Computer Networks and Internet

Protocol (AIML 208)

hi Agarwal
By: Dr. Divya
1
Course Overview:
• This course deals with fundamentals of computer networks and Internet
protocols. It addresses various network models, Data link protocols,
network layer protocols and implementation of computer network
models and OSI layers. The course also deals with Transport layer
protocols. The main emphasis of this course is on the organization and
management of networks and internet protocols.
Course Objective:
• To implement a simple LAN with hubs, bridges and switches.
• To describe how computer networks are organized with the concept of
layered approach.
• To demonstrate internet protocols using the modern tools of computer
networks.
• To Design and implement a network for an organization.
Course Outcomes (CO):

• CO1: Understand concepts of computer networks and various

Internet protocols.
• CO2: Analyse given data segments/packets/frames and protocols in
various layers of computer networks.
• CO3: Design real networks using state of art components using
simulation tools.
• CO4: Design and implement a network for an organization.
Syllabus Contents
• UNIT- I
Introduction to Layered Network Architecture- What are computer
networks, Layered models for networking, different types of communication
models, ISO-OSI Model, TCP/1P.

• UNIT II
Data Link Protocols- Stop and Wait protocols, Noise-free and Noisy Channels,
Performance and Efficiency, Sliding Window protocols, MAC Sublayer: The
Channel Allocation problem, Carrier Sense Multiple Access Protocols, Collision
Free Protocols, FDDI protocol. IEEE Standard 802.3 & 802. l1 for LANs and
WLANs
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Syllabus Contents
• UNIT- III
Network Layer protocols- Design Issues: Virtual Circuits and Datagrams,
Routing Algorithms, Optimality principle, shortest path routing Algorithms,
Flooding and Broadcasting, Distance Vector Routing, Link State Routing, Flow-
Based Routing, Multicast Routing; Flow and Congestion Control.

• UNIT IV
Transport Layer Protocols- Design Issues, Quality of Services. The Internet
Transport Protocols. IPV4 vs IPV6.
Session Layer protocol- Dialog Management, Synchronization, Connection
Establishment. Quality of service, security management, Firewalls.
Application layer protocols- HTTP, SMTP, FTP, SNMP, Etc. 5
Syllabus Contents

• UNIT- I
Introduction to Layered Network Architecture- What are computer networks, Layered
models for networking, different types of communication models, ISO-OSI Model,
TCP/1P.

• UNIT II
Data Link Protocols- Stop and Wait protocols, Noise-free and Noisy Channels,
Performance and Efficiency, Sliding Window protocols, MAC Sublayer: The Channel
Allocation problem, Carrier Sense Multiple Access Protocols, Collision Free Protocols,
FDDI protocol. IEEE Standard 802.3 & 802. l1 for LANs and WLANs

6
Syllabus Contents
• UNIT- III
Network Layer protocols- Design Issues: Virtual Circuits and Datagrams,
Routing Algorithms, Optimality principle, shortest path routing Algorithms,
Flooding and Broadcasting, Distance Vector Routing, Link State Routing, Flow-
Based Routing, Multicast Routing; Flow and Congestion Control.

• UNIT IV
Transport Layer Protocols- Design Issues, Quality of Services. The Internet
Transport Protocols. IPV4 vs IPV6.
Session Layer protocol- Dialog Management, Synchronization, Connection
Establishment. Quality of service, security management, Firewalls.
Application layer protocols: HTTP, SMTP, FTP, SNMP, Etc. 7
 Unit 4

Transport Layer Protocols

 Transport Layer
• Transport layer (called end-to-end layer) manages end to end (source to destination)
(process to process) message delivery in a network
• Ensures that all packets of a message arrive intact and in order.
• Provides acknowledgement of successful data transmission and retransmits data if found
error.
• Ensures messages are delivered error-free, in sequence, and with no losses or
duplications.
• Size and complexity of a transport protocol depends on type of service it can get from
network layer.
• Transport layer is at core of OSI model.
• Provides services to application layer and takes services from network layer.
• Divides message received from upper layer into packets at source and reassembles these
packets again into message at destination. 9
Transport Layer Services
1. Connection Oriented Transmission
a. Receiving device sends an acknowledgment to source after one or group of packet is
received.
b. Also known as reliable transport method.
c. Slower transmission method.
d. If data sent has problems, destination requests source for retransmission by
acknowledging only packets that have been received and are recognizable.
e. Once destination computer receives all data necessary to reassemble packet, transport
layer assembles data in correct sequence and then passes it up, to session layer.
2. Connectionless Transmission
a. Receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet.
b. Sending device assumes that packet arrive just fine.
c. Allows for much faster communication between devices.
d. Less reliable than connection oriented.
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Transport Layer

