, 1/8,
1/21/4, 1/2(b)
chip; chip;
the
∆
(b)f is  f 500,
the0, 200, is 0,800,
200,1200,
500, 800,
15001200,
Hz. 1500 Hz.
As for the search algorithm in the INS-aided acquisition, we choose the software receiver
parallel
As code
As for phase
forthe
the search
search
search method
algorithm
algorithm in[19,20].
in the the The structure
INS-aided
INS-aided of we
thechoose
acquisition,
acquisition, INS-aided
we choose acquisition is shown
the software
the software receiver in
receiver
parallel
Figure 3.
code phase search method [19,20]. The structure of the INS-aided acquisition is shown in Figure 3. in
parallel code phase search method [19,20]. The structure of the INS-aided acquisition is shown
Figure 3.

[ f max f max ]
[ f max f max ]

Figure 3. INS-aided acquisition scheme.

Figure 3. INS-aided acquisition scheme.
3. Frequency Shift and Code Phase Estimation Theory
3. Frequency Shift and Code Phase Estimation Theory
3.1. Frequency Shift Estimation
3.1. Frequency Shiftof
In the spread
spread Estimation
ofGNSS
GNSSsignal
signalfrom satellite
from to to
satellite receiver, thethe
receiver, main factors
main of Doppler
factors frequency
of Doppler shift
frequency
are the
shift aremotion
In thespread
the of the
motion receiver
ofof relative
the receiver
GNSS signal to the
relative
from satellite,
to the to
satellite the
satellite,receiver
receiver, thethe clock
mainfrequency
receiver ofdrift
clock frequency
factors anddrift
Doppler the satellite
and
frequencythe
clock frequency
satellite
shift areclock
the motion drift.
frequency Therefore,
drift.
of the the carrier
Therefore,
receiver relative Doppler
thetocarrier frequency
Doppler
the satellite, the shift
frequency can be expressed
shift can
receiver clock as:
be expressed
frequency as: the
drift and
satellite clock frequency drift. Therefore, the carrier Doppler frequency shift can be expressed as:
f df d == ffrr − ffss 
+ ff r,c − ff s,c
r,c  s,c (6)
(6)
f d = f r  f s  f r,c  f s,c (6)
where f f r isisthe
where theDoppler
Dopplershiftshifton
onthethe carrier
carrier due due to to the
the motion
motion of of the
the receiver
receiver with
with respect
respect toto the
the
r
where fand
satellite r
is fthe
sfsis is
Doppler
thethe shiftshift
Doppler
Doppler on theon
shift
on carrier
the the due
carrier
carrier due to
duethethe
to tomotion
the
motion ofofthe
motion of receiver
the the with
satellite
satellite with respect
with to
respect
respect the
to theto
satellite
receiver.
the receiver.f
and , f
r,c s,c ffsr,c , f s,c are the Doppler frequency shift of the receiver clock frequency drift and
is
are the
the Doppler
Doppler shift on
frequency the carrier
shift of thedue to the
receiver motion
clock of the
frequency satellite
drift andwith respect
satellite clockto
frequency
the receiver. drift,f respectively.
, f s,c are therespectively.
Doppler frequency shift of the receiver clock frequency drift and
satellite clock frequencyr,c drift,
satellite clock frequency drift, respectively.
Sensors 2017, 17, 980 6 of 16

Due to the fact that the satellite uses the atomic clock which has high stability and high precision
as time reference and the receiver clock frequency offset can be calibrated locally, the clock error of
the satellite f s,c and receiver f r,c can be ignored, so the estimation of Doppler frequency shift in LOS
direction can be expressed as:

f d = E · (Vr − Vs )/λcarrier = f r − f s (7)

where E is the unit vector of the (LOS) and it can be calculated by the relative position of satellite and
carrier, Vr is the velocity of the receiver, Vs is the velocity of the satellite, λcarrier is the carrier wavelength
and it can be calculated by λcarrier = c/ f carrier , c is the velocity of light and f carrier is the carrier frequency.
Taking GPS L1 frequency as an example, the maximum radial velocity component of relative
motion between the stationary receiver and satellite is about 929 m/s, leading to the maximum Doppler
frequency shift is:
f 929 × 1575.2 × 106
f dM = VdM L1 ≈ ≈ 4878.8 Hz (8)
c 3 × 108
As for the Doppler frequency shift of BDS, it is more complex than GPS. On the one hand, the carrier
frequency of BDS is different from GPS. On the other hand, the BDS space constellation includes three kinds
of satellites: GEO, IGSO, MEO, and different types of satellites lead to the different maximum Doppler
frequency shift. According to the orbit parameters of BDS broadcast, the maximum satellite operation
speed can be calculated. The maximum radial velocities of GEO, IGSO and MEO satellite are 13.6 m/s,
424.2 m/s and 864.1 m/s respectively. The maximum Doppler frequency can be calculated by [1]:

