Review

Wearable Sensors in Industrial Ergonomics: Enhancing Safety

and Productivity in Industry 4.0
Jose E. Naranjo 1, * , Carlos A. Mora 1 , Diego Fernando Bustamante Villagómez 2 ,
María Gabriela Mancheno Falconi 3 and Marcelo V. Garcia 4

1 Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Aplicadas, Universidad Técnica de Cotopaxi (UTC), Campus La

Matriz, Ave. Simón Rodríguez, Latacunga 050102, Ecuador; [email protected]
2 GSyA Research Group, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, C/Altagracia, 5013071 Ciudad Real, Spain;
[email protected]
3 Facultad de Arquitectura e Ingenierias, Universidad Internacional Sek, Alberto Einstein y 5ta. Transversal,
Quito 170134, Ecuador; [email protected]
4 Facultad de Ingeniería en Sistemas, Eectrónica e Industrial, Universidad Técnica de Ambato, Av. los Chásquis,
Ambato 180104, Ecuador; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The fourth industrial revolution has transformed industrial ergonomics through
the adoption of wearable technologies to enhance workplace safety and well-being. This
study conducts a comprehensive scoping review, structured according to PRISMA guide-
lines, examining how wearable devices are revolutionizing ergonomic practices within
Industry 4.0. After analyzing 1319 articles from major databases including SpringerLink,
MDPI, Scopus, and IEEEXplore, 36 relevant studies were selected for detailed analysis.
The review specifically focuses on how wearable technologies improve worker comfort
and safety, promoting more productive work environments. The findings reveal that wear-
able devices have significantly impacted ergonomic conditions in industrial settings, with
artificial intelligence integration showing the highest presence in analyzed applications.
Over the past years, wearable technology implementations have demonstrated a 38%
improvement in optimizing ergonomic conditions compared to traditional approaches.

Academic Editors: Lorenzo Scalise Keywords: Industry 4.0; ergonomics; optimization; wearable devices; PRISMA
and Egidio De Benedetto

Received: 26 December 2024

Revised: 31 January 2025
Accepted: 27 February 2025 1. Introduction
Published: 28 February 2025
The integration of wearable devices and Industry 4.0 technologies in industrial settings
Citation: Naranjo, J.E.; Mora, C.A.;
represents a significant advancement in workplace safety and ergonomics monitoring.
Bustamante Villagómez, D.F.;
Mancheno Falconi, M.G.; Garcia, M.V.
For the purposes of this study, wearable devices are defined as electronic or computerized
Wearable Sensors in Industrial devices that can be worn on the body, integrated into clothing, or implanted, capable
Ergonomics: Enhancing Safety and of collecting and transmitting data about the wearer or their environment [1]. These
Productivity in Industry 4.0. Sensors include but are not limited to smart watches, body-mounted sensors, instrumented clothing,
2025, 25, 1526. https://doi.org/
and biomechanical monitoring devices.
10.3390/s25051526
Within the context of Industry 4.0, we specifically focus on wearable technologies that
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. incorporate one or more of the following capabilities: real-time data collection, wireless
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
connectivity, artificial intelligence processing, or integration with broader industrial con-
This article is an open access article
trol systems. The ergonomic measures of interest in this study encompass three primary
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
categories: (1) biomechanical factors (posture, movement, force application), (2) physio-
Attribution (CC BY) license logical parameters (heart rate, muscle activity, fatigue indicators), and (3) environmental
(https://creativecommons.org/ interactions (exposure to vibration, repetitive motions, extreme positions) [2].
licenses/by/4.0/).

Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 https://doi.org/10.3390/s25051526

Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 2 of 43

The rationale for this study emerges from three critical gaps in current research: First,
while both wearable devices and Industry 4.0 technologies have been studied separately
in industrial contexts, their integrated impact on ergonomic monitoring and intervention
remains poorly understood [3,4]. Second, there is a lack of systematic analysis of how
these technologies complement each other in practical industrial applications. Third,
the effectiveness of different wearable solutions in measuring and improving specific
ergonomic parameters needs comprehensive examination [5].
In industrial settings, wearable sensors have become indispensable tools for improving
workplace ergonomics. These devices enable real-time monitoring of key physiological
and environmental parameters, such as heart rate, body temperature, and posture. By ana-
lyzing this data, ergonomists can design customized workstations that mitigate physical
and mental stress, thereby reducing injury risks and enhancing worker productivity [6].
Additionally, wearables provide immediate feedback on unsafe movements or postures,
supporting continuous training and fostering safer work practices.
To address these challenges, technological advances have introduced automatic mea-
surement and detection systems that use advanced sensors embedded in work equipment
or wearable devices. These systems collect real-time data on postures, movements and
physical strain, enabling ergonomists and designers to accurately identify areas of er-
gonomic risk and assess their impact on workers. Using advanced algorithms and artificial
intelligence techniques, these systems not only collect data but also analyze patterns and
trends, providing an in-depth understanding of the factors contributing to ergonomic
injuries or discomfort [7].
While previous reviews have focused either on the general applications of wearable
devices or their utility in specific sectors like healthcare, this study uniquely addresses the
intersection of wearable sensor technologies and industrial ergonomics within the context of
Industry 4.0. By leveraging PRISMA guidelines, this scoping review systematically explores
the breadth of wearable device applications in enhancing workplace safety and productivity.
Furthermore, it examines how emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI)
amplify the potential of wearables, offering insights into trends, gaps, and opportunities
that previous reviews have overlooked.
The findings of this study have significant practical implications for industry stake-
holders. By identifying the role of wearable devices in reducing workplace injuries, im-
proving posture and fatigue management, and increasing operational efficiency, this study
highlights pathways for cost savings through reduced absenteeism and enhanced produc-
tivity. The use of AI in wearable devices, for instance, enables predictive maintenance
of workers’ health and safety, aligning with organizational goals of sustainability and
workforce optimization.
This study makes several unique contributions to the field. First, it provides the
most current analysis of wearable technology implementations, extending through 2024,
offering insights into the latest technological developments and their applications. Second,
it presents a detailed cost-benefit analysis with specific investment ranges, addressing a
critical knowledge gap in the literature regarding the economic implications of wearable
technology adoption. Third, it offers a novel framework for evaluating the integration
of wearable devices with Industry 4.0 technologies, providing a more comprehensive
understanding than previous studies. Finally, our analysis of author collaboration networks
reveals emerging research patterns and centers of excellence in this rapidly evolving field.
This article is organized in five main sections, beginning with the introduction
(Section 1), where the context, key definitions, and main objectives of the research are
presented, along with a clear justification of the study’s rationale within the context of
industrial ergonomics and Industry 4.0. Section 2 describes in detail the systematic process
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 3 of 43

used to select and analyze the scientific literature, including comprehensive search strate-
gies and explicit inclusion and exclusion criteria to ensure the relevance and quality of the
studies considered.
The analytical framework is presented in Section 3, which outlines our structured
approach to evaluating wearable technology implementations across multiple dimensions,
including technical specifications, integration levels, and outcome measures. This section
provides the foundation for our systematic analysis of how wearable technologies con-
tribute to improved ergonomic conditions in industrial settings. The findings obtained
through this analytical framework are presented in Section 4, accompanied by a critical
analysis that explores their implications for both practical applications and theoretical
understanding in the field of industrial ergonomics. This section synthesizes key themes
and patterns identified across multiple studies, providing insights into the effectiveness of
wearable technologies in various industrial contexts.
Finally, in Section 5, the key findings are synthesized and interpreted within the
broader context of Industry 4.0 and industrial ergonomics. This section also presents specific
recommendations for practitioners implementing wearable technologies and suggests
directions for future research that could further advance our understanding of how these
technologies can enhance workplace safety and efficiency.

2. Methodology
This research, as well as other reviews [8–11], has followed the PRISMA (Preferred
Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis) guidelines, which are designed
to support authors in conducting systematic reviews, scoping reviews and other types
of studies. The purpose of these guidelines is to ensure that the resulting document is
unbiased and comprehensive. The first edition of the report was published in 2009, followed
by an updated version in 2020 that incorporates significant advances in terms and methods.
This document highlights improvements in how various studies are classified, selected,
and summarized. Although originally intended to evaluate health papers, the PRISMA
guidelines are now widely applied in disciplines such as education, engineering, and social
sciences [12].
This guide does not seek to impose a specific format or establish a rigid sequence of
steps for literature reviews. Its main objective is to ensure that all relevant information
on the topic under study is adequately summarized. It is important to note that this tool
should not be used to judge the methodological quality of a systematic review, although it
can serve as a useful guide for critical evaluations [13].
Based on this information, this review focuses on collecting data from various presti-
gious databases to which the authors have access, such as SpringerLink, MDPI, Scopus,
and IEEEXplore. According to [14], Scopus is the most widely used tool in academia.
In addition, the review process was divided into three main stages: (i) formulation of
research questions, (ii) document search and (iii) article selection.
The PRISMA framework, typically employed for systematic reviews, was adapted in
this study to suit the interdisciplinary focus on wearable devices and industrial ergonomics.
The review incorporates a broader range of study designs to capture the diverse applica-
tions of wearable technologies in industrial contexts. A well-defined set of inclusion and
exclusion criteria was established to ensure that only relevant studies addressing wearable
sensors in Industry 4.0 environments were included.
While our analysis focused on authors with multiple contributions across any author
position, we acknowledge that additional relevant work exists in the field. Our selection
criteria aimed to balance comprehensiveness with the need to identify established research
patterns, though this may have led to the exclusion of some valuable single-publication
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 4 of 43

contributions. Future reviews might benefit from exploring alternative criteria for author
inclusion to capture an even broader range of perspectives in the field.

2.1. Research Questions

Four research questions have been posed to explore in depth the relevance of the use of
4.0 technologies in the integration of wearables in the field of ergonomics. These questions
seek to delve into how advanced technologies can improve the design and implementation
of wearable devices to ensure ergonomic and efficient work environments. See Table 1.

Table 1. Research questions.

Code Research Question

What are the benefits and advantages of the practices obtained by
RQ1 incorporating 4.0 technologies in the study of ergonomics at the
industrial level?
What are the challenges and barriers for the practices obtained by
RQ2 incorporating 4.0 technologies in the study of ergonomics at the
industrial level?
What are the technologies most frequently used in the development of
RQ3
wearables to evaluate ergonomics at the industrial level?
What are the main opportunities derived from the integration of
RQ4 advanced Industry 4.0 technologies for the optimization of
working conditions?

2.2. Document Search

The document search methodology was structured to ensure comprehensive coverage
of wearable technology applications in industrial ergonomics across multiple disciplines and
implementation contexts. Our systematic approach began with an extensive review of major
academic databases, including SpringerLink, MDPI, Scopus, and IEEEXplore, which were
selected for their comprehensive coverage of both engineering and ergonomics literature.
While focusing primarily on publications from 2019 to 2024 to capture current technological
capabilities and implementations, we also conducted a broader historical analysis reaching
back to 2010 to understand the evolution of wearable technologies in industrial applications
and establish a comprehensive foundation for our current analysis [11].
The search strategy was meticulously designed to capture the multifaceted nature of
wearable technology applications in industrial ergonomics. We developed a structured
search framework that incorporated multiple technological domains, application areas,
and implementation contexts. This approach ensured that our search would identify not
only obvious applications of wearable technology but also innovative implementations and
emerging trends in industrial settings. The search terms were carefully selected based on
preliminary literature review, consultation with domain experts, and analysis of keyword
frequencies in relevant publications, resulting in a comprehensive set of search terms
organized into three distinct categories:
• Primary terms: “wearable device*”, “smart wearable*”, “body-mounted sensor*”,
“instrumented clothing”;
• Context terms: “industrial”, “manufacturing”, “workplace”, “occupational”;
• Application terms: “ergonom*”, “safety”, “biomechanic*”, “posture”, “movement
analysis”.
The implementation of the search strategy involved a sophisticated approach to
database querying and result validation. Each database was searched using carefully con-
structed Boolean combinations of terms from all three categories, with specific attention
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 5 of 43

paid to database-specific syntax and search capabilities. The search strings were iteratively
refined based on initial results, with particular attention paid to ensuring that relevant
papers were not inadvertently excluded due to terminology variations. We conducted
multiple pilot searches to validate our approach, analyzing the relevance and comprehen-
siveness of returned results before finalizing our search strategy. This rigorous validation
process helped ensure that our search methodology was both sensitive enough to capture
relevant studies and specific enough to maintain focus on our research objectives.
The temporal scope of our literature search was carefully considered to balance com-
prehensiveness with currency. While our primary analysis focuses on papers published
between 2019 and 2024 to capture the most recent technological developments and applica-
tions, we recognized the importance of understanding the historical context and evolution
of wearable technology in industrial settings. Therefore, we conducted a supplementary
analysis of seminal papers from 2010 to 2018, particularly focusing on the following types
of research:
• Foundational studies that established key principles for wearable technology in indus-
trial applications;
• Papers that documented significant technological breakthroughs or novel applications;
• Research that established methodological frameworks still relevant today;
• Studies that provided long-term validation of wearable technology effectiveness.
The information extraction process was designed to ensure systematic and compre-
hensive data collection from each identified source. We developed a standardized data
extraction protocol that captured not only basic bibliometric information but also detailed
technical specifications, implementation contexts, and reported outcomes. This systematic
approach to data collection was essential for ensuring consistency in our analysis and
enabling meaningful comparisons across different studies and implementations. The ex-
traction protocol was validated through independent review by multiple team members,
with regular cross-checking to ensure consistency and accuracy in data collection. This
rigorous approach to information gathering provided a solid foundation for our subsequent
analysis and synthesis of findings.
• Data extraction categories: Study design, technology specifications, implementation
context, outcomes;
• Quality indicators: Methodology robustness, data validity, result reliability;
• Implementation details: Deployment process, challenges, solutions, best practices.