11
Transport Layer
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

12
Functions of Transport Layer:
1. Segmentation of message into packet and reassembly of packets into message:
accepts a message from (session) layer above it, splits into smaller units (if not already
small enough), and passes smaller units down to network layer. Transport layer at
destination station reassembles message.
2. Message acknowledgment: provides reliable end-to-end message delivery with
acknowledgments.
3. Message traffic control : tells transmitting station to “back-off” when no message
buffers are available.
4. Session multiplexing : multiplexes several message streams, or sessions onto one
logical link and keeps track of which messages belong to which sessions.

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 Functions of Transport Layer:
5. Service point addressing: Purpose is to deliver message from one process running on source
machine to another process running on destination machine simulataneously. To deliver
message to correct process, transport layer header includes a type of address called service
point address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, transport layer makes sure
that message is delivered to correct process on destination machine.

6. Protocols: Protocols of transport layer are TCP, SPX, NETBIOS, ATP and NWLINK.

7. Flow control: Ensures that sender and receiver communicate at a rate they both can handle
which prevents source from sending data packets faster than destination can handle. Here,
flow control is performed end-to-end rather than across a link.
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 Functions of Transport Layer:
8. Error control: Error control is performed end-to-end rather than across a single link. Sending
transport layer ensures that entire message arrives at receiving transport layer without
loss, error (damage, or duplication). Error correction is achieved through retransmission.

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TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOLS – Design Issues
1. Reliability: To ensure that data transmitted between hosts is delivered reliably. TCP
provides reliable data delivery by using acknowledgment and retransmission mechanisms.
In contrast, UDP does not provide reliable delivery and is used in applications where
occasional loss of data is acceptable.
2. Flow Control: Process of regulating the flow of data between two network nodes to
prevent the receiver from being overwhelmed with data. Flow control results in a better
network utilization by avoiding packet loss. TCP uses flow control mechanisms to ensure
that the sender does not send data faster than the receiver can process it.
3. Congestion Control: Process of preventing network from becoming congested. Achieved by
controlling rate at which data is sent by sender. TCP uses effective congestion control to
prevent packet loss, improve network performance, and avoid network collapse.
4. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: May have multiple connections running on a single
physical network. Multiplexing combines multiple connections into a single stream while
demultiplexing splits single stream into multiple connections.
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TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOLS – Design Issues
5. Connection Establishment and Termination: Hosts exchange information for connection
establishment. Before data transfer, a connection is established which gets terminated
after completion of data transfer between sending and receiving hosts. TCP uses a three-
way handshake mechanism to establish a connection and a four-way handshake to
terminate a connection.
6. Quality of Service: Ensures to provide an acceptable level of QoS for traffic. Different
types of traffic have different QoS requirements, like guarantee of minimum bandwidth
or maximum delay.
7. Security: Critical issue – as any vulnerability can compromise confidentiality or integrity
of transmitted data. Encryption and authentication mechanisms can be used to secure
data.
8. Performance: High performance and low latency ensures efficient communication
between network nodes. Achieved through optimized algorithms and efficient use of
network resources. Measured by various metrics such as throughput, delay, and error
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rate.
Quality of Service
• QoS is critical for applications that require reliable and timely data delivery.
• Transport Layer Protocols that do not provide QoS may cause degraded performance, user
frustration, increased latency, and dropped packets.
• Quality of service is something a flow seeks to attain

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Factors affecting QoS
1. Reliability: Lack of reliability means losing a packet or acknowledgment, which entails
retransmission.
2. Delay: Applications can tolerate delay in different degrees.
3. Jitter: Jitter is variation in delay for packets belonging to same flow. High jitter means
difference between delays is large; low jitter means variation is small.
4. Bandwidth: Different applications need different bandwidths

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Techniques to improve QoS

1. Scheduling

2. Traffic Shaping

3. Resource Reservation

4. Admission Control

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Techniques to improve QoS
Scheduling:

• Packets from different flows arrive at a switch or router for processing.

• Good scheduling technique treats different flows in a fair and appropriate manner.

• Multiple techniques designed to improve QoS are

1. FIFO queuing,
2. priority queuing, and
3. weighted fair queuing.
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FIFO queue

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Priority queuing

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Weighted fair queuing

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Techniques to improve QoS
Traffic Shaping:

• Traffic is shaped before it enters network.

• Controls rate at which packets are sent (not just how many).

