PARCOURS OUVERT

b2.4 EEE EXP8

Power Electronics

DC/DC CONVERTER
Classification of DC-DC converter
DC/DC conversion: A DC-DC converter is an electronic device used to
convert a source of direct current (DC) (voltage or current) from one
voltage level to another. It is also called “Chopper”.

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Classification of DC-DC converter
Depending on whether there is electrical isolation between the input and
output, DC-DC converters can be categorized as isolated or non-isolated.

Non-isolated DC/DC converters (no transformer)

have a direct electrical connection between the input
and output. They rely on components like inductors
and capacitors to step up or step down the voltage.
• Buck, Boost, Buck/boost, etc.
• Applications: Power supplies for portable devices,
battery charging systems.
• Adv: High efficiency due to fewer components,
compact and lightweight, low cost.
• Disadv: Lack of isolation can result in noise
propagation and safety risks in some applications.
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Classification of DC-DC converter
Isolated DC/DC converters have galvanic isolation between the input and
output, typically achieved using a transformer. The isolation provides safety
and noise reduction.
o Flyback, Forward, Push-Pull, etc.
o Applications: Medical equipment, industrial power supplies, renewable energy
systems, high-voltage and safety-critical environments.
o Electrical isolation improves safety, effective at reducing noise and ground
loops, flexible output voltage ranges through transformer winding ratios.
o Larger size and weight due to transformers, more complex design and higher
cost.

Forward converter
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Reversibility: General concept
• Converters may change the direction of the energy flux.
• A converter with one possible direction of power flow transmits energy
only in one direction: from the source to the load.
• Converters in which the direction of the energy flux may change are
known as reversible converters.
• Two-quadrant converters may
change the direction of the energy
flux by changing the polarity of the
voltage or current in the load circuit.
• Four-quadrant converters may
change the direction of the energy
flux by changing the direction of
both the voltage and the current.
Duty Cycle α

A duty cycle is defined as periodic signal at 2 levels. The duty cycle of a DC-
DC converter is defined as the ratio of the "on" time of the switch to the
total time of the switching period. It controls the output voltage of the
converter.
Duty cycle : 0<α<1
Expressed as a percentage of ON time.

High
level

Low
level t
TSW
0 α TSW

Also called PWM (Pulse With Modulation).

Semiconductors
Diode:
• Two-terminal semiconductor device that allows current to flow
primarily in one direction while blocking it in the opposite direction.
• Structure p-n junction of a semiconductor material (usually silicon or
germanium).

• It has low (ideally zero) resistance in one

direction and high (ideally infinite) resistance
in the other.
Semiconductors
Diode: Types

byjus.com
Semiconductors
Diode: Types
• Rectifier: Used for converting AC to
DC.
• Zener: Operate in reverse bias to
regulate voltage.
• Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) – Emit
light when conducting current.
• Schottky Diodes: Have low forward
voltage drop, used in high-speed
circuits.
• Photodiodes: Convert light into
electrical current.
Semiconductors
Diode: Operation
Forward Bias:
• When the positive terminal of a voltage source is connected to the p-
side and the negative terminal to the n-side, the diode conducts,
allowing current to flow.
• The minimum voltage required to start conduction (called the
threshold voltage) is about 0.7V for silicon and 0.3V for germanium.
Semiconductors
Diode: Operation
Reverse Bias:
• When the polarity is reversed, the diode blocks current flow except for
a very small leakage current.
• If the reverse voltage exceeds a critical level (breakdown voltage), the
diode undergoes breakdown, allowing significant current to flow (as
in Zener diodes).
Semiconductors
Diode Applications:
• Power supplies
• Signal processing
• Protection
• Communication
• Lighting
Semiconductors
Bipolar Junction MOSFET Transistor IGBT
Transistor

Electronic components that can regulate or control the flow of electric

current based on an external control signal. These switches can be turned-
on and off via the control terminal.
Semiconductors
Bipolar Junction Transistor BJT:
• Consists of three layers of semiconductor material: NPN or PNP
configuration.
• Has three terminals: Base (B), Collector (C), and Emitter (E).
• Current-controlled: A small base current controls a much larger
collector current.
• Used in older or low-cost designs. Suffers from higher switching
losses. Requires a base current to turn ON and OFF, making it less
efficient and leading to power loss.
Semiconductors
Bipolar Junction Transistor BJT:
• Based on the arrangement of the semiconductor layers and the
direction of current flow, BJTs are classified as NPN (Negative-
Positive-Negative) or PNP (Positive-Negative-Positive).
• NPN (Majority carriers: electrons)
• PNP (Majority carriers: holes)