2.3. Article’s Selection

This section was structured in three stages: Identification, Screening, and Inclusion.
During the initial phase, a total of 1319 articles were identified. In the next phase, the first
step was to establish the criteria for determining the eligibility of the studies. See Table 2.
After initial sorting by relevance, title, abstract, and keywords, articles are structured
in layers for further analysis. This allows prioritizing access to information on the latest
available technologies. The selection process begins with the identification of documents
by searching databases, resulting in 1319 initial documents. Of these, 252 were excluded
as duplicates, ensuring that each document is unique for analysis. Next, 10 records were
excluded because of their language, and 556 were eliminated because they did not meet
the criteria of year of publication, thus maintaining the timeliness of the information. Next,
a reading of titles and abstracts was performed, after which 184 articles were excluded
for not having adequate information for the case study. In addition, 200 records that did
not have adequate references and 71 more that did not have coherence with the topic
in general were excluded. Finally, 10 articles were eliminated after assessing their bias
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 6 of 43

with the Cochrane criteria. This stratified approach culminated in the inclusion of 36 full
articles, which not only facilitates the identification of the most relevant and up-to-date
information, but also ensures a complete and accurate assessment of each selected article.
Subsequently, a thorough check was carried out to ensure that the information provided
in the introduction, results, and conclusions sections is sufficient to address in depth the
research questions posed in the study. See Figure 1.

Table 2. Eligibility criteria.

Criteria Description
Studies that aim to improve worker–machine interaction,
with an emphasis on production and the use of Industry
Study design
4.0 technologies, were selected. Duplicate studies
were excluded.
Articles published between 2019 and 2024 were selected.
However, the relevance of previous research (2010–2018)
Time interval
was acknowledged, and when appropriate, these studies
were used to provide context and strengthen the analysis.
Language Only articles written in English were selected.
Articles published in conference proceedings or indexed
Publication status journals were included, ensuring that they were properly
published and had a DOI.

Figure 1. PRISMA flow diagram.

Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 7 of 43

For the bias analysis in this study, the following domains were used, which were
adapted from the original Cochrane bias tool:
• Inclusion criteria bias: The precise and detailed definition of selection criteria is
essential to reduce significant bias in the selection of studies. In the context of Industry
4.0, this involves clearly specifying parameters such as publication period, language,
quality of the source, and type of technology addressed. A well-defined criteria
framework facilitates the inclusion of relevant studies and avoids the exclusion of
valuable work outside the established period if its relevance is notable. This ensures
that the articles selected provide valid and up-to-date information.
• Data completeness bias: Completeness and accuracy of collected data are crucial for
an objective assessment of ergonomics in industrial settings. In ergonomics analysis
within Industry 4.0 processes, applying rigorous methods ensures that the data cap-
tured is complete, representative, and accurate. Implementing quality controls in data
collection, and verifying the consistency and completeness of the data, mitigates this
bias and ensures the reliability of the results obtained.
• Methodological quality bias: Rigorously assessing the methodological quality of
the included studies is fundamental. In this context, factors such as research design,
sample size, blinding methods, and use of controls influence the validity of the findings.
In the field of ergonomics in Industry 4.0, it is crucial to consider the quality of
studies that analyze technologies such as sensors, wearable devices, and automated
systems that impact the work environment. Including only studies that meet high
methodological standards improves the robustness and applicability of the review.
• Bias in evidence synthesis: An objective and transparent synthesis of results is key to
ensuring the credibility of conclusions. Identifying and assessing the risk of bias in the
interpretation of the results helps to obtain a balanced and accurate view. In addition,
the consistency and heterogeneity of the reviewed studies should be considered, as this
improves the robustness of the synthesis and allows for a more accurate assessment of
the effectiveness of ergonomic technologies in the context of Industry 4.0.
• Researcher experience bias: The influence of the researcher’s prior knowledge and
experience on the results is an important bias to consider. In studies on ergonomics in
Industry 4.0, it is critical that researchers are aware of their own biases and strive to
minimize them. This ensures that the findings accurately reflect the effectiveness of the
technologies evaluated in improving ergonomic conditions. In addition, transparency
in documentation and article exclusion criteria allows other researchers to replicate or
contrast the results obtained. The results of the 10 articles excluded in this phase can
be seen in Figures 2 and 3.

Figure 2. Cochrane Bias bar chart.

Finally, in the third phase, the 36 selected articles were reviewed again by the members
of this research. In Figure 4, a network graph generated with VOSviewer representing the
relationship between key concepts in the field of Industry 4.0 and ergonomics is presented.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 8 of 43

The central node of the graph is “industry 4.0”, which connects to several associated terms.
On the left side, nodes such as “ergonomics”, “human factors”, and “industry 5.0” indicate
a strong relationship between Industry 4.0 and ergonomics.
Concepts such as “equipment design” and “workplace organization pillar” are also
connected, underlining the importance of equipment design and workplace organization in
this context. Terms such as “collaborative robotics” and “optimization” are closely linked
to “industry 4.0”, highlighting the relevance of collaborative robotics and optimization in
this industrial revolution.
At the top left, terms such as “artificial intelligence”, “digital twin”, “virtual reality”,
and “employee” show a significant connection between Industry 4.0 and advanced tech-
nologies, as well as their impact on employees. To the right of the central node, a cluster of
terms related to health and biomechanics, such as “inertial measurement unit (imu)”, “mus-
culoskeletal risk assessment,” “biomechanics”, and “repetitive strain injuries”, highlights
the relationship between Industry 4.0 and musculoskeletal risk assessment and mitigation.
This graphic provides a comprehensive view of how the different aspects of Industry 4.0
interrelate with ergonomics, advanced technologies and occupational risk assessment, high-
lighting the need for an integrated approach in the implementation of new technologies in
the industrial environment.
A specific criterion has been established to determine which authors will be consid-
ered relevant for the final analysis. This criterion considers all author positions (not just
first authors) in the analyzed publications. This comprehensive approach ensures we
capture all significant contributors to the field, whether they are leading researchers or
key collaborators.
The authors analysis presented in Figure 5, as stated before, considers all author
positions, not just first authors. This comprehensive analysis reveals collaboration patterns
among researchers who have made multiple contributions to the field of wearable sensors in
industrial ergonomics, regardless of their position in the author list. This approach provides
a more complete picture of research networks and collaborative relationships in the field.
Each node represents an author, while each link (edge) between nodes represents a co-
authorship relationship. The size of the nodes is proportional to the number of publications
an author has contributed to, while the thickness of the links represents the strength of the
co-authorship ties—i.e., the more frequently two authors collaborate, the stronger their
connection appears in the network. The network is divided into multiple clusters, each
represented by a different color. These clusters indicate groups of authors who collaborate
more frequently with each other. The visualization includes all authors in the dataset, even
those who are not directly connected to the main collaboration clusters. This provides a
broader view of the research landscape, including both well-integrated research groups
and isolated contributors. Several dense clusters can be observed, such as the following:
• The red cluster, centered around Klaus Bengler and Lutz Engel, suggesting strong
collaborative ties among these researchers.
• The green cluster, which includes Francesco Lopomo and Giuseppe Andreoni, indicat-
ing another significant collaboration network.
• The blue cluster, featuring Joonho Chang and Seon Pill Baik, highlighting another
subgroup of researchers working closely together.
This visualization helps us understand the collaborative dynamics within the research
community. The presence of multiple distinct clusters suggests that research on wearable
sensors in industrial ergonomics is being conducted by several independent groups, rather
than by a single highly connected network.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 9 of 43

Figure 3. Bias analysis.

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Figure 4. Co-occurrence analysis.

Furthermore, the variation in link strength indicates that while some authors maintain
long-term and frequent collaborations, others collaborate sporadically or on a project-by-
project basis. The inclusion of all authors (instead of filtering only the most connected ones)
ensures that we capture the full spectrum of research contributions, from leading figures to
emerging researchers in the field.

Figure 5. Authors analysis.

Articles Summary
The information found has been detailed to better visualize the data. A summary of
each of the 36 final items is detailed below.
The emergence of Industry 4.0 has revolutionized manufacturing by integrating digital
technologies into production processes. This paradigm shift leverages wearable technology,
sensors, and augmented reality to enhance efficiency and accuracy in industrial operations.
Ref. [15] (P1) focuses on distinguishing between correct and faulty operations in connector
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 11 of 43

assembly tasks within an automotive company. To achieve this, researchers developed a

digital assembly glove, a wearable prototype designed to capture vibration and force data
from workers’ fingers during the assembly process.
Seventeen participants were involved in experimental trials to collect data on force
and vibration signals associated with proper and defective assembly. The study employed
artificial neural networks (ANNs) for signal classification, aiming to automate defect detec-
tion. The ANN model was trained, validated, and tested using the recorded measurements,
ultimately achieving a 95% accuracy rate in distinguishing between correct and faulty
assembly processes.
The findings underscore the critical role of wearable technology in optimizing qual-
ity control within manufacturing. By embedding real-time monitoring capabilities into
production workflows, wearables such as smart gloves provide a data-driven approach
to identifying errors, reducing waste, and improving overall efficiency. The study demon-
strates that ANN-based analysis, when combined with wearable sensor technology, can
serve as a reliable tool for defect detection, reinforcing the potential of smart production
systems in modern industrial environments.
Work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) pose a significant challenge in vari-
ous industries, prompting the need for ergonomic risk assessments to regulate physically
demanding tasks. Ref. [16] (P2) presents a methodology for automated ergonomic risk
monitoring using body-mounted sensors and machine learning. By leveraging data from
smartphone-based accelerometers, linear accelerometers, and gyroscopes, the system con-
tinuously tracks workers’ movements, classifies their activities, and estimates both activity
duration and frequency. The methodology employs a leave-one-subject-out cross-validation
framework to evaluate different data acquisition settings, including sensor placement and
calibration, ensuring optimal accuracy in motion tracking.
The results demonstrate that calibrated arm-mounted smartphones can achieve a clas-
sification accuracy of 90.2%, effectively identifying task-related ergonomic risks. By post-
processing the classified activity data, the system provides highly accurate ergonomic
risk estimations, offering a real-time and non-intrusive approach to workplace health
assessment. This research highlights the importance of wearable technology in occupa-
tional safety, demonstrating its potential to enhance timeliness and precision in ergonomic
data collection and analysis. Through the integration of wearables and machine learn-
ing, this study advances workplace health monitoring, paving the way for proactive risk
mitigation strategies.
Ref. [17] (P3) explores usability considerations in the design of glasses-type wearable
computer displays, focusing on comfort and practicality. Using a structured four-step
design process—preliminary analysis, idea generation, final design selection, and virtual
fitting trials—researchers developed three key interventions: weight balance to reduce nasal
pressure, flexible temples to accommodate different head sizes, and a hanger mechanism for
seamless integration with regular eyewear. To assess effectiveness, a case study compared
the newly designed 3D wearable glasses against two existing models, measuring neck
muscle fatigue and subjective discomfort ratings. While there was no significant difference
in muscle fatigue (p = 0.467), the novel design demonstrated notably lower discomfort
ratings (p = 0.009), indicating improved user experience.
This research underscores the importance of wearable displays in industrial applica-
tions, offering insights into ergonomic improvements for next-generation smart glasses.
By addressing common discomfort issues, the study provides a foundation for future
innovations in wearable computing, ensuring better integration, comfort, and usability.
The findings highlight how strategic design enhancements can enhance user acceptance and
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 12 of 43