• Used in ATM and Integrated Services networks.

• At connection set-up time, sender and carrier negotiate a traffic pattern (shape).

• Two traffic shaping algorithms are

1. Leaky Bucket
2. Token Bucket 25
Leaky bucket

• Leaky bucket
algorithm shapes
bursty traffic into
fixed-rate traffic by
averaging data rate.
• It may drop packets
if bucket is full.

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Leaky bucket
• Enforces a constant output rate (average rate) regardless of burstiness of input.
• Implemented as a singleserver queue with constant service time.
• If bucket (buffer) overflows then packets are discarded.
• Does nothing when input is idle.
• Host injects one packet per clock tick onto network.
• This results in a uniform flow of packets, smoothing out bursts and reducing
congestion.
• When packets are same size one packet per tick is okay.
• For variable length packets, allows fixed number of bytes per tick.
• E.g. 1024 bytes per tick will allow one 1024-byte packet or two 512-byte packets
or four 256-byte packets on 1 tick 27
Leaky bucket implementation

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Token Bucket Algorithm
• TBA allows output rate to vary, depending on size of burst.

• Here, bucket holds tokens.

• To transmit a packet, host must capture and destroy one token.

• Tokens are generated by a clock at rate of one token every Δt sec.

• Idle hosts can capture and save up tokens (up to max. size of bucket) in order to
send larger bursts later.

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Token Bucket Algorithm

Token bucket allows

bursty traffic at a
regulated maximum
rate.

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Techniques to improve QoS
Resource Reservation

• Flow of data needs resources such as a buffer, bandwidth, CPU time, and so on.

• QoS is improved if these resources are reserved beforehand.

Admission Control

• Refers to mechanism used by a router, or a switch, to accept or reject a flow based on

predefined parameters called flow specifications.

• Before a router accepts a flow for processing, it checks flow specifications to see if its
capacity and previous commitments to other flows can handle new flow.
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IPv4 ADDRESSES
• IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally defines connection of
device (for example, a computer or a router) to Internet.

• IPv4 addresses are unique that each address defines only one, connection to Internet.

• Two devices on Internet can never have same address at same time.

• An address may be assigned to a device for a time period and then taken away and
assigned to another device.

• If device operating at network layer has m connections to Internet, it needs to have m

addresses.
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IPv4 Address Space

• Address space is total number of addresses used by protocol.

• If a protocol uses N bits to define an address, address space is 2N because each bit can
have two different values (0 or 1) and N bits can have 2N values.

• IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, which means that address space is 232 or 4,294,967,296.

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IPv4 Notations
1. Binary Notation: Displayed as 32 bits.
• Each octet is referred as byte.
• IPv4 address referred to as a 32-bit address or 4-byte address.
• Example: 01110101 10010101 00011101 00000010

2. Dotted-Decimal Notation:
• To make address more compact and easier to read, Internet addresses are written in
decimal form with a decimal point (dot) separating bytes.
• Example: 117.149.29.2
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Question: Find decimal notation of binary equivalent

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Solution: Find decimal notation of binary equivalent

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Question: Find decimal notation of binary equivalent

• Change following IPv4 addresses from binary notation to dotted-decimal

notation.

a) 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111

b) 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111

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Solution: Find decimal notation of binary equivalent

• Change following IPv4 addresses from binary notation to dotted-decimal

notation.

a) 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111

b) 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111

• Solution:

a) 129.11.11.239

b) 193.131.27.255 38
Question: Find binary notation of Decimal equivalent

• Change following IPv4 addresses from dotted-decimal notation to binary

notation.

a) 111.56.45.78

b) 221.34.7.82

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Solution: Find binary notation of decimal equivalent

• Change following IPv4 addresses from dotted-decimal notation to binary

notation.

a) 111.56.45.78

b) 221.34.7.82

• Solution:

a) 01101111 00111000 00101101 01001110

b) 11011101 00100010 00000111 01010010

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Question: Find errors if any

• Find error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses.

1. a. 111.56.045.78

2. b. 221.34.7.8.20

3. c. 75.45.301.14

4. d. 11100010.23.14.67

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Solution: Find errors if any

• Find error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses.

1. 111.56.045.78 : No leading zero allowed (045).

2. 221.34.7.8.20: no more than four numbers in an IPv4 address.

3. 75.45.301.14 : Each number needs to <=255 (301 is outside this range)

4. 11100010.23.14.67 : mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal notation

not allowed

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IPv4 Notations
• In classful addressing, address space is divided into five classes: A, B, C, D, and E.