f B1 13.6 × 1561.098 × 106

f dM,GEO = VdM,GEO ≈ ≈ 70.8 Hz (9)
c 3 × 108

f B1 424.2 × 1561.098 × 106

f dM,IGSO = VdM,IGSO ≈ ≈ 2207.4 Hz (10)
c 3 × 108
f B1 864.1 × 1561.098 × 106
f dM,MEO = VdM,MEO ≈ ≈ 4496.5 Hz (11)
c 3 × 108
From the above analysis, the maximum Doppler shift caused by the satellite motion is about
5 kHz for a stationary receiver in the earth’s surface. As shown in Equation (7), the Doppler shift
caused by the receiver motion can be calculated by the velocity and position of INS.

3.2. Code Phase Estimation

Taking GPS as an example, the first PRN chip and the first bit of the 50 bits per second (bps) data
stream are sent out from every satellite at the midnight of Saturday in GPS time, so the code phase can
be calculated according to the signal sending time of GPS, and expressed as follows:

τ = mod (1023 × tSV × 1000, 1023) (12)

where tSV is the signal sending time of GPS, which can be calculated using the signal receiving time tR ,
the signal transmitting time Dt and the clock error tc . Therefore the signal sending time estimation t̂SV
is described as:
t̂SV = tR − Dt + tc (13)

The code phase estimation of the received signal τ̂ is:

τ̂ = mod[1023 × (tR − Dt + tc ) × 1000, 1023] (14)

where tc is provided by GNSS ephemeris, Dt = E·(Pr − Ps )/c, Pr and Ps represent the carrier position
and the satellite position. The code phase estimation can be calculated by INS position which error is
dependent on the INS accuracy.
where tc is provided by GNSS ephemeris, Dt  E·( Pr  Ps ) / c , Pr and Ps represent the
carrier position and the satellite position. The code phase estimation can be calculated by INS
position which error is dependent on the INS accuracy.

Sensors 2017, 17, 980 7 of 16

4. Doppler Shift Estimation Error and Code Phase Estimation Error

As shown in Figure 4, assuming the position of the satellite n is x sn

4. Doppler Shift Estimation Error and Code Phase Estimation Error
y sn z sn , the  
receiver‘s real position is  x y z  and the position of INS is x I y I z I  . So the pseudo-range
As shown in Figure 4, assuming the position of the satellite nn is xsn ysn zsn , the receiver‘s real
 Gn from the
 receiver to the satellite and the pseudo-range
 I from the INS to the satellite can be
position is x y z and the position of INS is xI yI zI . So the pseudo-range ρG n from the
expressed as follows:
receiver to the satellite and the pseudo-range ρIn from the INS to the satellite can be expressed as follows:
 Gn  c(tR  tSV )  r n c t n (15)
n
ρG = c(tR − tSV ) = rn + cδt + nρ (15)
2 2 2
 In q  xI  xsn    yI  ysn    zI  zsn  (16)
= ρIn (xI − xsn )2 + (yI − ysn )2
+ (zI − zsn )2 (16)
where  t is the clock error, q 2 2
r n    x  x sn    y  y sn    z  z sn 
2
is the geometric distance
where δt is the clock error, rn = ( x − xsn )2 + (y − ysn )2 + (z − zsn )2 is the geometric distance from the
from thetosatellite
satellite to thenreceiver,
the receiver, n of
ρ is the error
is noise.
the error of noise.

x n
s ysn zsn 

Gn  c(tR  tSV )

rn

x y z

Figure 4. Satellite pseudo-range scheme.

Figure 4. scheme.