long-term wearability, making wearable technology more practical for diverse applications,
from augmented reality interfaces to hands-free industrial computing.
The shift toward human-centered workplace design in Industry 4.0 is redefining how
manufacturing environments are structured, integrating advanced methodologies such as
design thinking, design doing, and design cultures. Among the most transformative tech-
nologies, Virtual Reality (VR) enables companies to validate product and process designs
through immersive virtual prototypes, optimizing assembly line layouts and workplace er-
gonomics. This study [18] (P4), introduces an innovative approach for ergonomic validation
in automotive assembly lines, utilizing the ERGO-UAS system—a methodology applied by
Fiat Chrysler Automobiles (FCA)—which integrates UAS for movement measurement and
EAWS for biomechanical effort evaluation. By creating 3D virtual scenarios, assembly tasks
can be simulated using virtual manikins, allowing for ergonomic assessment from multiple
perspectives to enhance safety, efficiency, and design quality.
A key component of this methodology is the integration of wearable motion capture
technology, developed by the University of Campania, consisting of inertial sensors that
track human movement using sensor fusion algorithms and Kalman filtering. These
wearable sensors estimate posture angles and provide data to further validate ergonomic
indices such as EAWS, ensuring that workstation designs align with human capabilities
and safety standards. This approach represents a significant advancement in workplace
design, demonstrating how wearable technology and VR simulations can reduce costs,
improve working conditions, and enhance the overall efficiency of industrial processes.
The study highlights the potential of wearable motion capture to revolutionize workplace
ergonomics by providing real-time, data-driven insights for optimizing human-machine
interaction in manufacturing environments.
Construction work involves significant physical strain, making the reduction of work-
load a priority to prevent work-related injuries. This study [19] (P5), explores the impact
of a participatory ergonomics (PE) intervention combined with wearable technology to
monitor physical workload in real-world conditions. Using surface electromyography
(sEMG), inertial measurement units (IMUs), heart rate monitors, and video recordings,
researchers tracked kinematic and physiological data from 80 construction workers over
six months. A custom-developed program identified instances of excessive physical strain,
enabling targeted ergonomic interventions. Workers were divided into a PE intervention
group, which participated in structured ergonomic workshops, and a control group to
evaluate differences in workload exposure.
While the intervention did not significantly reduce the number of high-exertion events,
wearable sensor data revealed a notable decrease in general fatigue (p = 0.001) and an
increase in perceived control over work tasks (p = 0.04) among participants. These findings
highlight the potential of wearable technology in ergonomic assessments, providing real-
time, objective workload measurements that enhance worker awareness and support
workplace improvements. Although the intervention did not alter workload exposure,
the integration of wearables offers a promising tool for long-term ergonomic strategies,
helping companies optimize work conditions and mitigate occupational risks through
data-driven decision-making.
This study introduces a wearable vibrotactile interface designed to alert industrial
workers when adopting unfavorable postures that could lead to musculoskeletal disorders
(MSDs). The system consists of up to 13 vibration motors (tactors) strategically placed
across the body and integrated into motion capture workwear, serving as a real-time
posture feedback mechanism. By providing haptic alerts, the system aims to improve
posture awareness and reduce injury risks, particularly among older workers who are
more susceptible to MSDs. To optimize notification effectiveness, the researchers evalu-
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 13 of 43

ated pulse duration, repetition patterns, and location-based perception using data from
11 participants [20] (P6).
Findings indicate that a pulse length of 150 ms, repeated two to three times, maximizes
perception and ensures timely posture correction. This research underscores the importance
of wearable technology in occupational safety, offering real-time, non-intrusive feedback to
prevent ergonomic hazards. By seamlessly integrating with industrial workwear, the wear-
able vibrotactile system provides a proactive solution for posture correction, reducing
strain-related injuries and enhancing workplace ergonomics. The study highlights how
haptic feedback wearables can serve as an effective intervention, promoting safer working
conditions through immediate, data-driven feedback mechanisms.
Ref. [21] (P7) presents a wearable motion capture (MoCap) system designed to track
and assess worker postures in industrial environments, aligning with the human-centered
approach of Industry 4.0. The system, composed of inertial measurement units (IMUs),
estimates the orientation of key body segments using Kalman filtering to evaluate posture
angles during movement. Its modular design, consisting of four sensor modules, enables
real-time ergonomic analysis, allowing companies to optimize workplace design based
on data-driven insights. By integrating wearable technology, this system provides contin-
uous posture tracking, facilitating proactive interventions to prevent ergonomic risks in
assembly activities.
The wearable MoCap system generates motion data that can be used to develop
automated algorithms for ergonomic assessment, ensuring real-time evaluation of posture
scores. The test case conducted in an industrial setting demonstrated the system’s reliability,
highlighting its potential for enhancing workplace ergonomics and reducing strain-related
injuries. This research reinforces the importance of wearables in industrial process design,
offering a scalable and efficient solution for monitoring human motion and improving
ergonomic conditions. By leveraging wearable sensor technology, industries can make
informed decisions to enhance worker safety, comfort, and productivity.
The feasibility of using wearable technology to detect driver drowsiness, a major cause
of accidents in the transportation industry, is described by [22] (P8). Researchers developed
a Google Glass-based detection system that utilizes its proximity sensor to monitor eye
blink frequency, a key indicator of fatigue. A simulated driving study was conducted to
validate the system, comparing driving performance and blink patterns between alert and
drowsy states. The results showed that drowsy drivers exhibited increased blink frequency,
slower braking response times, and greater lane deviation, confirming the correlation
between drowsiness and impaired driving performance.
By implementing a threshold-based algorithm, the wearable proximity sensor proved
to be a reliable tool for detecting eye blinks and distinguishing between alert and fatigued
states. This research highlights the potential of wearable devices in real-time driver monitor-
ing, offering a non-intrusive, continuous, and automated solution for drowsiness detection.
The findings demonstrate how wearable sensor technology can enhance transportation
safety, with applications not only in driving but also in aviation and other fields where oper-
ator alertness is critical. By integrating wearables into fatigue detection systems, industries
can reduce drowsiness-related incidents and improve overall safety.
The use of wearable sensors to monitor and model physical fatigue in the workplace,
an issue that impacts both productivity and worker safety, has been extensively discussed
in the past few years [23] (P9). While wearables have been widely used to track fatigue
in athletics, transportation, and mining, their application in manufacturing ergonomics
remains underdeveloped. To address this, researchers examined how wearable sensor
data could detect the onset of fatigue during simulated manufacturing tasks and estimate
fatigue levels over time. Sensory data from five different sensor placements were collected
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 14 of 43

from eight participants, and penalized logistic regression was used for fatigue detection,
while multiple linear regression estimated fatigue progression.
By applying Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator (LASSO) for feature
selection, the study demonstrated that wearable sensor data can accurately predict fatigue
states and provide insights into its development over time. The proposed data-driven
approach is adaptable across different workload conditions and industrial settings, making
it a scalable solution for fatigue management. This research reinforces the importance of
wearable technology in workplace safety, offering real-time, objective fatigue assessment
that can be integrated into ergonomic interventions. By leveraging wearable sensors for
fatigue monitoring, industries can develop preventive strategies to reduce workplace
injuries and optimize worker performance.
In order to create a complete solution that encompassed both physical and techno-
logical aspects, with the aim of providing an affordable and practical option for assessing
ergonomics in the automotive industry, the researchers devised and created a system that
combines affordable sensors with easily accessible technologies. With this system, it is
possible to record real-time data on employees’ posture and movements as they perform
their work tasks. In ref. [24] (P10), inexpensive motion sensors and cameras were used to
collect accurate data about the positions and movements of all body parts. The data were
then subjected to ergonomic analysis algorithms that examine the potential for injury and
suggest changes to improve workstation layout.
Both the hardware for data capture and the software required for processing and
analysis are included in the pipeline. An app was created that enables the visualization and
analysis of the collected data, providing detailed reports along with specific recommen-
dations. The purpose of this system is to provide a comprehensive and easily applicable
solution for the automotive industry, in order to increase both the safety and well-being of
employees without generating excessive costs. The study showed that the system is reliable
and effective in detecting ergonomic hazards, allowing companies to take preventive action
and optimize working conditions in their facilities.
This work [25] (P11), deploys the use of wearable mobile sensors to assess and improve
ergonomic conditions in construction work, a labor-intensive industry where sustained
physical exertion can lead to musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs). Traditional ergonomic
risk assessments are often time-consuming and impractical for dynamic construction sites,
making wearable technology an essential tool for real-time posture monitoring. This
research introduces a low-cost, smartphone-based system that utilizes built-in sensors to
track workers’ trunk and shoulder flexion, identifying potential ergonomic hazards without
the need for manual observation. By leveraging wearable mobile sensing, the system
provides an autonomous, unobtrusive method for detecting unsafe postures and assessing
physical strain.
The findings reveal that smartphone sensor measurements closely align with tradi-
tional observational assessments, demonstrating their reliability in ergonomic analysis.
This wearable-based approach is not only applicable to construction workers but also to
other physically demanding professions such as carpenters, welders, farmers, and health-
care assistants. By integrating wearable technology into occupational safety protocols,
industries can proactively monitor, evaluate, and mitigate ergonomic risks, ultimately
reducing workplace injuries and improving worker well-being. This study highlights how
ubiquitous, wearable sensing solutions can revolutionize ergonomic assessments, making
them more scalable, cost-effective, and adaptable to diverse work environments.
The development of a co-simulation environment that employs digital twins and
virtual reality for the purpose of designing and evaluating industrial workstations is being
developed at [13] (P12); designers and evaluators have the ability to interact with accurate
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 15 of 43

virtual representations of workstations. This makes it easier to detect ergonomic and

efficiency issues before they are physically built. Real data from existing workstations
was used to generate the digital twins, ensuring maximum accuracy and realism in the
virtual simulations.
In the evaluation, work tasks are simulated in a virtual environment so that evaluators
can observe and analyze how workers would interact with workstations. Users have the
ability to test different configurations and settings in real time, allowing them to opti-
mize the ergonomic design and improve their operational efficiency. It was demonstrated
through the results that the joint use of digital twins and virtual reality represents an
effective tool to anticipate possible inconveniences and make corrections before carrying
out their physical implementation, which translates into a lower economic and temporal
expense. Additionally, it makes it easier for operators to actively intervene in the design
process to ensure the practicality and user-focused nature of the proposed solutions. In con-
clusion, the study showed that the combination of digital twins and virtual reality in a
co-simulation provides a novel and effective way to improve both the design and the eval-
uation of industrial stations. This is especially beneficial for achieving greater ergonomics
and efficiency in such spaces.
The authors conducted a thorough investigation of the available literature in order
to identify trends, challenges, and possibilities regarding the combination of advanced
technologies and ergonomic practices in industrial settings. The article [26] (P13) examined
how rising technologies, such as artificial intelligence, robots, the Internet of Things (IoT)
and cyber–physical systems, are changing workplaces and introducing new ergonomic and
human factors concerns.
The effectiveness of a passive back support exoskeleton (BExo) in reducing perceived
physical exertion and improving ergonomic safety in the manufacturing industry was
developed in the study [27] (P14). Twenty-two university students performed manual
material handling tasks in a controlled environment, with and without the BExo, and com-
pleted a questionnaire about their experience. ANOVA was used to analyze biomechanical
strain on various body parts.
The results showed that the BExo significantly reduced discomfort and physical strain
in the lower back, shoulders and knees, improving ergonomic posture and reducing fatigue.
These findings highlight the potential of passive exoskeletons to improve worker safety and
efficiency in industrial settings. In order to conduct their research, the authors compiled
and evaluated previous studies addressing different aspects of Industry 4.0 and how it
affects ergonomics and human factors. Key areas of interest were identified including
human–robot collaboration, human-machine interface design, cognitive load of workers,
and technological adaptation to customize workstations. Also, the authors addressed the
potential impact of these technological advances on employee health, safety, and well-being.
The article [28] (P15) presents a methodological framework that explores the use
of digital human modeling (DHM) to improve ergonomics in industrial environments.
The main objective is to employ simulation and digital modeling technologies to analyze,
predict, and optimize working conditions, with a focus on reducing ergonomic risks
and improving workers’ well-being. The article describes how DHM makes it possible to
simulate work tasks and assess the physical impact on workers without the need for lengthy
physical testing, which streamlines the process of designing and adjusting workstations. It
also highlights technological tools such as 3D modeling software and sensors that capture
human movements for accurate and detailed analysis. In the methodological framework,
the article proposes key steps that include the collection of data on postures, movements,
and loads faced by the worker, as well as the creation of virtual models that simulate
such activities. These models allow work environment designers and ergonomists to
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 16 of 43

predict physical wear and tear and make adjustments before implementing changes in the
real space.
A new way to address current needs in different work environments was proposed
using motion capture as a basis. The focus of the research is the development and appli-
cation of a motion capture system that provides a thorough real-time analysis of workers’
postures and movements [29] (P16). Advanced sensor technology and biomechanical anal-
ysis algorithms will be used; this method allows an accurate and dynamic assessment of
ergonomic risks. This facilitates the rapid detection of problem areas and the possibility of
implementing improvements in the design of both tasks and the work environment.
The results of the study revealed that the methodology focused on movement moni-
toring not only increases the accuracy of ergonomic assessments, but also enables a more
agile and effective intervention to correct posture and movement problems. According
to the authors, this technology is especially effective in detecting risk factors that are not
easily identified by traditional ergonomic assessment methods. Also, this methodology
achieved a considerable decrease in the number of workplace injuries and improved both
the efficiency and overall well-being of employees. In conclusion, the study indicates that
incorporating motion capture into ergonomic assessments is an important step forward in
promoting safer and healthier work environments.
This study, [30] (P17), examines the impact of offshore shiftwork on worker fatigue
using wearable physiological sensors to monitor heart rate variability (HRV). Workers
in oil and gas extraction (OGE) face long shifts, physically and mentally demanding
tasks, and irregular schedules, which contribute to fatigue-related safety risks. To assess
these effects, wearable HRV monitors were used to track ten offshore operators over six
consecutive workdays on a drillship. HRV was analyzed in frequency (LF/HF ratio) and
temporal (RMSSD) domains, with results showing that night shift workers exhibited greater
fatigue levels, and swing shifts exacerbated physiological strain.
The findings highlight the importance of wearable technology in objectively assessing
workload and fatigue levels in high-risk environments. By continuously monitoring HRV
responses, wearable sensors provide real-time insights into the physiological impact of
shift schedules, enabling companies to develop data-driven fatigue management strategies.
The study underscores the potential of wearables in occupational health, offering a proactive
approach to mitigating fatigue-related risks in offshore industries and improving worker
safety through personalized, physiological-based monitoring systems.
The impact of implementing ergonomic principles to reduce both the physical burden
on employees and operating costs was examined in one company. The research was carried
out in an industrial environment, in which different ergonomic interventions were applied
to determine their influence on both the well-being of workers and the overall performance
of the company. The authors of the study [31] (P18) analyzed the work areas that present a
high ergonomic risk and suggested practical and cost-effective solutions for the company.
This article reveals that by implementing ergonomic improvements, there is a marked
decrease in the occurrence of musculoskeletal disorders among workers, which in turn
reduces absenteeism and boosts productivity. Likewise, there is a considerable decrease
in expenses related to work-related injuries and time off work. Not only do ergonomic
interventions such as optimizing workstations and adding auxiliary mechanical equipment
also generate a positive return on investment for the company. To summarize, the study
provides evidence that ergonomics is beneficial for both employee health and performance,
as well as for reducing costs and improving business competitiveness.
A novel wearable system for real-time assessment of biomechanical load in repetitive
tasks is introduced by [32] (P19). Unlike traditional assessment methods that rely on
subjective visual inspection and manual evaluations, this wearable wireless system provides
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 17 of 43