• For binary notation address, first few bits defines class of address.

• For decimal-dotted notation address, first byte defines class

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Question: Find class of each address.

• Find class of each address.

A. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111 :

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Question: Find class of each address.

• Find class of each address.

A. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111 : First bit is O. So, Class A address

B. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111

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Question: Find class of each address.

• Find class of each address.

A. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111 : First bit is O. So, Class A address

B. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111: First 2 bits are 1; third bit is O. So,
class C address

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Question: Find class of each address.

• Find class of each address.

A. 14.23.120.8 :

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Question: Find class of each address.

• Find class of each address.

A. 14.23.120.8 : First byte is 14 (between 0 and 127); So, Class A address

B. 252.5.15.111 :

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Question: Find class of each address.
• Find class of each address.

A. 14.23.120.8 : First byte is 14 (between 0 and 127); So, Class A address

B. 252.5.15.111 : First byte is 252 (between 240 and 255); So, class E address

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Classful Addressing : Problem of Classes and Blocks
• One problem with classful addressing is that each class is divided into a fixed
number of blocks with each block having a fixed size

• In classful addressing, a large part of the available addresses were wasted

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Classful Addressing : Netid and Hostid
• In classful addressing, IP address in class A, B, or C is divided into netid and
hostid.
• Varying lengths, depending on class of address.
• Netid is in color, hostid is in white.

• In class A, Netid = one byte, hostid = 3 bytes

• In class B, Netid = two bytes, hostid = two bytes
• In class C, Netid = three bytes, hostid = 1 byte 52
Classful Addressing : Mask
• Default mask, is 32-bit number made of continuous 1s followed by continuous
0s.
• Mask can help to find netid and hostid.
• Mask for class A has eight 1s, meaning netid = 1st 8 bits and hostid = next 24
bits
• Mask is represented by slash or Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR) notation
• This notation is used in classless addressing

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Classful Addressing : Subnetting

• Method of dividing a single physical network into logical sub-networks

(subnets).

• Allows a business to expand its network without requiring a new network

number from its ISP

• Helps to reduce network traffic and also conceals network complexity

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Classful Addressing : Supernetting
• Since, most of class A and class B addresses were depleted; there was huge demand
for midsize blocks.
• Class C block with maximum 256 addresses did not satisfy needs of organizations.
• Even a midsize organization needed more addresses.
• Solution was supernetting.
• In supernetting, several networks are combined to create a supernetwork
• Organizations can apply for sets of class C blocks instead of just one.
• For example, an organization that needs 1000 addresses can be granted four
continuous class C blocks which can create one supernetwork.
• Supernetting decreases number of 1s in mask.
• For example, if an organization is given four class C addresses, mask changes from /24
to /22.
• Classless addressing eliminated need for supernetting. 55
Classless Addressing
• Classful addressing is almost obsolete - replaced with classless addressing.
• To overcome address depletion and give more organizations access to Internet, classless
addressing was designed and implemented.
• There are no classes, but addresses are granted in blocks.
• When an entity, small or large, needs to connect to Internet, it is granted a block (range) of
addresses whose size (number of addresses) varies based on nature and size of entity.
• For example, a household may be given only two addresses; a large organization may be
given thousands of addresses.
• An ISP may be given hundreds of thousands based on number of customers it may serve.
• Restriction: To simplify handling of addresses, Internet authorities impose three restrictions:
1. Addresses in a block must be contiguous, one after another.
2. Number of addresses in a block must be a power of 2 (I, 2, 4, 8, ... ).
3. First address must be evenly divisible by number of addresses.
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IP Version 4 Protocol
• Packets in IPv4 layer
are called datagrams
• Datagram is a variable-
length packet
consisting of two parts:
header and data.
• Header is 20 to 60
bytes in length and
contains information
essential to routing and
delivery.
• Customary in TCP/IP to
show header in 4-byte
sections.
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IP Version 4 Protocol - VER
• 4-bit field defines
version of IPv4 protocol
• Version 4 dominates
Internet today
• VER tells IPv4 software
running in processing
machine that datagram
has format of version 4.
• Including version at
start of each datagram,
makes possible
transition between
versions over a long
period of time.
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IP Version 4 Protocol - HLEN
• Header length (HLEN).
• 4-bit field defines total
length of datagram header
in 4-byte words.
• Needed because length of
header is variable (between
20 and 60 bytes).
• When there are no options,
header length is 20 bytes,
and value of this field is 5 (5
x 4 = 20).
• When option field is at its
maximum size, value of this
field is 15 (15 x 4 = 60).
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IP Version 4 Protocol - Services

• IETF has changed

interpretation and name of
this 8-bit field.
• Previously called service
type, is now called
differentiated services
• First 3 bits are called
precedence bits.
• Next 4 bits are called type
of service (TOS) bits
• Last bit is not used.