Equation (16)
Equation (16) is
is executed
executed in
in Taylor
Taylorexpansion,
expansion,and
andthe
thefollowing
followingexpression
expressionisisobtained:
obtained:
n n n
n 2 n 2 n 2∂ρn  I ∂ρIn I ( y -y ) +∂ρIn I ( z -z )
≈ I (x − xs ) +s (y − ys ) + s 
(z −zs ) + s 
n
q
ρIn   xn 2x  yn 2 y  z
n 2 z +I ( x -
(xI − x)I +x ) + (yI − yI ) + (zI −I z) (17)
(17)
∂x x ∂y y ∂zz

Assuming  x== xxII − x,x δy

Assuming δx y =yI y−
, = I  y , = zzI=−zIz,Equation
y, δz z , Equation
(17) (17)
can can be expressed
be expressed as: as:
n n n
n n ∂ρInI δx + ∂ρ
IIn δy + ∂ρIδz
n
 InρI=r nr ++  x +  y + ∂z  z
I (18)
(18)
x∂x ∂yy z
 ∂ρIn x− xsn x− xsn
 ∂xu = q = rn = e1
(x− xs ) +(y−ysn )2 +(z−zsn )2
n 2



∂ρIn y−ysn y−ysn


∂yu = q = rn = e2 (19)
 (x− xs ) +(y−ysn )2 +(z−zsn )2
n 2

∂ρIn z−zsn z−zsn





 ∂zu = q = rn = e3
(x− xs ) +(y−ysn )2 +(z−zsn )2
n 2

h iT
where E = e1 e2 e3 is the unit vector of the LOS.
n
The pseudo-range ρI from the INS to the satellite is:

ρIn = rn + e1 δx + e2 δy + e3 δz (20)
Sensors 2017, 17, 980 8 of 16

.n
The pseudo-range rate ρI from the INS to the satellite can be described by:

.n . .n
. .n
 . .n
ρI = e1 (xI − xs ) + e2 yI − ys + e3 (zI − zs )
. .n
 . .n
 . .n . . . (21)
= e1 (x − xs ) + e2 y − ys + e3 (z − zs ) + e1 δ x + e2 δy + e3 δz

.n
The pseudo-range rate ρG from the receiver to the satellite can be described by:

.n . .n
. .n
 . .n . .
ρG = e1 ( x − xs ) + e2 y − ys + e3 (z − zs ) + cδt + nρ (22)

.n
From Equations (15) and (20)–(22), the pseudo-range error δρn and pseudo-range rate error δρ
can be described by:
δρn = ρIn − ρG
n
= e1 δx + e2 δy + e3 δz − cδt − nρ (23)
.n .n .n . . . . .
δρ = ρI − ρG = e1 δ x + e2 δy + e3 δz − cδt − nρ (24)
. . .
where δx, δy, δz are the position error, and δx, δy, δz are the velocity errors of INS in the space rectangular
coordinate system. In the geodetic coordinate system, they can be expressed using the following equations:

 δx = δh cos L cos λ − (R N + h) sin L cos λδL − (R N + h) cos L sin λδλ

δy = δh cos L sin λ − (R N + h) sin L sin λδL + (R N + h) cos L cos λδλ (25)
 δz = δh sin L + [R (1 − e2 ) + h] cos LδL

N

 .
 δx. = −δvE sin λ − δv N sin L cos λ + δvU cos L cos λ

δy = δvE cos λ − δv N sin L sin λ + δvU cos L sin λ (26)
 δz. = δv cos L + δv sin L

N U

where L, λ, h represent latitude, longitude and altitude, respectively. δL, δλ, δh are the latitude error,
h iT
longitude error and altitude error, respectively. δvE δv N δvU is the vector of the receiver
velocity error in the navigation frame.
The code phase estimation error ∆τI and the Doppler estimation error ∆ f I caused by INS velocity
.n
error and position error have the following relations with δρn and δρ :

λcode ∆τI = δρ = e1 δx + e2 δy + e3 δz − cδt − nρ (27)

. . . . . .
λcarrier ∆ f I = δρ = e1 δx + e2 δy + e3 δz − cδt − nρ (28)
.
where λcode is the code phase wavelength and λcarrier is the carrier wavelength, δt and δt are the clock
error and clock shift which can be calibrated locally.
INS velocity and position error are mainly determined by the bias and shifts of gyros and
accelerometers. The dynamic equations for a strapdown INS are given by:
.n
δv = −(δωnen + 2δωnie ) × vn − (ωnen + 2ωnie ) × δvn + Cnb fb × ϕ + Cnb ∇b (29)
 .
1
 δL = R M +h δv N