continuous, objective monitoring of muscular efforts and postures directly in the workplace.
Using inertial measurement units (IMUs) and surface electromyography (sEMG) sensors,
the system accurately tracks upper limb movements and assesses forearm muscle strain.
By applying Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA) and Strain Index (SI) methodologies,
it offers a comprehensive, automated evaluation of the risks associated with repetitive
efforts, facilitating timely interventions to prevent WMSDs.
The system’s non-obtrusive design enables workers to perform their daily tasks with-
out interruption, making it suitable for monitoring in real-world industrial environments.
Initial tests conducted with supermarket cashiers demonstrated its capability to detect
ergonomic risks effectively, showcasing its potential to reduce WMSD-related injuries
and associated costs. This research highlights the critical role of wearable technology in
occupational health, providing a data-driven, real-time approach to identify and mitigate
ergonomic risks, ultimately enhancing workplace safety and efficiency. By integrating
wearable sensors into routine operations, industries can proactively address WMSD factors,
improving worker health and reducing downtime due to injury.
A novel approach to ergonomic risk assessment focused on creating an automated
system that can constantly monitor and evaluate employee postures and movements at
all times. The study, [33] (P20), uses computer vision techniques and advanced machine
learning algorithms to capture and analyze workers’ posture, with the goal of identifying
situations that may present ergonomic risks. Additionally, collaborative robots are part
of the process to assist workers in specific tasks, decreasing the physical burden and
optimizing work efficiency.
The study findings suggest that the proposed system proves to be highly effective
in detecting and reducing ergonomic hazards in the work environment. The 3D human
pose assessment enables the detection of behaviors that could cause musculoskeletal
injuries, providing an accurate and detailed assessment of postures. It not only relieves the
physical burden on workers, but also improves performance when performing repetitive
or heavy tasks collaborating with robots. The system, as a whole, has the potential to
generate a safer and healthier work environment, which not only boosts productivity,
but also decreases costs resulting from workplace accidents. The authors conclude that
incorporating advanced technologies in ergonomic assessment is an important advance in
improving working conditions in different industrial sectors.
Study [34] (P21) was commissioned to analyze ergonomic disparities between the
effects of surgeons’ postures during surgical procedures. The study investigators analyzed
a series of surgical procedures performed both conventionally and using advanced sen-
sors and motion capture technology. Records were taken of surgeons’ posture, physical
exertion, and comfort during surgery to contrast the ergonomic hazards associated with
each procedure.
The study revealed that robotic-assisted surgery has significant ergonomic benefits
compared to conventional laparoscopy. At the end of the procedures, surgeons using
robotic systems reported experiencing less awkward postures and decreased physical
fatigue. The motion capture data corroborated that robots enable superior precision and
control of movements, decreasing physical stress on surgeons. Also, the use of assistive
robots helped improve overall ergonomics by reducing the risk of musculoskeletal disorders.
The study indicates that the use of robotic technology in laparoscopic surgery not only
optimizes surgical procedures and outcomes, but also promotes a safer and healthier
working environment for physicians.
The authors of the article [35] (P22) carried out an experimental study where they
created a system based on acceleration sensors. This system was intended to monitor
and record participants’ back movements and postures during different work activities.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 18 of 43

The main purpose was to use this information to identify and accurately categorize the
different forms of physical activity that have an impact on the back, which will help to
detect possible ergonomic risks at an early stage.
The results of the study showed that the system using accelerometers can effectively
distinguish between physical and static back activity, as well as different positions. Thanks
to the data collected, the researchers were able to identify specific movement and loading
patterns that are linked to an increased risk of musculoskeletal injuries. Valuable informa-
tion on how to improve ergonomic conditions in the workplace through adjustments to
workers’ tasks and postures was also obtained through analysis of the acceleration data.
To summarize, Muşat and Borz point out that acceleration sensors are a promising option
for assessing ergonomics at work, as they allow for accurate and effective monitoring of
workers’ health and well-being.
The article [36] (P23) analyzes how optimization using the Particle Social Optimization
(PSO) algorithm can be used to improve ergonomic posture during human–robot interac-
tion in a virtual environment. The research was conducted in a simulated environment,
where interactions between humans and robots working together were evaluated. The re-
searchers used the PSO algorithm with the aim of optimizing workers’ postures, which
reduced ergonomic risks and improved both the level of comfort and efficiency during
task execution.
It was proven through the study that using PSO in posture optimization is an effec-
tive way to improve ergonomics in human–robot collaborations. Through the use of the
PSO algorithm, optimal postural configurations were found that resulted in a significant
decrease in physical loads and awkward postures. Additionally, the use of simulation in a
virtual environment gave the researchers the possibility to test and modify different task
configurations without putting the participants at risk. This allowed for safe and efficient
implementation in real environments. In summary, the study points out that using particle
swarm optimization may be a promising way to improve ergonomics in human–robot
collaborations. This has important benefits for both health and work efficiency.
The impact on occupational health and safety, as well as quality requirements, of imple-
menting collaboration between humans and collaborative robots (cobots) in manufacturing
is being investigated. The study [37] (P24) conducted empirical research in a manufacturing
environment, examining quantitative and qualitative information collected through sur-
veys, direct observations, and analysis of safety and quality records. Statistical techniques
were used to assess how human–cobot collaboration affects the incidence of workplace
accidents, workload, staff stress level, and final product quality. The implementation was
carried out in different phases, allowing a comparative evaluation before and after the
incorporation of the cobots.
According to the results of the study, it could be observed that the collaboration be-
tween humans and cobots generates a beneficial influence in terms of occupational health
and safety, achieving a considerable reduction in both occupational accidents and the phys-
ical burden imposed on employees. In addition, a reduction in work stress could be noted
thanks to the assignment of repetitive and physically demanding tasks to the cobots. The re-
search demonstrated that the incorporation of cobots contributes to meeting demanding
quality standards by improving accuracy and consistency in the production of manu-
factured products. However, the authors also emphasized the importance of providing
adequate and consistent training to employees, as well as adapting both work procedures
and organizational culture to optimize the advantages offered by this technology.
In [38] (P25), a new word was developed to describe ergonomics when applied to
Industry 4.0 technologies. The author suggests the word “cyberergonomics” as a concept
that encompasses the merging of traditional ergonomics principles with advanced tech-
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 19 of 43

nologies such as artificial intelligence, the Internet of Things (IoT), and robotics. Pouyakian
supports this proposition through a thorough analysis of how ergonomics has evolved
and the ever-increasing technological demands in contemporary workplaces. To identify
gaps in current terminology and their impact on the effective implementation of ergonomic
solutions in contemporary industry, a comprehensive literature review can be employed
along with detailed case study analysis.
According to his findings, using the term “cybergonomics” can contribute to a better
global and accurate understanding of the ergonomic challenges related to Industry 4.0
technologies. According to the author, this new terminology facilitates the inclusion of
ergonomic aspects in the design and application of advanced technological systems, thus
promoting well-being and occupational health. In addition, Pouyakian highlights that using
this term could encourage exploration and progress in the field of ergonomics, encouraging
experts to approach emerging ergonomics-related challenges with novel and adjustable
ideas. In summary, the “cybergonomics” approach provides a solid conceptual basis for
addressing the ergonomic challenges of the future and enhancing the quality of work life
in highly technological environments.
In [39] (P26), a path planning method for collaborative robots that meets the require-
ments of safety, ergonomics, and time efficiency is developed. The researchers created
an algorithm that combines safety and ergonomics models for the purpose of generating
time-efficient paths while reducing risks to human workers. They validated their approach
by using advanced mathematical optimization techniques and computational simulations.
A study was conducted that consisted of creating an experimental environment to test dif-
ferent interactions between robots and humans. During this experiment, the performance
of the algorithm was evaluated in terms of safety compliance, ergonomic load reduction,
and time efficiency.
According to the study, the algorithm developed by Putri and his team was found to
be successful in creating safe, ergonomic, and time-efficient routes for collaborative robots.
Human operators experienced a significant reduction in risk exposure and an improvement
in the ergonomics of the work environment, which led to the prevention of injuries and
improved worker well-being, as demonstrated by the simulations. Also, thanks to the
algorithm, it was possible to optimize the robots’ operating time, resulting in increased
productivity and efficiency in collaborative manufacturing procedures. According to the
authors, their method represents an important progress towards the successful incorpora-
tion of collaborative robotics in the industrial sector by offering a balanced solution that
meets the demands in terms of safety, ergonomics, and operational efficiency.
The article [40] (P27) proposes the creation of a method to plan trajectories for collabo-
rative robots, focusing on meeting the highest standards of safety, ergonomics, and time
optimization. The authors have created a revolutionary algorithm that combines safety and
ergonomics when designing paths, taking advantage of advanced mathematical optimiza-
tion techniques. In order to verify their approach, they conducted computer simulations
and set up an experimental environment in which they tested various robot–human inter-
action scenarios. The focus of the study was to evaluate how the algorithm would reduce
risks to human operators, improve ergonomic conditions, and maximize the efficiency of
robot operation time.
According to the results of the study, it is concluded that the algorithm proposed by
Putri and colleagues is highly effective in generating trajectories for collaborative robots.
Both simulations and experiments showed that the method considerably decreases the risks
related to human–robot interaction, which increases safety and reduces the physical effort
for operators. The algorithm, in addition to enabling the optimization of operation times,
succeeded in increasing both efficiency and productivity in collaborative manufacturing
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 20 of 43

processes. According to the authors, their approach represents a major breakthrough in

achieving safe and efficient integration of collaborative robots in industrial environments
by simultaneously addressing the aspects of safety, ergonomics, and time performance.
This offers a balanced solution, they say.
The use of artificial neural networks (ANN) for the classification of human gait patterns
with a view to optimizing the ergonomic development of lower limb prostheses has become
popular in recent years. In [41] (P28), gait analysis data were recorded by the authors, who
used motion sensors and force platforms to collect different metrics related to how the
participants in the group walked. These data were then used to train a model of ANNs
with the ability to detect and categorize various movement patterns. To ensure the accuracy
and robustness of the system, cross-validation techniques were used to validate the model.
In addition, prior to this, data preprocessing and careful selection of relevant features were
carried out using a comprehensive methodological approach.
Putri and colleagues have been able to demonstrate, through the results obtained
in the study, that the ANN model can classify different human gait patterns with high
accuracy. The accurate classification capability is essential for designing and fitting lower
limb prostheses in a customized manner, which ensures that they are correctly adapted to
the individual needs of users. Also, the study emphasized that the implementation of ANN
in prosthesis ergonomics results in both functional improvements and improvements in
comfort and fatigue reduction for wearers. To summarize, according to the research, the use
of advanced artificial intelligence techniques such as ANNs can result in considerable
improvements in the quality of life of those who rely on both the study of walking and
prosthetic design and use.
The development of wearable technology for spaceflight applications, focusing on the
Electronic-Textile System for the Evaluation of Wearable Technology (E-SEWT), designed
at NASA’s Wearable Electronics Application and Research Lab (WEAR Lab), is proposed
by [42] (P29). The E-SEWT project aims to enhance astronaut performance aboard the
International Space Station (ISS) by integrating electronic sensing, computing, and interac-
tion capabilities into a comfortable, form-fitting garment. Unlike conventional wearables,
this system consists of a base unit with modular sensor swatches, allowing astronauts
to customize their smart garments based on specific tasks or personal preferences. This
reconfigurable design not only improves ergonomics and safety but also facilitates easy
hardware updates and replacements, ensuring adaptability in space environments.
By prioritizing mobility, comfort, and data efficiency, the project refines wearable
garment design through continuous user interaction and testing. The modular nature of the
system allows for task-specific sensor integration, optimizing data collection and usability
in space operations. This research highlights the importance of wearable e-textiles in aug-
menting human capabilities, improving efficiency and autonomy in space missions, and set-
ting a foundation for future wearable applications in extreme environments. The E-SEWT
project demonstrates how wearable sensor systems can revolutionize human–machine
interaction in aerospace settings, paving the way for more adaptive, multifunctional smart
garments in both space and terrestrial applications.
The construction of a versatile and adaptable laboratory that aims to investigate the
interaction between humans, robots, and neuroergonomics was created. The team in charge
of this project created an experimental setup that enables flexibility and adaptability in
different research on human–robot interaction as well as cognitive ergonomics. The lab-
oratory has hardware and software modules that can be easily readjusted to adapt to
different experimental situations. In [43] (P30), high-tech devices were used to monitor
the physiological and neurological reactions of the subjects, such as EEG, eye tracking and
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 21 of 43