60
IP Version 4 Protocol - Services

a. Precedence is a 3-bit
subfield ranging from 0 (000
in binary) to 7 (111 in binary).
• Defines priority of
datagram in issues such as
congestion.
• If router is congested and
needs to discard some
datagrams, lowest
precedence datagrams are
discarded first.

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IP Version 4 Protocol - Services

b. Type of Service (TOS) bits

is a 4-bit subfield with each
bit having a special meaning.
• Although bits can be either
0 or 1, but only 1 bit set at a
time.
• Bit patterns and their TOS bits Description
interpretations are given in 0000 Normal (Default)
Table. 0001 Minimize Cost
• With only 1 bit set at a 0010 Maximize reliability
time, we can have five
different types of services. 0100 Maximize throughput
1000 Maximize delay
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Default types of service
• Application programs can request a
specific type of service.
• Defaults for some applications are
shown in table
• Activities requiring immediate
attention and response need
minimum delay.
• Activities that send bulk data require
maximum throughput.
• Management activities need
maximum reliability.
• Background activities need minimum
cost
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Default types of service
• First 6 bits denote codepoint subfield
• Last 2 bits are not used.
• Codepoint subfield is used in two ways.
A. When 3 rightmost bits are 0’s, 3 leftmost bits
are interpreted same as precedence bits in
service type interpretation. i.e., it is
compatible with old interpretation.
Values for Codepoints
B. When 3 rightmost bits are not all 0’s, 6 bits
define 64 services based on priority Category Code Description
assignment by Internet or local authorities Point
• First category (numbers 0, 2,4, ... ,62) is assigned 1 XXXXX0 Internet
by Internet authorities (IETF). 2 XXXX11 Local
• Second category (3, 7, 11, 15,… 63) assigned by
local authorities (organizations). 3 XXXX01 Temporary or
• Third category (1, 5, 9, ,61) is temporary and can experimental
64
be used for experimental purposes.
IPv6
• IPv4 provides host-to-host communication between systems in Internet.
• IPv4 is well designed, data communication has evolved since inception of IPv4 in 1970s.
• IPv4 has some deficiencies that make it unsuitable for the fast-growing Internet.
 Despite all short-term solutions, such as subnetting, classless addressing, and NAT,
address depletion is still a long-term problem in Internet.
 Internet must accommodate real-time audio and video transmission which requires
minimum delay strategies and reservation of resources not provided in IPv4 design.
 No encryption or authentication is provided by IPv4.
• To overcome these deficiencies, IPv6 was proposed
• IPv6 was extensively modified to accommodate unforeseen growth of Internet.
• Format and length of IP address were changed along with packet format.
65
IPv6 Advantages over IPv4
• Larger address space: IPv6 address is 128 bits long while IPv4 is 32-bit long
• Better header format. In, IPv6 options are separated from base header and inserted, when
needed, between base header and upper-layer data. This simplifies and speeds up routing
process because most options do not need to be checked by routers.
• New options. IPv6 has new options to allow for additional functionalities.
• Allowance for extension. IPv6 is designed to allow extension of protocol if required by new
technologies or applications.
• Support for resource allocation. In IPv6, type-of-service field has been removed, but a
mechanism (called jlow label) has been added to enable source to request special handling
of packet. This mechanism can be used to support traffic such as real-time audio and
video.
• Support for more security. Encryption and authentication options in IPv6 provide
confidentiality and integrity of packet.
66
IPv6 Structure
• IPv6 address consists of 16 bytes (octets); it is 128 bits long.
• To make addresses more readable, IPv6 specifies hexadecimal colon notation.
• In this , 128 bits is divided into eight sections, each 2 bytes in length.
• Two bytes in hexadecimal notation requires four hexadecimal digits.
• Thus, address consists of 32 hexadecimal digits, with every four digits separated by a colon

67
Abbreviated IPv6 addresses
• IP address, in hexadecimal format, is very long, many of its digits are zeros.
• Leading zeros of a section (four digits between two colons) can be omitted. Only leading zeros
can be dropped, not trailing zeros

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Question
• Expand the address 0:15::1:12:1213 to its original

69
Solution
• Expand the address 0:15::1:12:1213 to its original

70
IPv6 datagram header and payload

71
IPv6 datagram header and payload
Packet Format
• Each packet is composed of a mandatory base header followed by payload.
• Payload consists of two parts: optional extension headers and data from an upper
layer.
• Base header occupies 40 bytes, whereas extension headers and data from upper layer
contain up to 65,535 bytes of information.