HIGH VOLTAGE, LOW CURRENT

Semiconductors
BJT Operation
PNP transistor
• When a positive voltage is applied to base-emitter junction. It allows
the flow of electrons from emitter to the base.
• The flow of electrons from the emitter to the base creates a path for
majority charge carriers to flow from collector to the emitter.
• This controlled flow of holes from the collector to emitter constitutes
the output current and it can be amplified based on current flowing
into the base.
Semiconductors
BJT Operation
Semiconductors
BJT Applications:
• Analog signal amplification (e.g., audio amplifiers)
• Switching applications (low- and medium-power circuits)
• RF circuits and oscillators
BJT Advantages:
• High current gain
• Good for analog applications
• Can handle moderate power
BJT Disadvantages:
• Requires continuous base current, leading to power loss
• Slower switching than MOSFET
• Higher conduction losses in power applications
Semiconductors
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor MOSFET:
• Works based on an electric field controlling the current flow.
• Consists of three terminals:

Gate (G): controls the

Source (S): where carriers
Drain (D): where carriers exit operation through an
enter
insulating oxide layer

• Voltage-controlled: No continuous current is required at the gate.

• Fast switching speed.
• Low conduction losses.
• Sensitive to static electricity (can
be damaged easily).

HIGH CURRENT, LOW VOLTAGE

Semiconductors
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-
Effect Transistor MOSFET:
Two basic configurations:
• Enhancement mode: The transistor
requires a Gate-Source voltage (VGS)
to switch the device “ON”. The
enhancement mode MOSFET is
equivalent to a “Normally Open”
switch.
• Depletion mode: The transistor
requires the Gate-Source voltage
(VGS) to switch the device “OFF”. The
depletion-mode MOSFET is equivalent
to a “Normally Closed” switch.
Semiconductors
MOSFET Operation:
Gate Voltage Controls the Current Flow: Applying voltage to the gate
induces an electric field, forming a conductive channel between source
and drain.
Enhancement mode: The transistor requires a Gate-Source voltage (VGS)
to switch the device “ON”. If:

• VGS=0v, no conduction (Off state)

• VGS>VTH, conductive channel
forms, allowing current flow.
• VGS increases, the channel
conductivity and the drain current
ID increases.
Semiconductors
MOSFET Operation:

Depletion-mode N-Channel
Semiconductors
MOSFET Applications:
• Switching power supplies
• Motor control in low- and medium-power applications
• Logic circuits and microprocessors
• RF amplifiers
MOSFET Advantages:
• Very high input impedance (low gate current)
• Extremely fast switching speeds
• Low power consumption
• Efficient in low- and medium-power applications
MOSFET Disadvantages:
• Can be damaged by static electricity
• Higher on-resistance than IGBT in high-power applications
Semiconductors
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor IGBT:
• Hybrid device that combines features of MOSFET (high input
impedance, fast switching) and BJT (low conduction losses at high
current).
• Has three terminals:

Gate (G): controls the

Emitter (E): emits carriers Collectro (C): output current
operation through an
intro the base flows here
insulating oxide layer

• It is commonly employed as a
switching device in inverter circuits,
facilitating the conversion of DC
(Direct Current) to AC (Alternating
Current) power.
Semiconductors
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor IGBT:
• Voltage-controlled, like MOSFET.
• Low conduction losses, like BJT.
• Slower switching speed than MOSFET due to charge storage effects.
• Excellent for high-voltage, high-current applications.
• High input impedance (easy gate drive).

HIGH CURRENT, HIGH VOLTAGE

Semiconductors
IGBT Operation:
• MOSFET-like Gate Control: A positive gate voltage (VGS) creates a
conductive channel in the MOSFET part.
• The collector-emitter connection is established with the collector at
a positive voltage compared to the emitter.
• Charge Injection into the BJT Layer: The MOSFET layer injects
carriers into the BJT structure, allowing high current conduction.

IGBT equivalent structure

Semiconductors
IGBT Operation:
Semiconductors
IGBT Applications:
• Motor drives (industrial, electric vehicles)
• High-power inverters (solar, wind energy systems)
• HVDC power transmission
• Induction heating
IGBT Advantages:
• Excellent for high-voltage, high-current applications
• Lower conduction losses than MOSFETs in high-power systems
• High input impedance (easy gate drive)
IGBT Disadvantages:
• Slower switching than MOSFET
• Not suitable for very high-frequency applications
 Semiconductors
Comparison:

FEATURE BJT MOSFET IGBT

CONTROL TYPE Current-controlled Voltage-controlled Voltage-controlled
SPEED Medium Very fast Moderate
CONDUCTION LOSS Medium Low at low power Low at high power
SWITCHING LOSS High Low Medium
EFFICIENCY Moderate High Very High
POWER LEVEL Low-Medium Low-High Medium-High
APPLICATIONS Analog circuits, small High-speed switching, High-power switching
power switching low to medium power (motors, inverters)
Semiconductors
Comparison:
Semiconductors
Comparison:
Semiconductors