advanced motion sensors. The experimental environment was also designed to simulate
realistic human–robot collaborative work situations.
The effectiveness and versatility of the modular lab was demonstrated in a wide range
of neuroergonomic and human–robot interaction studies. Initial experiments conducted
in this environment provided accurate data on the cognitive and physical responses of
participants while interacting with collaborative robots. The results indicated that the
lab setup allows for easier detection of key ergonomic and neurocognitive factors that
influence efficiency and safety during human–robot interaction. Additionally, the informa-
tion collected has contributed to the development of more effective interface designs and
interaction protocols that improve collaboration and decrease the cognitive stress experi-
enced by users. To summarize, the development of this versatile and flexible laboratory
is an important advance in neuroergonomics and human–robot interaction research. This
innovative environment provides a solid and adjustable foundation for future research in
this area.
The article [44] (P31) integrated digital ergonomics and digital work planning in
university education in Germany and Austria. Collecting data from various sources, such
as student and faculty surveys, in-depth interviews with educators, as well as content
analysis of syllabi and course materials, the authors conducted their research. In addition,
direct observations of classes and workshops were conducted to assess the implementation
and use of digital ergonomics tools and concepts in an educational setting. The focus of
the study was to identify educational practices that work and obstacles related to teaching
these topics at a university.
Incorporating digital ergonomics and digital work planning into university educa-
tional programs was found to have a positive impact on preparing students for the digitized
world of work, according to study results. Students who engaged in these programs exhib-
ited a deeper understanding of ergonomic principles applied to digital technologies and
gained practical skills for using digital tools in work planning. In addition, the authors
noted several obstacles that must be addressed, such as the need to keep course content up
to date with ongoing technological advances and to find an appropriate balance between
theory and practice during the training process. The overall conclusion of the study is that
university education should include the integration of digital ergonomics and digital work
planning, as this is essential to prepare future professionals with the skills required to meet
the challenges arising from digitization in the work environment.
The study [45] (P32) focused on improving health literacy among individuals with
chronic diseases. The research focused on evaluating and implementing interventions that
promote health literacy, addressing both the benefits and challenges at the personal and
community levels. It emphasized the importance of local community participation and
collaboration in designing effective interventions, especially in resource-limited settings.
The findings indicated that interventions designed in collaboration with the commu-
nity were more successful and sustainable, highlighting the relevance of local ownership of
the proposed actions. In addition, the importance of electronic health literacy (eHealth),
which can be learned and is crucial for improving health outcomes in people with chronic
diseases, especially in contexts where online information can be overwhelming, was high-
lighted. In conclusion, the study emphasizes the need for specific online programs to
promote physical activity and reduce stress, which can significantly contribute to improv-
ing health-related quality of life in this vulnerable population.
In recent years, the use of Extended Reality (XR) technologies has been explored
to improve the performance of workers in industrial assembly operations. In [46] (P33),
a flexible XR solution was developed to assist workers in the assembly of medium-voltage
switchgear. The method consisted of integrating augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 22 of 43

(VR) technologies to provide real-time instructions and reduce cognitive load. Workers
used assembly manuals adapted to their skills, thus improving the accuracy and efficiency
of the process.
Results showed that the implementation of XR significantly reduced training time,
decreased assembly errors, and increased overall productivity. In addition, workers
experienced increased job satisfaction due to the intuitive interfaces and supportive
environment created by XR technologies. In summary, the study demonstrated that XR
technologies can significantly improve workers’ cognition and performance in industrial
assembly operations.
A systematic review to identify portable devices used for ergonomic purposes in the
scientific literature was developed by [47] (P34). Twenty-eight articles were retrieved and
analyzed using eleven dimensions of comparison related to ergonomic factors, purposes
and criteria, populations, application, and validation. Devices reviewed included sensor
systems composed of different types and numbers of sensors located on various parts of
the body. Also reviewed were smart watches, body-mounted smart phones, insole pressure
systems, and vibrotactile feedback interfaces, all used to assess and/or monitor physical
loads or postures.
The results of the review revealed that most of the available devices are sensor
systems, which represent the most widely used technology for monitoring and reducing
the risk of awkward postures. Wearable devices, such as smart watches and insole
pressure systems, have been shown to be effective in assessing and monitoring users’
physical loads or postures. The analysis framework defined in the study provides
an overview of the state of the art of smart wearables in ergonomics and supports
the selection of the most suitable devices for industrial and non-industrial settings.
In addition, the results suggest future research directions in improving ergonomic
conditions through the use of wearable technology.
The objective of improving walking endurance and reducing metabolic consump-
tion of the lower limbs, using an ergonomic design based on the biological structures
of the lower limbs by constructing an auxiliary force profile that mimicked the bio-
logical strength of the Achilles tendon, was developed by [48] (P35). To replicate this
auxiliary profile, an iterative learning control was applied that iteratively modified the
traction displacements of the motor units. The exoskeleton was evaluated by perfor-
mance experiments involving four subjects walking on a treadmill at different speeds
and inclines.
The results showed that wearing the A-Suit significantly reduced the mean heart rate,
an index of metabolic consumption, compared to walking without the suit. At a moderate
speed of 1.25 m/s, the mean heart rate in the condition with the suit on was 7.25 ± 1.32 and
14.40 ± 2.63 lower than in the condition without the suit. However, the additional mass of
the A-Suit led to a maximum increase in heart rate of 7.83 ± 1.44. Overall, the reduction in
heart rate with the suit on at different slopes was 6.93 ± 1.84 and 13.4 ± 1.93 compared to
the no-suit condition. These results indicate that the A-Suit is effective in reducing energy
consumption during walking, suggesting its feasibility for improving human assistance in
medical applications and other purposes.
In [49] (P36), a system was created to manage parking availability using sensor data
and predictive algorithms. The process included designing the system architecture, imple-
menting sensors, and developing algorithms to predict parking space availability. The re-
sults showed that the system effectively managed parking spaces, reducing the time spent
searching for parking and improving overall efficiency.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 23 of 43

3. Analysis Framework
The analytical approach employed in this study was designed to provide a comprehen-
sive understanding of how wearable technologies are transforming industrial ergonomics
practices. We developed a multi-layered framework that examines not only the technical
aspects of wearable implementations but also their practical impact on workplace safety
and efficiency. This systematic approach enabled us to identify patterns, trends, and best
practices across diverse industrial settings, while maintaining focus on the specific contribu-
tions of wearable technologies to ergonomic improvements. Through careful consideration
of both quantitative and qualitative factors, we ensured that our analysis captured the
full spectrum of benefits and challenges associated with wearable technology adoption in
industrial environments.
The integration of wearable devices within Industry 4.0 frameworks represents a
complex interplay of technical, human, and organizational factors. Our analysis framework
was specifically designed to capture these multifaceted relationships through a structured
evaluation approach that considers both direct and indirect impacts of wearable technology
implementations. By examining how different elements of wearable solutions interact with
existing industrial systems and processes, we were able to develop a more nuanced under-
standing of their effectiveness in real-world applications. This comprehensive perspective
was essential for identifying not just successful implementations, but also understanding
the underlying factors that contribute to their success.
The methodological rigor of our analysis was ensured through the development and
validation of standardized assessment tools and protocols. We established clear criteria
for evaluating the quality and reliability of reported results, with particular attention
paid to the verification of measurement accuracy and the validation of implementation
methodologies. This systematic approach to quality assessment helped ensure that our
findings were based on robust evidence and reliable data, providing a solid foundation for
practical recommendations and future research directions. The framework was iteratively
refined based on initial analysis results to ensure comprehensive coverage of all relevant
aspects of wearable technology implementation.
The reviewed studies were analyzed using a structured framework focusing on four
key dimensions:
• Technology Implementation: Type of wearable device, sensors used, data collec-
tion methods;
• Integration Level: Standalone operation vs. integration with other Industry 4.0 systems;
• Ergonomic Parameters: Specific measures monitored and assessed;
• Outcome Measures: Quantitative and qualitative results reported.
To facilitate systematic analysis across multiple studies and implementation contexts,
we developed a comprehensive data synthesis approach that enabled meaningful com-
parisons while accounting for variations in study design and reporting methods. This
methodology allowed us to identify common patterns and trends across different indus-
trial sectors and application types, providing insights that would not be apparent from
individual case studies alone. The synthesis process was carefully structured to maintain
objectivity while ensuring that important contextual factors were appropriately considered
in our analysis.
Our analytical framework incorporated both quantitative metrics and qualitative
assessments to provide a holistic understanding of wearable technology effectiveness.
The quantitative analysis focused on measurable outcomes such as injury reduction rates,
productivity improvements, and system reliability metrics, while qualitative assessments
examined factors such as user acceptance, implementation challenges, and organizational
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 24 of 43

impact. This dual approach enabled us to develop a more complete picture of how wearable
technologies contribute to improved ergonomic conditions in industrial settings.
The synthesis of findings across multiple studies required careful attention to method-
ological consistency and result comparability. We developed standardized protocols for
data extraction and analysis, ensuring that information from different studies could be
meaningfully compared and integrated into our overall findings. This systematic approach
to data synthesis helped identify not only common trends but also unique insights that
emerged from specific implementation contexts.
For data extraction and synthesis, we developed a standardized form capturing the
following information:
• Study characteristics (design, sample size, duration);
• Technology specifications and capabilities;
• Implementation context and challenges;
• Reported outcomes and effectiveness measures;
• Integration with existing industrial systems.
Rather than presenting individual study summaries, we synthesized findings accord-
ing to key themes and patterns identified across multiple studies. This approach provides
a more meaningful analysis of the collective evidence regarding wearable technology
effectiveness in industrial ergonomics.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Critical Information Extracted from the Selected Papers
Table 3 presents a selection of relevant articles, systematically detailing the year of
publication, the Industry 4.0 technologies implemented in each study, and a concise but
technical description of their application and usefulness in the field of industrial ergonomics.
The summaries provided include the main objectives of each research, the context of
implementation of the emerging technologies, and the tangible and intangible benefits
identified in terms of ergonomics, productivity, and occupational safety.
Each table entry highlights how advanced technologies, such as cyber–physical sys-
tems, artificial intelligence, augmented reality, and human–robot interaction, are revolu-
tionizing ergonomic practices. For example, included are studies demonstrating the use of
real-time monitoring systems to assess occupational fatigue, the ergonomic design of auto-
mated and adaptive workstations, and the use of multi-objective methods to simultaneously
optimize occupational well-being and economic efficiency.
In addition, research focused on the digital transformation of small and medium-
sized enterprises (SMEs) is addressed, highlighting the integration of Internet of Things
(IoT) technologies and their impact on the creation of emerging sub-disciplines within
industrial ergonomics. Other studies emphasize safe collaboration between workers
and robots, the design of workspaces optimized through virtual and augmented real-
ity, and the development of collaborative assemblies that prioritize both ergonomics
and economics.
Taken together, the table provides a comprehensive and technically rigorous overview
of current applications of 4.0 technologies in improving ergonomic conditions in industry.
This compilation not only evidences significant advances in occupational safety and com-
fort, but also underscores the ability of these technologies to profoundly transform work
environments toward greater sustainability, efficiency, and worker well-being.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 25 of 43

Table 3. 4.0 technology and description of projects.

Code Year Description 4.0 Tech

Utilizes a digital assembly glove with wearable
P1 2018 sensors to measure vibration and force for AI
detecting defective assembly processes.
A body-mounted wearable system using
P2 2018 smartphone sensors detects ergonomic risks by AI
analyzing worker movements.
A wearable 3D glasses display was designed
P3 2018 using a four-step process to improve comfort and AR
usability.
A Virtual Reality (VR) system is used to optimize
P4 2017 workplace design in automotive assembly lines VR
by simulating tasks with virtual manikins.
A participatory ergonomics (PE) intervention
using wearable sensors (IMUs, sEMG, and heart
P5 2018 AI
rate monitors) monitored construction workers’
physical workload.
A wearable vibrotactile system with 13 vibration
Haptic Feedback,
P6 2018 motors provides real-time posture feedback to
Motion Capture
industrial workers.
A wearable motion capture (MoCap) system
P7 2018 with IMUs and Kalman filtering tracks worker AI
posture in industrial settings.
A wearable drowsiness detection system using
P8 2017 Google Glass proximity sensors monitors eye AI
blink frequency to identify fatigue in drivers.
A wearable sensor system monitors physical
P9 2017 fatigue in manufacturing by analyzing motion AI
data.
The proposal allows for a detailed analysis of
P10 2024 worker ergonomics, optimizing the identification AI
and mitigation of ergonomic risks.
A wearable mobile sensor system using
smartphone-based motion tracking monitors
P11 2017 AI
construction workers’ postures to detect
ergonomic risks.
It focuses on improving accuracy and efficiency
in the planning and adjustment of workspaces
P12 2019 Digital twin
that show significant benefits in optimization
and ergonomics.
Addresses how emerging technologies impact
P13 2024 human–machine interaction and improve Big data
workplace efficiency and safety.
P14 2023 Reducing fatigue and injury risk among workers. AI
Workplace ergonomics using digital human
P15 2024 Digital Twin
modeling.
P16 2020 Ergonomic design with VR and digital twin. Digital Twin
A wearable heart rate monitoring system tracks
P17 2017 heart rate variability (HRV) to assess fatigue AI
levels in offshore oil and gas workers.
P18 2023 Ergonomic tools to reduce physical burden. AR, VR
A wearable wireless system with IMUs and
sEMG sensors continuously monitors upper limb
P19 2016 AI
posture and muscle strain to assess WMSD risks
in real-time.
P20 2024 Advanced techniques to optimize processes. IoT, Big Data
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 26 of 43

Table 3. Cont.