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IPv6 datagram header and payload
Base Header
• Base header has eight fields.
Version: 4-bit field defines
version number of IP. For IPv6,
value is 6.
Priority: 4-bit field defines
priority of packet w.r.t. traffic
congestion.
Flow label: 3-byte (24-bit) field
designed to provide special
handling for a particular flow of
data.
Payload length: 2-byte field
defines length of IP datagram 73
excluding base header.
IPv6 datagram header and payload
Base Header
Next header: 8-bit field defining
header that follows base header in
datagram. One of optional extension
headers used by IP or header of an
encapsulated packet such as UDP or
TCP. Each extension header also
contains this field. This field in version
4 is called protocol.
Hop limit: 8-bit field serves same
purpose as TIL field in IPv4.
Source address: 16-byte (128-bit)
Internet address that identifies
original source of datagram.
Destination address: 16-byte (128-
bit) Internet address, identifies final 74
destination of datagram.
Comparison of IPv4 and IPv6
Properties IPv4 IPv6
Addressing Provides 32-bit addresses Provides 128-bit addresses which results
in a significantly larger address space
Security Does not provide security Provides authentication, integrity, and
mechanisms, and requires confidentiality during communication of
additional security protocols data over a network with the
facilitated by network devices implementation of IPSec protocol suite
Protocol No such protocol enhancement Features Hierarchical Addressing, which
Enhancement process enables ISPs to allocate a subnet to an
organization
Routing Uses flat routing model which Uses hierarchical routing protocol, only
requires routers to store complete store routing information of networks
table of route identification which they are connected to 75
Comparison of IPv4 and IPv6

Properties IPv4 IPv6

Backward Special translation Special translation mechanisms like
Compatibility mechanisms like Dual Stack Dual Stack technology, Tunneling, and
technology, Tunneling, and NAT can be used to enable
NAT can be used to enable communication among devices on both
communication among networks
devices on both networks
Ease of Require a separate address Do not require a separate address
Configuration configuration protocol configuration protocol

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Layer 5 – Session Layer

• Provides a reliable and secure communication between two devices by establishing, managing
and terminating sessions, maintaining session state information, and handling session
synchronization and recovery
• Regulates flow of data, Defines format of data sent over connections.
• Manages who can transfer data in a certain amount of time and for how long.
• Reconnects session if it disconnects.
• Reports and logs and upper layer errors.
• Protocols: Protocols for session layer are NetBIOS, Mail Slots, Names Pipes, and RPC.
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Functions of Session Layer:

78
Functions of Session Layer:
1. Session Establishment: Establishes a connection between two devices before data
transmission begins. During this process, the session layer determines the type of session
required and negotiates session parameters.

2. Session Management: Manages session between two devices. Keeps track of session
throughout its duration, maintains session state information and ensures that connection
remains active. In case of errors during data transfer, ensures session is terminated
gracefully.