Simulation Assignments:
• Practical Work # 1
• Practical Work # 2
• Practical Work # 3
• Practical Work # 4
Unidirectional Buck
Converter
Unidirectional Buck Converter
A Buck Converter is a type of DC-DC
converter that steps down the input voltage
to a lower output voltage while maintaining
the same polarity.
A unidirectional buck converter specifically
transfers energy from the input to the
output in a single direction, without reverse
energy flow.
Basic Operating Principle: The Buck
Converter operates by switching the input
voltage on and off rapidly using a high-
speed switch (typically a MOSFET or IGBT),
and smoothing the resulting output using
an LC filter.
Unidirectional Buck Converter

Basic Operating Principle: The Buck Converter operates by switching the

input voltage on and off rapidly using a high-speed switch (typically a
MOSFET or IGBT), and smoothing the resulting output using an LC filter.

• Step-down Operation: The converter

reduces the average output voltage
compared to the input voltage based
on the duty cycle (D) of the switching
signal.
• Unidirectional Current Flow: Energy
flows only from the input to the output,
which makes the circuit suitable for
applications like voltage regulation or
battery charging.
Unidirectional Buck Converter

Circuit components:
Input voltage source: DC power
Switch 1: Switches the input
voltage. MOSFET or IGBT.
Switch 2: Provides a unidirectional
path for current when the switch is Voltage K1
source vK1
off. Diode.
L
Inductor: Stores energy. Smooths I. Vs
Ve
Capacitor: Smooths Vs K2
vK2 C
Load: Device or circuit connected
to the converter output.
Unidirectional Buck Converter

Operation mode: Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM)

The inductor current never drops to zero during the switching cycle.
• Switch 1 ON: The switch is closed, and current flows through the
inductor, storing energy in its magnetic field.
• Switch 2 OFF: The switch is open, and the inductor releases energy to
the load via the diode (switch 2).
Unidirectional Buck Converter
o 1st Approach : overview “ without equation ”

Voltage K1 Ve
source vK1 2nd order
Vs(t)
filter
L <Vs>=αVe
t
0 αTsw Tsw

Ve
K2 DC value of Vs at the
vK2 C
output (average
Vs value)

VK2(t) DC
Ve 2nd order
filter 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝛼𝑉𝑖𝑛
<Vs> Load

t F0 Fsw 3.Fsw 5Fsw

0 αTs Tsw
w
Input signal switched between
0V and Ve
Unidirectional Buck Converter
2nd Approach : without filtering of Vs AC component – Continuous Mode

iK1 Vs(t)
Ve
vK1
K1 <Vs>

Is
t
Ve iK2 αTs
w
Tsw

vK2
K2 Vs K1 K2 K1 K2

[0,αT] : K1 ON, K2 OFF

Voltage Current [αT, T] : K1 OFF, K2 ON

source Commutation cell source
Hypothesis : Ideal switch
ON : Vk=0
OFF : iK=0

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝛼𝑉𝑖𝑛
Unidirectional Buck Converter
3rd Approach : with filtering of Vs AC component– Continuous Mode

Current ripple ΔIL VK2(t)

iK1 Ve

vK1
K1 <Vs>

iL L t
Is αTs Tsw
w IL(t)
Ve iK2 vL
ΔIL
vK2 <IL>
K2 C Vs
K1 K2 K1 K2

Voltage DC [0,αT] :
source Commutation cell LC filter Load

fsw: switching frequency

Unidirectional Buck Converter
3rd Approach : with filtering of Vs AC component– Continuous Mode

Voltage ripple vc(t)=Vs(t)

iK1 <Vs>=αVe ΔVS ΔVc

vK1
K1 Ic(t)
iL L Qc+ ΔIL
t
Is αT QcT-

Ve iK2 vL
vK2
K2 C Vs K1 K2 K1 K2

Voltage DC
source Commutation LC
cell filter Load
Unidirectional Buck Converter
Boundary of the continuous mode

If the load R rises, the output current Is decreases. When the minimum value of IL(t)
reaches 0A, the boundary of the two modes is achieved.
Limit between Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM) and Discontinuous Conduction
Mode (DCM) appears when IL(t) goes to 0 during part of the switching cycle..

with
Unidirectional Buck Converter

Switch selection: The Buck Converter operates by switching the input

voltage on and off rapidly using a high-speed switch.
Unidirectional Buck Converter
Losses into Converters
Semiconductors devices: losses
while conducting / at switching
K1
L Filter elements: iron losses,
Is magnetic losses
Ve
K2 C Vs

Voltage DC
source Load
Unidirectional Buck Converter
Semiconductor Losses:

Losses at switching (W):

𝟏
𝑷𝒌(𝒔𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈) = 𝑽 𝑰 (𝒕 + 𝒕𝒐𝒇𝒇 )𝒇𝒔𝒘
𝟐 𝑫𝑺 𝑫 𝒐𝒏
Losses while conducting (W):