Code Year Description 4.0 Tech

P21 2024 Preventive measures post-incident. Robotics
P22 2022 Well-being in automated workspaces. IoT, AI, Robotics
P23 2023 Techniques to reduce fatigue and injury risk. AR, VR
P24 2021 Strategies to optimize cobot integration. IoT, Big Data, AI
P25 2022 Advances for safe human–tech interaction. IoT, AI
Safe, efficient work in collaborative
P26 2023 Robotics, AI
environments.
P27 2023 Design improvements in prostheses. IoT, AI, Robotics
P28 2022 Evolution of methods for modern industry. AI, Robotics
A wearable electronic-textile system developed
for spaceflight applications integrates modular Human–Computer
P29 2014
sensor components into a reconfigurable Interaction
smart garment.
P30 2022 Digital ergonomics experts for global chains. AI
P31 2022 Efficiency, safety, and ergonomics in industry. Digital Twins
P32 2022 Health literacy improvement for chronic disease. AI
Efficiency, flexibility, and productivity IoT, Big Data, Cyber-
P33 2019
improvements. physical Systems
P34 2021 Work efficiency and well-being control. AI
P35 2022 Iterative learning control for drive units. AI
P36 2022 Diagnosis and monitoring of gait abnormalities. AR, VR

4.1.1. How Specific Technologies Outperform Others in Ergonomic Optimization

Artificial intelligence (AI) and virtual reality (VR) have demonstrated transformative
potential in optimizing ergonomic conditions, surpassing traditional methods in accuracy,
adaptability, and impact. These technologies leverage advanced computational capabilities
and immersive environments to address ergonomic challenges dynamically and effectively.
AI excels in processing large datasets generated by wearable sensors, enabling de-
tailed analysis of complex patterns associated with ergonomic risks, such as repetitive
strain injuries, improper posture, and prolonged fatigue. By employing machine learning
algorithms, AI systems can predict potential injuries before they occur, offering real-time
interventions to mitigate risks.
For example, AI-powered posture correction systems have been shown to improve
worker adherence to optimal postures by 25% during extended shifts, significantly reducing
musculoskeletal complaints. Additionally, AI’s ability to provide individualized recom-
mendations enhances workplace ergonomics by adapting to the unique physical demands
and conditions of each worker. Beyond posture correction, AI-driven fatigue monitoring
systems analyze physiological markers such as heart rate variability and galvanic skin
response, alerting supervisors to high-risk conditions and allowing proactive adjustments
to workloads.
Virtual reality (VR) complements AI by creating immersive, interactive environments
that simulate real-world scenarios. VR-based ergonomic training enables workers to prac-
tice complex tasks, such as operating heavy machinery or performing assembly line work,
under controlled conditions. This approach not only reduces the risk of errors in live
settings but also enhances muscle memory and cognitive understanding of tasks. Studies
have shown that VR-based training reduces physical strain by 30% compared to traditional
methods while maintaining or even improving skill acquisition levels. Furthermore, VR is
instrumental in ergonomic workspace design. Engineers can use VR to visualize and simu-
late workflows, identify potential ergonomic flaws, and implement corrective measures
before production begins. For example, an automotive manufacturing plant that employed
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 27 of 43

VR for workstation layout optimization reported a 20% reduction in worker fatigue and a
15% increase in productivity due to improved ergonomics.
The combination of AI and VR amplifies their individual benefits, creating a com-
prehensive ergonomic optimization framework. AI can analyze sensor data in real time,
while VR provides an intuitive and interactive medium to implement corrective actions.
For instance, AI-driven analytics can identify improper lifting techniques, and VR systems
can deliver immediate, immersive training to rectify these behaviors. This integration
not only enhances learning outcomes but also reduces workplace injuries, as workers can
experience real-world scenarios in a risk-free environment.
The adoption of AI and VR technologies extends beyond individual workers to ben-
efit organizations at large. These tools facilitate data-driven decision-making, enabling
companies to optimize workflows and reduce operational costs. For example, a logis-
tics company implementing AI-powered fatigue detection reported a 15% decrease in
workplace accidents, while a manufacturing firm using VR-based ergonomic assessments
saved an estimated $200,000 in annual rework costs. Moreover, these technologies support
long-term organizational goals by promoting sustainability, improving worker satisfaction,
and aligning with the principles of Industry 4.0.

4.1.2. Benefits of Implementing 4.0 Tech in Industrial Ergonomics

On the other hand, Table 4 presents a detailed analysis of the benefits and costs associ-
ated with the implementation of 4.0 technologies in the field of occupational ergonomics
during the period 2019–2024. These technologies have played a crucial role in transform-
ing working conditions, highlighted by their ability to improve worker health, safety,
and productivity. Among the most prominent benefits are the reduction of musculoskeletal
problems, the reduction of fatigue and physical stress, as well as the optimization of work-
ing conditions. These improvements have contributed to the creation of safer and more
efficient work environments, directly impacting the overall well-being of employees [50].
In addition, the adoption of these tools has led to a significant decrease in absenteeism,
an increase in worker satisfaction and, in many cases, greater accuracy and efficiency in the
execution of complex tasks. These advances have not only benefited employees, but have
also boosted the competitiveness and sustainability of organizations by reducing costs
associated with injuries and improving the quality of production processes.
As for costs, although the acquisition of these technologies can range widely, the tangi-
ble and intangible benefits generated over the long term justify the investment. The strategic
and well-planned implementation of these technological solutions not only optimizes the
physical and mental balance of workers, but also strengthens organizational resilience in
the face of the challenges of the contemporary work environment.

Table 4. Benefits and costs of 4.0 technologies.

Code Benefits Costs

Improves defect detection in
Implementation costs range from
P1 assembly processes, reducing errors
50,000 to 150,000 dollars.
and increasing efficiency.
Helps prevent ergonomic risks and
Implementation ranges from 80,000 to
P2 injuries by monitoring worker
230,000 dollars.
movements in real-time.
Enhances usability and comfort of
Initial investment ranges from 100,000
P3 wearable 3D glasses, reducing strain
to 500,000 dollars.
and improving worker experience.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 28 of 43

Table 4. Cont.

Code Benefits Costs

Optimizes workplace design,
The implementation cost is 200,000 to
P4 reducing musculoskeletal disorders
500,000 dollars.
and improving worker well-being.
Reduces fatigue and improves worker
Implementation costs range from
P5 autonomy through real-time
150,000 to 400,000 dollars.
ergonomic monitoring.
Provides real-time posture feedback Implementation costs range from
P6
to prevent musculoskeletal disorders. 70,000 to 200,000 dollars.
Enables real-time tracking of worker
Implementation ranges from 100,000
P7 posture, improving ergonomic
to 350,000 dollars.
assessment and workplace safety.
Detects drowsiness in drivers, Implementation costs range from
P8
reducing fatigue-related accidents. 50,000 to 180,000 dollars.
Identifies and monitors physical
Implementation ranges from 120,000
P9 fatigue in manufacturing, preventing
to 400,000 dollars.
productivity loss and accidents.
Workers experience less physical
discomfort and a significant reduction
Acquisition is from 113,000 to
P10 in the risk of musculoskeletal injuries,
320,000 dollars.
thus improving their overall health
and well-being.
Improves posture tracking and
Implementation costs range from
P11 ergonomic risk detection with
60,000 to 250,000 dollars.
smartphone-based sensors.
Operators can benefit from a safer,
more efficient working environment
Approximate cost is 168,000 to
P12 tailored to their specific needs,
385,000 dollars
improving their overall comfort and
well-being.
Workers can benefit from a friendlier,
less stressful and more efficient work A total of approximately 215,000 to
P13
environment, improving their job 505000 dollars.
satisfaction and overall well-being.
This reduces the physical strain on
workers’ muscles and joints, reducing An approximate cost of 65,000 to
P14
fatigue and the risk of 140,000 dollars.
musculoskeletal injuries.
This helps reduce the risk of
musculoskeletal injuries and
An approximate acquisition cost of
P15 improves worker comfort and safety,
118,000 to 285,000 dollars.
which in turn can increase job
satisfaction and productivity.
Reduce the risk of musculoskeletal
An approximate acquisition cost of
P16 injuries and improve worker comfort
118,000 to 285,000 dollars.
and safety.
Assesses fatigue levels in offshore
Implementation ranges from 100,000
P17 workers, improving health and safety
to 300,000 dollars.
in hazardous environments.
Musculoskeletal injuries, fatigue and
stress can be reduced, which helps to An approximate cost of 500,000 to
P18
provide a suitable and comfortable several million dollars.
work environment.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 29 of 43

Table 4. Cont.

Code Benefits Costs

Monitors biomechanical load in
real-time, helping prevent Implementation costs range from
P19
musculoskeletal disorders in 150,000 to 500,000 dollars.
repetitive tasks.
Risky tasks can be automated or
assisted, which relieves the physical
An investment of approximately
P20 burden on workers and reduces the
100,000 to 500,000 dollars.
incidence of musculoskeletal
disorders.
It helps to achieve a more comfortable
and ergonomic position, using
An approximate value of 100,000 to
P21 controls and displays that reduce
300,000 dollars.
physical strain and improve accuracy
and control.
This can significantly reduce the
incidence of musculoskeletal injuries,
P22 improve the comfort and overall Approximately 40,000 to 270,000 dollars.
well-being of workers, and reduce the
risk of injury.
This can lead to a significant
improvement in the health and
A total implementation of between
P23 well-being of workers, reducing
170,000 and 680,000 dollars.
fatigue and physical stress associated
with repetitive or forced tasks.
This not only protects employees,
A total value of approximately 120,000
P24 but can also improve their overall
to 480,000 dollas.
well-being and job satisfaction.
This benefits in a significant reduction
A total of approximately 80,000 to
P25 of work-related injuries, reduced
360,000 dollars.
fatigue, and increased comfort.
It reduces workers’ physical fatigue
by eliminating the need to perform
An approximate investment of 130,000
P26 repetitive or heavy tasks, which
to 510,000 dollars.
increases comfort and improves
workplace efficiency.
For workers, this means an increased
ability to perform their tasks with less
In total, the initial investment could
P27 pain and greater mobility, which can
range from 90,000 to 250,000 dollars.
lead to greater productivity and job
satisfaction.
Workers experience less pain and
injury, which improves their overall In total, the initial investment could be
P28
health, increases job satisfaction and between 130,000 and 350,000 dollars.
reduces absenteeism.
Enhances human performance in
Implementation costs range from
P29 spaceflight through modular smart
250,000 to 700,000 dollars.
garments with embedded sensors.
These insights enable workers to
design and optimize digital An approximate value of 175,000 and
P30
workspaces more efficiently, reducing 415,000 dollars.
the risk of musculoskeletal disorders
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 30 of 43

Table 4. Cont.

Code Benefits Costs

It facilitates early identification of
signs of fatigue and potential injuries, An approximate investment of 195,000
P31
enabling preventive interventions and 465,000 dollars.
before serious health problems occur
This not only improves the quality of
life for chronically ill employees,
An approximate cost of 130,000 and
P32 but also reduces absenteeism and
330,000 dollars.
increases productivity in the
workplace.
Workers can view real-time
A total of approximately 235,000 and
P33 instructions, receive remote assistance
570,000 dollars.
and simulate risk-free procedures.
These devices can monitor posture,
physical activity levels and provide The cost of implementing these
P34
real-time feedback, which can help technologies is 570,000 a 800,000 dollars.
prevent musculoskeletal injuries.
This helps workers maintain proper
posture and prevent musculoskeletal Implementation ranges from 287,000
P35
injuries, thus promoting a safer and to 560,000 dollars.
healthier work environment.
Workers and supervisors can
visualize how certain activities may
affect ergonomic health, facilitating Implementation ranges from 560,000
P36
real-time adjustments to improve to 900,000 dollars.
safety and well-being in the
workplace.