.
sec L vE
δλ = R N +h δvE + R N +h sec L tan LδL (30)
 δ h. = δv


U

where R M is the transverse curvature radii and R N is the meridian curvature radii. ωnie is the Earth’s
rotation rate in the navigation frame. ωnen is the angular rate of the navigation frame with respect to
the Earth frame. δωnie is the error of the Earth rotation rate. vn = [v E , v N , vU ] T is the velocity vector
in the navigation frame coordinates. fb is the accelerometer’s output specific force vector in the body
frame, ϕ is the attitude error vector of the body frame with respect to the navigation frame. Cnb is the
Sensors 2017, 17, 980 9 of 16

transformation matrix from the computed body frame to the navigation frame. ∇b is the accelerometer
error vector in the body frame. Combined Equations (25)–(30), ∆τI and ∆ f I can be estimated by the
INS velocity error and position error which are relevant to the precision of gyros and accelerometers.

5. The INS-Aided Acquisition Experiments with Different Grade INS

In order to analyze the performance of different grade INS in the INS-aided acquisition experiments,
a software simulation platform was firstly designed. As shown in Figure 5, the block diagram of the
simulation platform includes: trajectory generator module, dual-mode GNSS signal simulation module,
INS generating module and GNSS software receiver module [21]. Then, a trajectory with high dynamics,
which is similar with missiles and aircrafts trajectory, is designed and simulated by the trajectory
generator module. Under these conditions, the constellation of BDS and GPS are built. As shown in
Figure 6, the constellation of BDS and GPS each has six satellites respectively in the simulation. Then,
a dual-mode GNSS signal simulator is used to transmit the satellite radio frequency (RF) signal, which
is nearly the same as the real signal. After that, the RF signal is received by an RF frontend which is
designed based on MAX2769, as shown in Figure 7. Later, the received RF signal is converted to the
intermediate frequency (IF) digital in the process of software reception. The gyro and acceleration data
of different grade INS are simulated using the designed trajectory. Finally, the IF data and IMU data are
Sensors 2017, 17, 980 10 of 16
input into the GNSS software receiver module for INS-aided acquisition experiments.

Figure 5. The block diagram of simulation platform.

Figure 5. The block diagram of simulation platform.

Figure
Figure 6.
6. The
The constellation
constellation of
of BDS
BDS and
and GPS
GPS in
in the
the simulation.
simulation.
Sensors 2017, 17, 980 10 of 16
Figure 6. The constellation of BDS and GPS in the simulation.

Figure 7. The RF frontend designed based on a MAX2769.

Figure 7. The RF frontend designed based on a MAX2769.

5.1. Simulation Scenario Design

5.1. Simulation Scenario Design
In order to confirm the performance of the INS-aided acquisition under highly dynamic
In order to
conditions, a confirm the performance
highly dynamic simulationof the INS-aided
scenario acquisition
is designed. under highly
The trajectory dynamic
includes conditions,
acceleration,
a highly dynamic simulation scenario is designed. The trajectory includes acceleration,
uniform motion, turning and climbing. The trajectory parameters, which include the acceleration uniform motion,
turning and climbing.
and angular rate in theThe trajectory
body frame, parameters, which2.include
are listed in Table thelatitude,
The initial acceleration and angular
longitude rate in
and altitude
the body frame, are listed in Table 2. The initial latitude, longitude and altitude of the trajectory is
Sensors 2017, 17, 980 11 of 16
[39.977886◦ , 116.343400◦ , 10,000 m], and the initial velocity is [0 m/s, 200 m/s, 0 m/s]. The highly
dynamic
of thetrajectory
trajectoryaccording to the116.343400°,
is [39.977886°, designed scenario
10,000 m], is and
depicted in Figure
the initial 8. is [0 m/s, 200 m/s,
velocity
0 m/s]. The highly dynamic trajectory according to the designed scenario is depicted in Figure 8.
Table 2. The trajectory parameters of simulation in high dynamic applications.
Table 2. The trajectory parameters of simulation in high dynamic applications.
Angular Rate (◦ /s) Acceleration (m/s2 )
Motion State Time (s) Angular Rate (°/s) Acceleration (m/s2)
Motion State Time(s)
x Axis x Axis
y Axis z x Axis
Axis
y Axis z Axis x Axis y Axis zyAxis
Axis z Axis
Acceleration Acceleration
10 100 0 0 0 00 0 0 100 0
100 0
Uniform motion 30
Uniform motion 300 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 00 0
Turning right Turning10
right 100 0 0 0 99 −1.57−1.570 00 0
Uniform motion 20
Uniform motion 200 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 00 0
Turning left Turning10left 100 0 0 0 −9
−9 1.57 1.57 0 00 0
Uniform motion 30
Uniform motion 300 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 00 0
Climbing 10
Climbing 1010 10 0 0 00 0 0 0 0
1.74 1.74
Uniform motion 20
Uniform motion 200 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 00 0
Yielding 10
Yielding
−10
10 −10
0
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
−1.74
−1.74
Uniform motion 30 0 0 0 0 0 0
Uniform motion 30 0 0 0 0 0 0

end
4
x 10

1.035

1.03

1.025
altitude(m)