𝑷𝒌(𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅) = 𝑹𝑫𝑺𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝒔 𝟐 𝜶
Total losses(W):
𝑷𝒌 =𝑷𝒌 𝒔𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 + 𝑷𝒌(𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅)

Ton​ (Turn-On Time)

Toff​ (Turn-Off Time)
Rdson (Drain-Source On Resistance)
Unidirectional Buck Converter
Filter Element Losses:

Inductor Conduction Losses (W):

Due to winding resistance (DCR), the inductor has conduction losses.
𝑷𝑫𝑪𝑹 = 𝑹𝑫𝑪𝑹 (𝑰𝑳𝑹𝑴𝑺 )𝟐
Capacitor ESR Losses (W): Capacitors (especially electrolytic and
ceramic) have an Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR).
𝑷𝑬𝑺𝑹 = 𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑹 (𝑰𝑪𝑹𝑴𝑺 )𝟐

Semiconductor losses Ohmic losses

Unidirectional Buck Converter
Exercise: Design a buck converter to step down a 24V input voltage to a 12V
output voltage at a load current of 5A. The converter operates at a
switching frequency of 100 kHz. Assume a desired output voltage ripple of
0.5% and a ripple current between 20 and 40%.
𝑉 12
∝= 𝑠 = = 0.5
𝑉𝑒 24 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝛼𝑉𝑖𝑛
The ripple current is typically 20-40% of the load current.
Assuming ∆𝐼𝐿 = 30%:

∆𝐼𝐿 = 0.3 ∗ 5 = 1.5𝐴

The ripple voltage desired is 0.5%:

∆𝑉𝑠 = 0.005 ∗ 12 = 0.06𝑉

𝑉𝑒 ∗ 𝛼(1 − 𝛼) 24(0.5)(1 − 0.5)

𝐿= = = 40𝜇𝐻
∆𝐼𝐿 ∗ 𝑓 1.5(100𝑥103 )

∆𝐼𝐿 1.5
𝐶= = = 31.3𝜇𝐹.
8 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ ∆𝑉𝑠 8 100𝑥103 0.06
Unidirectional Buck Converter
Task:
Design a buck converter to step down a 20V input voltage
to a 14V output voltage at a load current of 4A. The
converter operates at a switching frequency of 150 kHz.
Assume a desired output voltage ripple of 0.4% and a ripple
current between 20 and 40%.
Bidirectional Buck
Converter
DC/DC Converter (Boost, Bust and
Buck/Boost)
Buck converter Boost converter
DC/DC Converter (Boost, Buck and
Buck/Boost)

Buck converter Boost converter

Bidirectional Buck converter

Bidirectional Buck Converter
A Bidirectional Buck Converter is a type of DC-DC converter that can
operate in both step-down (buck) and step-up (boost) modes, allowing
power to flow in either direction between two sources.
It is commonly used in applications where energy needs to be transferred
bidirectionally: battery management systems, hybrid vehicles, and
renewable energy systems.
Bidirectional Buck Converter
Basic Operating Principle:
The bidirectional buck converter operates in two distinct modes:
• Buck Mode (Step-down): Converts a higher voltage source (e.g., a DC
bus) to a lower voltage (e.g., battery charging).
• Boost Mode (Step-up): Converts a lower voltage source (e.g., battery) to a
higher voltage (e.g., DC bus) for powering a load or grid.
Power flow direction is controlled by managing the switching signals of the
MOSFETs, enabling the converter to alternate between these two modes.
The transition between these two modes is smooth, enabling the converter
to maintain a stable output voltage under varying input conditions.
Power flow direction is controlled by managing the switching signals of the
MOSFETs, enabling the converter to alternate between these two modes.
Bidirectional Buck Converter

Circuit components:
Input voltage sources: Two DC voltage sources.
Switches: High-speed, bidirectional switches that control current flow.
MOSFETs.
Switch: Diode optional to prevent reverse current when needed.
Inductor: Stores and transfers energy between the two voltage sources.
Capacitors Smooths the voltage at both ends.
Controller: Monitors voltages and currents to manage switching and power
flow.
Bidirectional Buck Converter

Operation mode: Boost and Buck modes

Buck mode: Step down

S1 on
The upper MOSFET turns on and off
periodically, allowing current to
flow through the inductor and
charge the battery.
The inductor limits the current rise
during the ON period and provides
continuous current during the OFF D2 forward biased
period.
Bidirectional Buck Converter

Operation mode: Boost and Buck modes

Boost mode: Step up

S2 on The lower MOSFET turns on and off,
causing the inductor to store
energy during the ON state.
During the OFF state, the inductor
releases energy, boosting the
voltage and delivering it to the bus.
D1 forward biased
Semiconductors

Simulation Assignments:
• Practical Work # 5
Thank you!