3. Session Termination: After completion of data transmission session is terminated between

two devices.
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Functions of Session Layer:
4. Dialog control: When a device is contacted first, session layer is responsible for
determining which device participating in communication will transmit at a given time
as well as controlling amount of data that can be sent in a transmission. Types of dialog
control that can take place include simplex, half duplex and full duplex.
5. Dialog Separation or Session Synchronization: Handles synchronization between
incoming and outgoing data streams by adding synchronization points called
checkpoints which allow session layer to retransmit lost data more efficiently.
6. Session Recovery: Responsible for recovering a session if connection is lost or
interrupted. Keeps track of state of session and can recover it from point where
connection was lost.
7. Session Security: Provide security features like session encryption, authentication, and
authorization to ensure secure transmission of data.
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Functions of Session Layer:
8. Quality of Service (QoS): Ability of a network to prioritize and deliver data based on its
importance and ensure a certain level of performance. QoS is achieved through:
• Traffic prioritization: Ensures higher-priority data is sent first. Achieved by assigning
different types of data or applications to different sessions and setting different
priorities for each session based on importance of data.
• Bandwidth management: Monitors amount of data being transmitted and allocating
bandwidth based on priority.
• Congestion Control: Monitors and control network congestion by managing rate and
amount of data being transmitted which prevents network overload, reduces packet
loss, and improves overall network performance.
• Error Handling and Recovery: Detects and correct errors that occur during data
transmission. If an error is detected, session layer takes corrective action, such as
requesting a retransmission or terminating session if error cannot be corrected. 81
Firewalls
• Security devices that monitor and control network traffic based on predetermined
security policies.
• Help to prevent unauthorized access and malicious attacks, and ensure that only
authorized sessions are allowed
• Firewalls perform multiple roles in session layer, such as:
1. Session Filtering: Filter traffic based on session-related information such as session
ID, source and destination port numbers, protocol type, etc. Identifies and blocks
any traffic that does not fit defined policy, to prevent unauthorized access or
malicious attacks.
2. Session Management: Manages sessions between two communicating devices,
including establishing, maintaining, and terminating sessions. Helps to ensure that
only authorized sessions are allowed and that session remains secure and private.
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 Firewalls Types
1. Stateful Firewall or Packet-filtering firewalls:
• Operate inline at junction points where devices such as routers and switches do their
work.
• They don't route packets; rather compare every received packet with established
criteria, such as allowed IP addresses, packet type, port number and packet protocol
headers, etc.
• Flagged packets are dropped.
2. Circuit-level Firewall or Session-layer gateways: Operate to monitor and control individual
sessions.
• They establish circuit between communicating devices, to monitor and control flow of
data between them.
• Can filter traffic based on session ID, source and destination port numbers, and protocol
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type.
Application layer protocols
• Operate at topmost layer of OSI reference model and enable communication
between applications on different hosts.
• Designed to communicate with specific applications and provide a variety of services.
• Provide means for end-users to access networked resources and exchange data with
other end-users.
• Establish, manage, and terminate communication sessions and enable data exchange
for specific applications..

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Types of Application Layer Protocols:
1. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol): Client-server protocol designed for World Wide Web.
Used to transfer hypertext documents and other data between web servers and clients.
2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Client-server protocol used to transfer files over network.
Enables sharing and copying of files between computers located on different networks.
3. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used to send email messages from one server to
another. Most common protocol used for sending emails over Internet.
4. DNS (Domain Name System): DNS maps domain names to IP addresses and helps translate
human-readable domain names to computer-readable IP addresses.
5. Telnet: Used to connect to remote systems over network and enable communication with
those systems. Enables operations such as terminal emulation and remote administration.
6. SSH (Secure Shell): Used for secure remote administration and data transfer, with
encryption of all data transmitted over network.
7. SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): Used for network management and
monitoring. Enables network devices to be monitored, managed, and controlled remotely.
85
Types of Application Layer Protocols:
1. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol): Client-server protocol designed for World Wide Web.
Used to transfer hypertext documents and other data between web servers and clients.
2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Client-server protocol used to transfer files over network.
Enables sharing and copying of files between computers located on different networks.
3. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used to send email messages from one server to
another. Most common protocol used for sending emails over Internet.
4. DNS (Domain Name System): DNS maps domain names to IP addresses and helps translate
human-readable domain names to computer-readable IP addresses.
5. Telnet: Used to connect to remote systems over network and enable communication with
those systems. Enables operations such as terminal emulation and remote administration.
6. SSH (Secure Shell): Used for secure remote administration and data transfer, with
encryption of all data transmitted over network.
7. SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): Used for network management and
monitoring. Enables network devices to be monitored, managed, and controlled remotely.
86
 HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)
• Used to access data on World Wide Web (www).
• Can be used to transfer data in form of plain text, hypertext, audio, video, and so on.
• Allows to use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one document
to another document.
• Similar and simpler to FTP as it also transfers files from one host to another host using only
one connection, i.e., no control connection to transfer files.
• Used to carry data in form of MIME-like format.
• Similar to SMTP as data is transferred between client and server.
• Differs from SMTP in way messages are sent from client to server and from server to client.
• SMTP messages are stored and forwarded while HTTP messages are delivered immediately.
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 Features of HTTP:
• Connectionless protocol: HTTP client initiates request and waits for a response from server.
When server receives request, it processes request and sends back response to HTTP client.
Connection between client and server exist only during current request and response time.
• Media independent: Data can be sent as long as both client and server know how to handle
data content. Required for both client and server to specify content type in MIME-type
header.
• Stateless: Both client and server know each other only during current request. Due to this
nature of protocol, both client and server do not retain information between various
requests of web pages.
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HTTP Transactions
• HTTP client initiates a transaction by sending a request message to server.
• Server replies to request message by sending a response message.