1.02

1.015

1.01
116.339
1.005 116.34
116.341
1 116.342
42 start 116.343
41.5 41
40.5 116.344
longitude(°)
40
latitude(°) 39.5

Figure 8. The three-dimensional high dynamic trajectory in the geodetic frame.

Figure 8. The three-dimensional high dynamic trajectory in the geodetic frame.

5.2. Parameters of Different Grade INS

The INS plays an important role in the progress of signal acquisition and tracking. Considering
that the INS can offer the relative position and velocity of the receiver with respect to the satellite,
which are the core parameters used to calculate the Doppler shift and the code phase, in the
INS-aided acquisition experiments, we use the gyro and accelerometer data generator to calculate
Sensors 2017, 17, 980 11 of 16

5.2. Parameters of Different Grade INS

The INS plays an important role in the progress of signal acquisition and tracking. Considering
that the INS can offer the relative position and velocity of the receiver with respect to the satellite,
which are the core parameters used to calculate the Doppler shift and the code phase, in the INS-aided
acquisition experiments, we use the gyro and accelerometer data generator to calculate the INS
information and the generator is developed based on the mathematical simulation model given in [22].
In the gyro and accelerometer data generator, the true angular rate and acceleration are listed
in Table 2. Then, in order to simulate the outputs, the gyro and accelerometer errors which include
constant biases, random drifts and noises are added into the true value. The gyro and accelerometer
errors can lead to the reflecting constant bias, bias stability and random walk.
In Equation (29), different grades of INS bring different velocity and position errors. This would
then affect the acquisition results due to the different Doppler shift and code phase ranges. Thus, for
the purpose to analysis the performance changes caused by different INS grades, a variety of INS are
simulated in the designed scenario. The parameters of the selected INS in the experiments are listed in
Table 3. In the above analysis, the precision of INS varies by 10 times, which covers the typical precision
used in the current application.
Sensors 2017, 17, 980 12 of 16
Table 3. The parameters of different grade INS.
Table 3. The parameters of different grade INS.
IMU
IMUParameters
Parameters MEMS
MEMS Grade
Grade Civil
CivilGrade
Grade Tactical Grade
Tactical Grade Inertial
InertialGrade
Grade
Constant bias ( ◦ /h) 10 1 0.1 0.01
Constant bias (°/h) 10 1 0.1 0.01
Gyro Bias ◦ /h)
Gyro Biasstability
stability( (°/h)
√ 1010 11 0.1
0.1 0.01
0.01
Random walk (◦ / h) 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
Random walk (°/ h ) 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
Constant bias (mg)
Constant bias (mg) 10 10 11 0.1
0.1 0.01
0.01
Accelerometer Bias stability (mg) 10 1 0.1 0.01
Accelerometer Bias stability (mg) 10 1 0.1 0.01
Random √ walk
Random walk (mg/ Hz ) 1 1 0.1
0.1 0.01
0.01 0.001
0.001
(mg/ Hz)

5.3. Velocity and Position Error Using Different INS

5.3. Velocity and Position Error Using Different INS
In order to analyze the effects of the INS errors on the performance of Doppler shift and code
In order
phase to analyze
estimations the effects of
conveniently, thethe INSposition
initial errors onand
thevelocity
performance of Doppler
are assumed knownshiftwithout
and code phase
errors.
estimations conveniently,
To calculate the Doppler theshift
initial position
error and and
codevelocity are assumed
phase error, known
the relative without
position anderrors. To calculate
velocity errors
thebetween
Dopplerthe shift error and code phase error, the relative position and velocity errors between
receiver and the satellite caused by the gyro and accelerometer errors are illustrated the receiver
in
andFigures
the satellite caused by the gyro and accelerometer errors are illustrated in Figures
9–12 with the four different grades of INS, and the maximum errors in 180 s are further 9–12 with the four
different
listed grades
in Tableof4.INS,
Fromandthe
theabove
maximum errors
results, in 180
we can s arethe
draw further listed inthat
conclusion Table
the4.velocity
From the above
and results,
position
weerrors
can draw the conclusion
increase as the INS that the velocity
decrease and position errors increase as the INS decrease in quality.
in quality.