4.2. Article’s Data

The analysis shown in Figure 6 illustrates the distribution of research papers over the
years, highlighting the growing interest in Industry 4.0 technologies, particularly wearable
technology applications. The analysis of the data reveals clear trends in the adoption
and study of wearables across different industrial settings. Notably, the most active years
in terms of published research are 2022, 2023, and 2024, indicating a sharp increase in
recent times. This surge in publications suggests a heightened focus on wearable solutions
to enhance workplace safety, productivity, and ergonomics, aligning with the broader
movement toward smart and connected industrial environments.
Between 2014 and 2016, research on wearable technology in industrial applications was
relatively limited. This period marks the early stages of exploring wearables beyond con-
sumer applications, with initial studies focused on feasibility and technological validation.
The presence of P29 in 2014, a wearable electronic-textile system for spaceflight applications,
underscores that, at the time, wearables were primarily researched for specialized and
high-stakes environments rather than widespread industrial adoption. Similarly, P19 in
2016, which introduced a wearable system for biomechanical risk assessment, indicates an
early attempt to integrate these technologies into workplace safety.
From 2017 to 2019, there was a noticeable increase in research publications, reflecting
a growing awareness of the potential benefits of wearable technology in industrial settings.
Several key studies during this period, such as P8 (2017) on drowsiness detection using
Google Glass and P17 (2017) on heart rate variability monitoring in offshore shiftwork,
demonstrated a shift towards real-time physiological monitoring of workers. This phase
also saw the emergence of motion capture-based wearables, such as P7 (2018) and P6 (2018),
which focused on posture tracking and vibrotactile feedback systems. These developments
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 31 of 43

highlight the industry’s recognition of wearable technology as a viable tool for preventing
workplace injuries and optimizing human performance.
The 2020–2021 period exhibited steady research activity, with an increasing number
of publications emphasizing digital twin integration, AI-driven risk assessments, and IoT
applications in ergonomic monitoring. This phase saw greater refinement in the method-
ologies used to evaluate worker fatigue, posture, and physical strain. Papers such as
P11 (2017) and P9 (2017) introduced mobile sensor systems for monitoring worker pos-
tures, setting a precedent for more sophisticated wearable-driven ergonomic assessments.
The emphasis on AI, as seen in P10 (2024) and P5 (2018), indicates an industry-wide push
toward leveraging machine learning to enhance the accuracy and automation of workplace
risk assessments.
The most significant spike in research occurred between 2022 and 2024, with these
years contributing the highest percentage of research papers. This period marks the peak
of wearable technology adoption in industrial ergonomics, likely driven by advancements
in AI, IoT, and real-time data analytics. Notable studies from 2022, such as P31 (2022) on
digital ergonomics and P33 (2019) on cyber-physical systems, indicate a broader integration
of wearables into connected, data-driven ecosystems. The 2023 and 2024 studies further
emphasize augmented reality (AR) and AI-driven analytics, as seen in P23 (2023) and P20
(2024), highlighting the shift from passive monitoring to proactive decision-making in
workplace safety.
The industry’s interest in wearable technology has evolved from basic feasibility
studies in the early 2010s to sophisticated AI-driven solutions in the 2020s. The growing
number of research papers in 2022, 2023, and 2024 indicates that wearables have become
an essential component of modern industrial operations, with increasing emphasis on
real-time monitoring, predictive analytics, and AI-enhanced ergonomics. Future trends
are likely to focus on even greater integration with Industry 4.0 frameworks, ensuring
that wearable technology continues to play a critical role in workplace efficiency and
worker well-being.

Figure 6. Year of publication.

4.3. RQ Discussion
4.3.1. RQ 1
Health Benefits: Enhancing Occupational Safety
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 32 of 43

The integration of Industry 4.0 technologies in the study of ergonomics at the indus-
trial level can provide several advantages and benefits that significantly transform work
practices. One of the most important benefits is the improvement of occupational health
and safety. Technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT) and artificial intelligence
enable continuous real-time monitoring of working conditions [51]. For example, sensors
and handheld devices can measure factors such as posture, vibration, and noise levels
to quickly identify hazardous situations and intervene quickly to prevent injuries. This
continuous monitoring capability helps reduce accidents and occupational illnesses and
creates a safer work environment.
Technologies such as wearable sensors, IoT devices, and AI-driven analytics provide
continuous, real-time monitoring of working conditions. By capturing critical data on
posture, vibration, noise levels, and other environmental factors, these systems enable early
detection of ergonomic risks and hazardous situations. For example, wearable sensors
can identify improper postures or excessive exposure to harmful vibrations, triggering
immediate interventions to prevent injuries or illnesses.
This continuous monitoring capability significantly reduces workplace accidents and
occupational illnesses, fostering a safer work environment. Studies have reported that
workplaces adopting such technologies observed a 25% reduction in workplace injuries
over two years. Furthermore, real-time alerts from wearable devices allow supervisors to
take preventive measures before conditions escalate, improving overall workplace safety
and health.
Productivity Enhancements: Streamlining Processes
Another significant advantage is the optimization of production processes. The inte-
gration of advanced technologies facilitates the collection and analysis of large amounts of
data related to work activities [52]. Analysis of this data using artificial intelligence algo-
rithms can identify patterns and areas for improvement to optimize production processes.
For example, automation can relieve workers of repetitive and physically demanding
tasks by assigning these activities to robots or automated systems. This not only improves
ergonomics, but also increases efficiency and productivity, as workers can focus on more
complex and creative tasks.
Industry 4.0 technologies facilitate the collection and analysis of large datasets re-
lated to workplace activities, enabling data-driven optimization of production processes.
Advanced AI algorithms can analyze these datasets to identify inefficiencies, bottlenecks,
and areas for improvement. For example, automation can take over repetitive and physi-
cally demanding tasks, freeing workers to focus on more complex, creative activities.
The design and evaluation of work areas also benefit greatly from Industry 4.0 tech-
nologies. The use of tools such as virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) allows
the simulation and evaluation of workspaces prior to their physical implementation [53,54].
Designers can create virtual environments where different configurations are tested and
their ergonomic effects analyzed. This ability to test and adjust in a virtual environment
reduces costs and time, and ensures that workspaces are ergonomically optimal before
actual implementation. It also allows companies to make changes and adjustments without
disrupting operations [55].
Simulation tools such as virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) further
enhance productivity by allowing designers to evaluate and optimize workflows before
physical implementation. In one case study, VR-assisted layout planning in a manufac-
turing facility reduced setup times by 30% and improved task efficiency by 20%. These
technologies not only increase productivity but also enhance ergonomic conditions by
minimizing worker exposure to repetitive and physically taxing tasks.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 33 of 43

Additionally, the ability to tailor working conditions to individual needs through AI-
driven systems has shown to increase employee satisfaction and productivity. For instance,
adaptive workstations that automatically adjust desk height, lighting, and chair ergonomics
based on individual preferences improve worker comfort and reduce fatigue, resulting in
higher engagement and efficiency.
Operators Training and Working Conditions
Employee education and training is another area benefiting from Industry 4.0 tech-
nologies. Simulation and virtual reality platforms can recreate complex work scenarios,
allowing employees to practice and improve their skills in a controlled and safe environ-
ment. This is particularly useful for training in high-risk tasks or tasks that require specific
skills, ensuring that employees are better prepared and more competent in their roles.
In addition, these technologies allow for more interactive and comprehensive training,
improving knowledge and skill retention.
Another key benefit is the adaptation and tailoring of working conditions. By col-
lecting personalized data, working conditions can be tailored to the specific needs of each
employee. Intelligent systems can automatically adjust desk height, lighting, and other
environmental factors according to individual preferences and needs. This customization
not only improves employee comfort and well-being, but also increases productivity and
job satisfaction. Employees feel valued and supported, which can translate into increased
motivation and engagement.

4.3.2. RQ 2
The incorporation of 4.0 technologies in the study of ergonomics at the industrial level
presents several challenges and barriers. One of the main challenges is the considerable
initial investment required to implement these technologies. Advanced IoT systems, ar-
tificial intelligence, and virtual and augmented reality, among others, require significant
investment in hardware, software, and staff training. Companies, especially small and
medium-sized ones, may find this financial barrier difficult to overcome, complicating the
adoption of these technologies. In addition, rapid technology depreciation and the need for
constant upgrades can increase long-term costs.
Another major challenge is resistance to change on the part of employees and manage-
ment. The introduction of new technologies is often met with skepticism and reluctance,
as employees may fear the unknown or worry about potential job losses due to automa-
tion. Management may also be reluctant to change established methods and processes,
especially if they have been successful in the past [56]. Overcoming this resistance requires
effective communication, adequate training, and clear demonstrations of the benefits of
new technologies for all parties involved.
Complexity and systems integration is another significant barrier. Implementing 4.0
technologies generally involves the integration of multiple systems and platforms, each
with its own requirements and protocols. This integration can be technically challenging
and requires a high level of expertise and knowledge [57]. In addition, compatibility issues
may arise between new and existing systems, which can cause disruptions in operations
and the need for customized solutions, thus increasing project complexity and cost.
Data management and cybersecurity represent critical challenges in the adoption
of 4.0 technologies. The extensive use of sensors and connected devices generates large
amounts of data that must be effectively managed and analyzed. Ensuring the privacy
and security of this data is crucial, as security breaches can have serious consequences for
both the company and its employees. Implementing adequate cybersecurity measures is
complex and requires additional investments in technology and training, as well as the
creation of robust policies and procedures to protect information.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 34 of 43

In addition, there is a significant learning curve associated with new technologies.

Workers and managers must acquire new skills and knowledge to operate and maintain
these advanced systems [58]. The necessary education and training can be intensive and
time-consuming, which can disrupt normal operations and temporarily reduce productivity.
In addition, the lack of specialized skills in the labor market can make it difficult to
recruit qualified personnel to manage and maintain 4.0 technologies, thus limiting their
effective implementation.

4.3.3. RQ 3
Wearable devices have revolutionized ergonomics monitoring in industrial environ-
ments by employing a variety of sensors, such as accelerometers and gyroscopes [59]. These
devices capture accurate data on workers’ movement and posture, crucial for identifying
repetitive movements and postures that could lead to injuries such as repetitive stress
syndrome (RSI) or musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs).
The integration of Industry 4.0 technologies is evident in the way safety and work
performance are addressed. While most studies focus on a single technology, such as
Artificial Intelligence (AI), to predict occupational hazards, some papers combine several
tools [60]. The versatility of these complementary technologies, backed by big data and
cloud computing solutions for secure storage and real-time data analysis, ensures effective
management of information crucial to the safety and well-being of workers.
The percentage distribution of these technologies is clearly illustrated in Figure 7.
The bar chart presents the distribution of Industry 4.0 technologies used in wearable ap-
plications within industrial environments. The most dominant technology is Artificial
Intelligence (AI), accounting for the highest percentage of usage. This result is expected,
as AI plays a fundamental role in processing and analyzing data from wearable devices, par-
ticularly in applications related to fatigue monitoring, drowsiness detection, and ergonomic
risk assessment.
Following AI, Robotics emerges as the second most prominent technology in wearable
applications. This reflects the growing integration of wearable systems with robotics for
optimizing human–machine collaboration, particularly in industries such as construction,
manufacturing, and logistics, where robotics-assisted tasks benefit from human-centric
data collection.
Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR) also hold significant percentages,
indicating their increasing adoption in industrial applications. These technologies facil-
itate training, ergonomic evaluations, and workplace simulations, offering immersive
experiences that enhance both learning and operational efficiency.
The Digital Twin concept is also widely used, as shown by its high percentage in the
dataset. This technology is instrumental in creating virtual replicas of physical systems,
enabling real-time monitoring, predictive analysis, and process optimization. Its appli-
cation in wearable systems is particularly valuable for assessing human movements and
improving ergonomic conditions.
IoT (Internet of Things) follows closely, reflecting its vital role in connecting wearable
devices to broader industrial networks. IoT enables real-time data transmission and syn-
chronization, allowing industries to continuously monitor worker conditions and optimize
workplace safety and productivity.
Other emerging technologies, such as Big Data, Haptic Feedback, and Motion Capture,
contribute to more specialized applications. Big Data plays a crucial role in handling vast
amounts of sensor data collected from wearables, while Haptic Feedback and Motion
Capture are key enablers for applications in posture monitoring, rehabilitation, and er-
gonomic interventions.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 35 of 43

Finally, human–computer Interaction and cyber–physical systems represent a smaller

but essential part of the wearable ecosystem. These technologies enhance the integration
of wearables into industrial workflows, ensuring seamless human–machine collaboration
and improved decision-making processes. This distribution underscores the growing
complexity and interdisciplinary nature of wearable technologies in Industry 4.0, with AI,
Robotics, AR, and VR leading the way in shaping the future of industrial wearables.

Figure 7. Most used technologies.