89
Request and status lines

90
Methods

91
Status codes

92
Status codes

93
Header format

General headers

94
Request headers

95
Response headers

96
Entity Headers

97
Example – To retrieve a document
• Use GET method to retrieve an image with path /usr/bin/image1.
• Request line shows method (GET), URL, and HTTP version (1.1).
• Header has two lines that show client can accept images in GIF or JPEG format.
• Request does not have a body.
• Response message contains status line and four lines of header.
• Header lines define date, server, MIME version, and length of document.
• Body of document follows header.
Formulate a HTTP request-response model based on above instructions.

98
Solution – To retrieve a document
• Use GET method to retrieve an image with path /usr/bin/image1. Request line shows method
(GET), URL, and HTTP version (1.1): GET /usr/bin/image1 HTTP/1.1-------- Under request section
• Header has two lines that show client can accept images in GIF or JPEG format:
Accept: image/gif
Accept: image/jpeg

99
Solution – To retrieve a document
• Response message contains status line and four lines of header. Header lines define
date, server, MIME version, and length of document.
HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Date: Mon, 07-Jan-05 13:15:14 GMT
Server: Challenger
Content-length: 2048
• Body of document follows header: (Body of Document)

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Solution – To retrieve a document

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Example – Client sending data to server.
• Use POST method.
• Request line shows method (POST), URL, and HTTP version (1.1).
• There are four lines of headers.
• Request body contains input information.
• Response message contains status line and four lines of headers.
• Include created document (CGI document) as body.
Formulate a HTTP request-response model based on above instructions.

102
 Solution – Client sending data to server.
• Use POST method. Request line shows method (POST), URL, and HTTP version (1.1).

• POST /cgi-bin/doc.pl HTTP/1.1-------- Under request section

• There are four lines of headers.

Accept: */*

Accept: image/jpeg

Accept: image/gif

Content-length: 50

• Request body contains input information: (Input information) 103

Solution – Client sending data to server.
• Response message contains status line and four lines of headers.
HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Date: Mon, 07-Jan-05 13:15:14 GMT
Server: Challenger
Content-length: 2000
• Include created document (CGI document) as body: (Body of Document)

104
Solution – Client sending data to server.

105
SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
• Set of communication guidelines that allow software to transmit an e-mail over internet.
• Program used for sending messages to other computer users based on e-mail addresses.
• Provides mail exchange between users on same or different computers
• Can send a single message (like - text, voice, video or graphics) to one or more recipients
• Can send messages on networks outside internet.
• Components of SMTP:
 User Agent (UA): prepares message, creates envelope then puts message in envelope
 Mail Transfer Agent (MTA): transfers this mail across internet.

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SMTP – Case 1
• When sender and receiver of an e-mail are on same system, it needs only two user
agents.

107
SMTP – Case 2
• When sender and receiver of an e-mail are on different systems, two UAs and a pair of
MTAs (client and server) are needed

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SMTP – Case 3

When sender is connected to

mail server via a LAN or a
WAN, two UAs and two pairs
of MTAs (client and server)
are needed

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SMTP – Case 4- Most common situation

When both sender and receiver

are connected to mail server via a
LAN or a WAN, two VAs, two pairs
of MTAs (client and server), and a
pair of MAAs (client and server)
are needed.

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FILE TRANSFER (FTP) Protocol

• Transferring files from one computer to another is most common tasks expected
from a networking or internetworking environment.
• Greatest volume of data exchange in Internet today is due to file transfer.
• FTP uses services of TCP.
• It needs two TCP connections.
• Well-known port 21 is used for control connection and well-known port 20 for data
connection.

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FILE TRANSFER (FTP) Protocol

112
Using control connection

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Using data connection

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Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
• SNMP is a framework for managing devices in an internet using TCP/IP protocol suite.
• Provides a set of fundamental operations for monitoring and maintaining an internet.

SNMP Concept

115
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
• SNMP defines format of packets exchanged between a manager and an agent.
• Reads and changes status (values) of objects (variables) in SNMP packets.

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SNMP Management

1. Manager checks an agent by requesting information that reflects behavior of

agent.
2. Manager forces an agent to perform a task by resetting values in agent
database.
3. Agent contributes to management process by warning manager of an
unusual situation.

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Syllabus Contents
• UNIT IV
Transport Layer Protocols- Design Issues, Quality of
Services. The Internet Transport Protocols. IPV4 vs IPV6.
Session Layer protocol- Dialog Management,
Synchronization, Connection Establishment. Quality of
service, security management, Firewalls.
Application layer protocols: HTTP, SMTP, FTP, SNMP, Etc.

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Unit 4- Completed
Thanks

Dr. Divya Agarwal