20
2000
 Vx / m/s

10
 Px / m

0 0

-10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 -2000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

50 5000
 Vy / m/s

 Py / m

0 0

-50 -5000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

10 1000
 Pz / m
 Vz / m/s

5
0
0
-1000
-5 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
t/s
t/s

(a) (b)
Figure 9. Velocity and position errors of MEMS grade INS: (a) the velocity error curve of MEMS
Figure 9. Velocity and position errors of MEMS grade INS: (a) the velocity error curve of MEMS
grade INS; (b) the position error curve of MEMS grade INS.
grade INS; (b) the position error curve of MEMS grade INS.
20
2000
 Vx / m/s

10
 Px / m

0
0

-10 -2000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

50 5000
y / m/s

Py / m

0 0
  Vz
0


-1000
-5 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
t/s
t/s

(a) (b)

SensorsFigure 9.980
2017, 17, Velocity and position errors of MEMS grade INS: (a) the velocity error curve of MEMS
12 of 16
grade INS; (b) the position error curve of MEMS grade INS.

20
2000
 Vx / m/s

10

 Px / m
0
0

-10 -2000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

50 5000
 Vy / m/s

 Py / m
0 0

-5000
-50 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

1000
10

 Pz / m
 Vz / m/s

5 0

0
-1000
-5 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 t/s
t/s

(a) (b)
Figure 10. Velocity and position errors of civil grade INS: (a) the velocity error curve of civil grade
Figure 10. Velocity and position errors of civil grade INS: (a) the velocity error curve of civil grade INS;
INS; (b) the position error curve of civil grade INS.
Sensors(b) the17,
2017, position
980 error curve of civil grade INS. 13 of 16
Sensors 2017, 17, 980 13 of 16
0.5 50
50
m/ m

0.5
/ m/s

0
 Px /Px

0
m/s
 Vx /Vx

0
0
-50
-0.5 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 -50
-0.5 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
20
1
20
m/ m

1
/ m/s

0.5 0
 Py /Py
m/s

0.5 0
 Vy /Vy

0
0 -20
-0.5 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 -20
-0.5 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
5
0.04
5
m/ m

0.04
/ m/s

0.02 0
 Pz /Pz
m/s

0.02 0
 Vz /Vz

0
0 -5
-0.02 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 -5
-0.02 0 20 40 60 80 t / s 100 120 140 160 180
0 20 40 60 80 t / s 100 120 140 160 180 t/s
t/s
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 11. Velocity and position errors of tactical grade INS: (a) the velocity error curve of tactical
Figure 11. Velocity
Figure 11. Velocity and
and position
position errors
errors of
of tactical
tactical grade
grade INS:
INS: (a)
(a) the
the velocity
velocity error
error curve
curve of
of tactical
tactical
grade INS; (b) the position error curve of tactical grade INS.
grade INS; (b) the position error curve of tactical grade INS.
grade INS; (b) the position error curve of tactical grade INS.
0.02 1
0.02 1
m/ m
/ m/s

0 0
m/s

 Px /Px
 Vx /Vx

0 0
-1
-0.02 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 -1
-0.02 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 10
0.2
0.2 10
m/ m
/ m/s

0
 Py /Py

0
m/s
 Vy /Vy

0
0
-10
-0.2 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 -10
-0.2 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
0.01 0.5
0.01 0.5
/ m/s