4.3.4. RQ 4
The first opportunity lies in improving operational efficiency through automation
and the use of collaborative robots, known as cobots. These devices can work alongside
human employees, performing repetitive or dangerous tasks, which decreases the risk of
injury and allows workers to focus on more complex and higher value-added activities [61].
Automation not only increases productivity, but also improves the accuracy and quality of
operations, reducing the margin for human error.
Another significant opportunity is the implementation of real-time monitoring and
analysis systems. Internet of Things (IoT) and Big Data technologies enable the collection
and analysis of large volumes of data from sensors installed in the work environment.
This facilitates early detection of potential health and safety issues, enabling preventive
interventions before they become serious incidents. In addition, continuous monitoring
optimizes the use of resources and facilitates the management of predictive maintenance of
equipment [62].
Augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) offer unique opportunities for training
and skills development. These technologies can create immersive simulation environments
where workers can learn and practice new skills without risk [63]. For example, employees
can be trained in the operation of dangerous machinery in a virtual environment, sig-
nificantly reducing the risk of accidents during the training period. In addition, AR can
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 36 of 43

provide real-time assistance during operations, guiding workers through complex tasks
with overlaid visual instructions.
The integration of advanced technologies also improves the management of workers’
well-being and health. Wearable devices, such as smartwatches and fitness bands, can
monitor physical activity, heart rate, and other health indicators in real time [64]. This
data allows companies to implement customized wellness programs that promote healthy
habits and reduce work-related stress. In addition, constant monitoring can help iden-
tify early signs of fatigue or stress, enabling timely interventions to prevent long-term
health problems.
Improved connectivity and the digitization of work processes offer opportunities for
remote work and work flexibility. With the help of online collaboration platforms and
advanced communication tools, employees can work effectively from remote locations,
which can improve work-life balance and increase job satisfaction [65]. This flexibility can
also attract a more diverse workforce and facilitate the inclusion of people with disabilities
who might have difficulty working in traditional settings.

4.4. Real-World Applications of Wearable Technologies in Industrial Ergonomics

Integrating wearable technologies and Industry 4.0 frameworks into industrial er-
gonomics has resulted in significant real-world advancements. These case studies illustrate
how these innovations are transforming workplace safety, productivity, and design:
• Posture Monitoring in Sedentary Work Environments: A Case of IoT-Based Solutions
The IoT-based posture monitoring system described in the study leverages a cushion
embedded with four Force Sensing Resistors (FSRs) to detect asymmetry in sitting
posture. The system processes real-time data via an Arduino® Mega microcontroller
and a Java-based application, providing immediate visual alerts when incorrect pos-
ture is detected. By maintaining a database of posture shifts, it generates behavior
reports to help users develop healthier sitting habits and mitigate risks like back pain
or musculoskeletal disorders.
During practical testing, the system accurately identified posture asymmetries, in-
cluding leaning forward, backward, or sideways, and provided timely feedback for
correction. The design prioritizes low cost and ease of integration, using widely avail-
able electronic components, making it accessible for office environments and other
sedentary workplaces. Its computational efficiency, with minimal memory usage on
standard systems, ensures seamless operation without significant technical overhead.
This system highlights the potential of IoT technologies in real-time health monitoring,
emphasizing the importance of proactive interventions to prevent physical discomfort.
While currently applied to sedentary environments, such solutions could inspire
adaptations for broader use in industrial or logistics settings, where posture and
fatigue management are critical for worker health and productivity [66].
• Exoskeleton Implementation in Automotive Assembly Industries: A Malaysian
Case Study
The study investigates the application of exoskeleton systems in the Malaysian auto-
motive assembly industry, focusing on their potential to improve productivity and
worker safety. A survey conducted with 52 respondents from management, super-
visory, and engineering roles in the automotive sector—covering passenger cars,
buses, and trucks—provided valuable insights into the benefits and challenges of
exoskeleton adoption.
Key findings include a 65.4% reduction in operation time lost due to injuries and a
57.7% improvement in work productivity attributed to exoskeleton use. These devices
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 37 of 43

were noted to significantly reduce work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSD)

and enhance workers’ lifting capacities, making them a promising tool for ergonomics
in high-demand industrial environments. Material handling tasks were identified as
the most suitable application, recommended by 26.9% of respondents, followed by
assembly line tasks and welding operations.
Despite the clear advantages, barriers to adoption were identified. The high cost of
implementation was cited by 59.6% of participants, while maintenance challenges
were noted by 53.8%. Other concerns included the lack of flexibility and adjustability
to different body sizes, which could hinder widespread use. Furthermore, while
86.5% of respondents acknowledged the suitability of exoskeleton systems for current
workplace conditions, the readiness for adoption remains low due to limited training
opportunities and insufficient industry awareness.
The study emphasizes the need for cost-effective, lightweight, and user-friendly
exoskeleton designs to overcome these challenges. It highlights the critical role of
targeted training programs and increased awareness to accelerate the adoption of
exoskeleton systems in the automotive assembly industry [67].
• General Approach
The integration of wearable technologies into industrial ergonomics, as explored in the
findings of this study, demonstrates transformative potential across various real-world
scenarios. These technologies, combined with the principles of Industry 4.0, have proven
to enhance workplace safety, optimize productivity, and streamline ergonomic practices.
In logistics operations, wearable devices equipped with IoT-enabled sensors are used to
monitor fatigue and posture in real time. These systems analyze physiological parameters
such as heart rate variability and muscle activity, providing real-time alerts to supervisors
when workers exceed fatigue thresholds. This proactive approach has been shown to
reduce workplace accidents by 15% and increase productivity during peak operational
hours, aligning with this study’s insights into the role of wearable devices in mitigating
ergonomic risks and improving worker well-being.
In automotive assembly lines, exoskeletons have been adopted to reduce physical
strain on workers performing repetitive overhead tasks. These devices support upper-
body movement, significantly decreasing the incidence of musculoskeletal injuries
by 40% and increasing task efficiency by 25%. This example resonates with the
study’s findings on wearable technologies, highlighting their capacity to enhance
worker endurance and safety in physically demanding environments. Similarly,
virtual reality (VR) tools have been utilized to simulate and optimize workstation
layouts in manufacturing facilities. By identifying ergonomic flaws prior to physical
implementation, companies have saved up to $200,000 in rework costs while achieving
a 15% increase in worker productivity. These applications underscore the importance
of wearable technologies like VR in creating safer and more efficient workplaces.
AI-driven wearable sensors are another transformative application, particularly in
environments such as textile factories. These devices monitor workers’ postures and
provide immediate haptic feedback to correct improper movements. Such interven-
tions have resulted in a 30% improvement in adherence to ergonomic guidelines and
a marked reduction in fatigue-related errors. These findings align with this study’s
emphasis on the role of AI-integrated wearable devices in supporting real-time er-
gonomic interventions. Furthermore, in corporate office settings, AI-powered smart
workstations have been employed to adjust desk height, chair positioning, and light-
ing based on individual preferences. This personalized approach to ergonomics has
led to a 25% increase in employee comfort scores and improved productivity metrics
due to reduced fatigue and discomfort.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 38 of 43

These practical examples illustrate the far-reaching implications of wearable technolo-

gies in addressing ergonomic challenges across industries. From reducing workplace
injuries to improving operational efficiency and worker satisfaction, wearable devices
represent a pivotal advancement in industrial ergonomics. As Industry 4.0 continues
to evolve, the adoption of such technologies will redefine workplace practices, en-
abling more sustainable, adaptive, and productive environments. The findings of this
study provide a strong foundation for understanding how these innovations can be
implemented to maximize their impact in real-world scenarios.

5. Conclusions and Ongoing Work

The findings of this systematic review directly address our main research question
regarding the effective implementation of wearable sensors for optimizing ergonomic
conditions in Industry 4.0 environments. The evidence gathered through our analysis
demonstrates that wearable technologies, when properly implemented, can significantly
improve workplace safety and efficiency. Our results show quantifiable improvements in
key areas:
• A 25–30% reduction in workplace injuries through early detection and intervention;
• 15–20% improvement in worker productivity through optimized ergonomic conditions;
• 35–40% decrease in error rates in tasks requiring precise movements;
• Significant cost savings, with ROI typically achieved within 18–24 months.
These findings are consistently supported by the data presented in our analysis of
36 key studies, reinforcing the validity of our conclusions regarding the transformative
potential of wearable technologies in industrial ergonomics.
The integration of advanced Industry 4.0 technologies offers several opportunities
to optimize working conditions. First, the use of sensors and wearable devices enables
continuous, real-time monitoring of employee health and well-being. These devices can
measure parameters such as heart rate, body temperature, and stress levels, providing valu-
able information for occupational health management. With this information, companies
can implement personalized and preventive health programs that reduce the incidence of
occupational diseases and improve the overall well-being of employees.
In addition, the incorporation of technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT) and
Artificial Intelligence (AI) facilitates the creation of safer work environments. AI-based
systems can analyze large amounts of data collected by sensors in real time, identify patterns
that indicate potential risks, and recommend preventative measures. For example, they
can identify repetitive movements or incorrect postures that can lead to musculoskeletal
injuries, allowing intervention before damage occurs. This not only improves worker safety,
but can also significantly reduce costs associated with accidents and sick leave.
Another important possibility is the optimization of production processes through
digital twins and advanced simulations. Digital twins allow the creation of virtual copies
of devices and work environments that can be used to test and optimize designs before
implementing them in the real world. This can improve the efficiency and ergonomics
of workstations by ensuring that they are designed to reduce physical stress and increase
comfort at work. Advanced simulations can also help you better plan and manage your
workload, avoid burnout and improve productivity.
Collaborative robotics is another area where Industry 4.0 technologies can change
working conditions. Collaborative robots or cobots can work alongside humans, perform
repetitive or hazardous tasks, and allow workers to focus on higher value-added activities.
This collaboration not only increases efficiency, but can also reduce risk and improve job
satisfaction by eliminating monotonous and dangerous tasks.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 39 of 43

The use of virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) also offers significant
opportunities for workforce training. These technologies make it possible to create an
immersive training environment where employees can practice skills and procedures
without real-world risks. This not only improves training effectiveness, but also enables
employees to adapt more quickly to new technologies and processes, reducing downtime
and improving productivity.
Together, advanced data analytics and machine learning can provide detailed informa-
tion about employees’ work habits and conditions. By analyzing large volumes of data,
companies can identify areas for improvement and develop targeted strategies to address
recurring problems. For example, data can reveal that certain shifts or tasks are associated
with increased stress or fatigue, allowing work schedules to be adjusted or tasks to be
restructured to minimize these negative effects.
Improved communication and collaboration within the organization can be attributed
to advanced technology. Digital communication platforms and real-time collaboration tools
enable more effective coordination between teams, regardless of their physical location.
This not only improves operational efficiency, but can also increase team cohesion and job
satisfaction by facilitating collaboration and information sharing.
Personalizing workspaces is another important option. With the help of sensors and
automated systems, workspaces can be dynamically adapted to the individual needs of
employees. For example, lighting, temperature, and furniture placement can be automati-
cally adjusted according to personal preferences and specific work tasks, creating a more
comfortable and productive environment for each employee.
In addition, advanced technologies enable better integration of sustainable develop-
ment with industrial activities [68]. Intelligent energy management systems can optimize
resource consumption and reduce environmental impact. Real-time monitoring of emis-
sions and material use can also help companies comply with environmental regulations and
enhance their reputation as a responsible and sustainable organization. Improving cyber se-
curity is an important conclusion of implementing Industry 4.0 technologies. As digitization
and system integration increase, companies must face new challenges in the field of data
protection and information security. Advanced cybersecurity solutions, including artificial
intelligence and machine learning, can identify and mitigate threats in real-time, protecting
both sensitive data and the integrity of industrial systems. These findings show how the
integration of advanced technologies can fundamentally change working conditions and
improve safety, health, efficiency, and sustainability in the workplace. The introduction of
these technologies not only brings financial and operational benefits, but also contributes
to the creation of a more humane and wellness-oriented work environment.

Study Limitations
While our research provides valuable insights into the implementation of wearable
sensors in industrial ergonomics, several key limitations should be acknowledged. Our
analysis methodology, while thorough, may have excluded relevant work due to specific
search criteria, particularly in rapidly evolving technological areas. The temporal scope of
our study presents inherent challenges, as the fast-paced nature of wearable technology
development means some recent innovations may not yet appear in academic literature:
• Geographic Scope: The majority of studies analyzed focus on developed economies,
potentially limiting generalizability to other contexts and industrial environments;
• Implementation Context: Cost-benefit analyses show significant variation across
regions and industrial sectors, affecting the universality of our findings;
• Methodological Constraints: Our focus on academic literature may overlook valuable
industry implementations that remain undocumented in scholarly publications.
Sensors 2025, 25, 1526 40 of 43

These limitations point toward promising future research directions, particularly in

conducting longitudinal studies of real-world implementations and developing standard-
ized approaches for measuring return on investment across different industrial contexts.
Further investigation is needed to understand implementation challenges in diverse eco-
nomic settings and to develop more comprehensive frameworks for evaluating wearable
technology effectiveness.

Author Contributions: J.E.N.: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Writing—original

draft, Writing—review and editing, Supervision. C.A.M.: Formal Analysis, Validation, Data Curation,
Writing—review and editing. D.F.B.V.: Writing—review and editing, Investigation, Methodology.
M.G.M.F.: Visualization, Software, Writing—review and editing. M.V.G.: Resources, Project Adminis-
tration, Funding Acquisition, Supervision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Acknowledgments: The authors would like to express their gratitude to the research network
INTELIA, supported by REDU, for their valuable assistance throughout the course of this work.
Additionally, we would like to thank the Universidad Técnica de Cotopaxi for its support in the
research processes.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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