0
m/ m

0
m/s

0
 Pz /Pz
 Vz /Vz

-0.01
0
-0.01
-0.02 -0.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
-0.02 -0.5
0 20 40 60 80 t / s 100 120 140 160 180 0 20 40 60 80 t / s 100 120 140 160 180
t/s t/s
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 12. Velocity and position errors of inertial grade INS: (a) the velocity error curve of inertial
Figure 12.
12. Velocity and
and position
position errors
errors of inertial
inertial grade
grade INS:
INS: (a)
(a) the
the velocity
velocity error
error curve
curve ofof inertial
inertial
Figure
grade INS; Velocity
(b) the position error curve ofofinertial grade INS.
grade INS; (b) the position error curve of inertial grade
grade INS; (b) the position error curve of inertial grade INS. INS.
Table 4. Maximum position and velocity errors of the different grade INS.
Table 4. Maximum position and velocity errors of the different grade INS.
Maximum Error MEMS Grade Civil Grade Tactical Grade Inertial Grade
Maximum Error MEMS Grade Civil Grade Tactical Grade Inertial Grade
x axis 11.14 1.88 0.22 −0.016
x axis 11.14 1.88 0.22 −0.016
Velocity (m/s) y axis −45.09 −4.98 0.60 −0.1085
Velocity (m/s) y axis −45.09 −4.98 0.60 −0.1085
z axis 5.19 0.52 0.04 −0.0183
z axis 5.19 0.52 0.04 −0.0183
x axis 1115 265.5 11.33 0.99
x axis 1115 265.5 11.33 0.99
Position (m) y axis −2737 −328.6 34.66 −5.23
Position (m) y axis −2737 −328.6 34.66 −5.23
z axis 725.2 73.2 4.18 −0.48
z axis 725.2 73.2 4.18 −0.48
Sensors 2017, 17, 980 13 of 16

Table 4. Maximum position and velocity errors of the different grade INS.

Maximum Error MEMS Grade Civil Grade Tactical Grade Inertial Grade
x axis 11.14 1.88 0.22 −0.016
Velocity (m/s) y axis −45.09 −4.98 0.60 −0.1085
z axis 5.19 0.52 0.04 −0.0183
x axis 1115 265.5 11.33 0.99
Position (m) y axis −2737 −328.6 34.66 −5.23
z axis 725.2 73.2 4.18 −0.48

5.4. Doppler Shift and Code Phase Estimation Errors Using Different Grade INS
According to Equations (27) and (28), Doppler shift and code phase estimation errors exist due to
the velocity error and positon error caused by the INS used. According to the ephemeris and the INS
information of the 12 visible satellites, the Doppler shift and the code phase estimation of each satellite
can be calculated by Equations (7) and (14). Then, the Doppler shift and code phase estimation errors
of the 12 visible satellites are achieved by calculating the difference between the estimation and real
value. The maximum Doppler shift estimation errors and the maximum code phase estimation errors
are listed in Tables 5 and 6, respectively.

Table 5. Maximum Doppler shift estimation errors of total satellites.

MEMS Grade Civil Grade Tactical Grade Inertial Grade

PRN 3 164.0205 19.8074 2.2807 0.3910
PRN 6 112.2213 13.1841 1.4684 0.2656
PRN 7 139.3393 16.5499 1.8787 0.3185
BDS
PRN 9 134.6166 15.6793 1.7725 0.3139
PRN 10 161.1931 18.9910 2.1786 0.3649
PRN 14 190.0555 22.9295 2.6264 0.4121
PRN 12 188.4075 22.3989 2.6002 0.4160
PRN 14 79.7551 8.8936 0.9501 0.2053
PRN 22 85.3412 9.8542 1.0636 0.2127
GPS
PRN 25 196.1639 22.2265 2.5813 0.4490
PRN 31 218.4609 25.5183 3.0269 0.4730
PRN 32 129.8616 16.5743 1.8918 0.2780

Table 6. Maximum code phase estimation errors of total satellites.

MEMS Grade Civil Grade Tactical Grade Inertial Grade

PRN 3 16.6109 2.3727 0.1767 0.0229
PRN 6 12.3420 1.6628 0.1198 0.0154
PRN 7 14.5754 2.0277 0.1488 0.0192
BDS
PRN 9 14.0123 1.8668 0.1423 0.0186
PRN 10 16.1468 2.2217 0.1707 0.0224
PRN 14 18.3990 2.6928 0.2032 0.0264
PRN 12 9.0416 1.2784 0.0988 0.0130
PRN 14 4.6490 0.5560 0.0408 0.0054
PRN 22 5.0048 0.6440 0.0445 0.0057
GPS
PRN 25 8.9826 1.1339 0.0998 0.0138
PRN 31 9.4901 1.3072 0.1128 0.0154
PRN 32 7.0746 1.1309 0.0714 0.0086

The experimental results show that the Doppler shift and code phase estimation errors increase
as the quality of the INS decreases. The Doppler shift estimation errors are less than the minimal
frequency search space (±500 Hz) in 180 s. The code phase estimation errors are less than 1023 chips
Sensors 2017, 17, 980 14 of 16

(for GPS) or 2046 chips (for BDS). Furthermore, by comparing Table 3 with Table 5, it can be seen that
the Doppler shift estimation error is about 200 Hz when using a MEMS grade INS, and that if the
INS accuracy increases by 10-fold, the estimation error of the Doppler frequency shift decreases by
10-fold. Similarly, the code phase estimation error decreases approximately 10-fold if the INS accuracy
improves by 10-fold. Thus, the appropriate INS for the intended acquisition can be selected according
to the required accuracy of the Doppler frequency shift and code phase.

5.5. INS-Aided Acquisition Experiments and Results

Due to the fact that the clock error of the software receiver has been compensated before the
INS-aided acquisition experiments and the satellite ephemeris is true, the residual frequency shift is
the Doppler shift caused by the INS position and velocity errors. In this case, the performance of the
INS-aided acquisition can be fully verified. In Table 7, the search parameters with different grades
of INS-aided and no INS-aid acquisition is illustrated. Due to the decrease of frequency and code
phase range, the acquisition time of the INS-aided case is shorter than no INS-aid case. Besides, if the
frequency search space is smaller, the accuracy of the Doppler shift estimation is higher.
The selected MEMS-grade INS has the same search parameters as the selected higher grade INS.
In other words, the selected MEMS-grade INS can satisfy the demands of fast acquisition under highly
dynamic conditions. Considering the price, the weight and the size, the selected MEMS-grade INS is
the best choice for the deeply coupled integration.

Table 7. Search parameters with different grades of INS.

No INS Assisted MEMS Grade Civil Grade Tactical Grade Inertial Grade
Number of satellites 12 12 12 12 12
Frequency range ±5 KHz ±500 Hz ±500 Hz ±500 Hz ±500 Hz
Frequency search space 500 Hz 500 Hz 500 Hz 500 Hz 500 Hz
GPS:1023 GPS:10 GPS:10 GPS:10 GPS:10
Code phase range
BDS:2046 BDS:20 BDS:20 BDS:20 BDS:20
Code phase search space 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
GPS: 42966 GPS:60 GPS:60 GPS:60 GPS:60
Search cells
BDS: 85932 BDS:120 BDS:120 BDS:120 BDS:120
Acquisition time 12.87s 1.85s 1.85s 1.85s 1.85s

After the signal interruption, the navigation information provided by INS can not only be used
to save acquisition time, but also it can keep tracking in a short time. If the LOS error estimated by
the local clock and INS position is less than half a chip, instantaneous acquisition can be achieved in
the code phase direction. Similarly, the instantaneous acquisition of carrier frequency can be realized
if the frequency error estimated by SINS is less than the equivalent bandwidth of the tracking loop.
This offers great advantages in applications when the signal is frequently interrupted but the duration
of the interruption is short, such as urban vehicle navigation.

6. Conclusions
GNSS receivers cannot work and frequently lose lock under highly dynamic conditions due to
the large Doppler frequency shift, which causes difficulties for the fast acquisition and re-acquisition
of signals. The INS-aided acquisition can improve the acquisition performance by estimating and
compensating the Doppler frequency shift and the code phase. This paper analyzes in depth the
performance of GNSS signal acquisition aided by different grades of INS under highly dynamic
conditions. In order to estimate and compensate the Doppler frequency shifts as well as the code
phase, the error sources of the Doppler shift and code phase estimation are analyzed. Furthermore, the
mathematical model of Doppler shift and code phase estimation errors contributed by the INS velocity
Sensors 2017, 17, 980 15 of 16

error and position error are derived in detail. In order to analyze the effects of the INS quality on the
Doppler shift and code phase estimation accuracy, experiments are performed using different grades
of INS under a highly dynamic scenario. Then, the INS-aided acquisition is simulated in a dual-mode
software receiver. The simulation results show that the acquisition aided by INS can reduce the
frequency and code phase search space under highly dynamic conditions. Moreover, the Doppler shift
and code phase estimation errors increase as the quality of the INS decreases. The quantitative result
is that the acquisition time can be shortened by about 1.85 s with the assistance of the selected INS.
Compared with a high grade INS, the selected MEMS-grade INS provides the same improvement.
It can be seen that the selected MEMS-grade INS can satisfy the demands of fast acquisition in the
simulation scenario, and according to the theoretical analysis, experiments and simulations, a suitable
INS can be chosen for the deeply coupled integration.

Author Contributions: Xianmu Li, Shuang Gao and Chunxi Zhang conceived the study idea and designed
the experiments. Xianmu Li and Shuang Gao built the simulation platform and performed the experiments.
Xianmu Li wrote the paper. All authors read and approved the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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