complete FTTH 2023v1.1
complete FTTH 2023v1.1
Technology (FTTH)
قطاع التدريب والتطوير
اإلدارة العامة لتطوير المهارات الفنية ونظم وتكنولوجيا المعلومات
Aim of study
By the end of this chapter the trainee can recognize several configurations of
fiber deployment, FTTH network environment, Type of FTTH site, FTTH
architecture.
Contents Pages
1
Chapter 1: FTTX network architecture
Chapter 1
FTTX network architecture
Fiber to the x (FTTx) is a generic term for any broadband network architecture
using optical fiber to replace all or part of the
usual metal local loop used for last mile
telecommunications. The generic term was
initially a generalization for several
configurations of fiber deployment (FTTN,
FTTC, FTTB, FTTH...), all starting by FTT but
differentiated by the last letter, which is
substituted by an x in the generalization.
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Chapter 1: FTTX network architecture
unit, with the final connection to the individual living space being made
via alternative means.
FTTH - Fiber-to-the-home - fiber reaches the boundary of the living
space, such as a box on the outside wall of a home.
FTTP - Fiber-to-the premises - this term is used in several contexts: as a
blanket term for both FTTH and FTTB, or where the fiber network
includes both homes and small businesses.
FTTD - Fiber-to-the-desk - fiber connection is installed from the main
computer room to a terminal or fiber media converter near the user’s desk.
The speeds of fiber optic and copper cables are both limited by length, but
copper is much more sharply limited in this respect. For example, the common
form of Gigabit Ethernet runs over relatively economical category 5e, category
6, or augmented category 6 unshielded twisted pair copper cabling but only to
100 meters. However, over the right kind of fiber, Gigabit Ethernet can easily
reach tens of kilometers.
1-2What’s FTTH?
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Chapter 1: FTTX network architecture
FTTH services may deliver just one application, but generally deliver several
such as data, voice and video.
Each access node will contain the required electronic transmission (active)
equipment to provide the applications and services over optical fibre to the
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Chapter 1: FTTX network architecture
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Chapter 1: FTTX network architecture
city
open residential
rural
building type and density – single homes or multi-dwelling units (MDUs)
Not only does each environment offer different customer densities (per sq km),
but this also varies by country.
The type of site will be a key factor in deciding the most appropriate network
design and architecture. Types include:
Greenfield – new build where the network will be introduced at the same
time as the buildings
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Chapter 1: FTTX network architecture
Brownfield – where there are existing buildings and infrastructure but the
infrastructure is to a lower standard
overbuild – adding to the existing infrastructure
The choice of fibre deployment technology will determine CAPEX and OPEX,
as well as the reliability of the network. These costs can be optimised by
choosing the most appropriate active solution combined with the most
appropriate infrastructure deployment methodology. These methods, include:
The FTTH network builder must create a profitable business case, balancing
capital expenses with operating costs while ensuring revenue generation. Cost
considerations are introduced briefly in, but for a more detailed analysis of the
main influences on the business case for FTTH networks please read the, which
is also available from the FTTH Council Europe.
Active and passive are two commonly used FTTH architectures for FTTH
deployment.
Active Architecture is also called as Point 2 Point (P2P) and Passive Optical
Network (PON) architecture is called Point to Multi Point (P2M). Choice of
active or passive architectures for deployment depends on the type of services to
be delivered, cost of the infrastructure, current infrastructure and future plans for
migrating to the new technologies.
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Chapter 1: FTTX network architecture
The two most widely used topologies are point-to-multipoint, which is often
combined with a passive optical network (PON) architecture, and point-to-point,
typically using Ethernet transmission technologies.
Point-to-point topologies provide dedicated fibres between the POP and the
subscriber. Each subscriber is directly connected by a dedicated fibre. Most
existing point-to-point FTTH deployments use Ethernet, but this can be mixed
with other transmission schemes for business applications (e.g. Fibre Channel,
SDH/SONET). This topology can also include PON technologies by placing the
passive optical splitters in the access node.
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Chapter 1: FTTX network architecture
10
Chapter 2: FTTH Network architecture
Aim of study
-By the end of this chapter the trainee can recognize Passive optical network
solutions, Ethernet point-to-point solutions
Contents Pages
1
Chapter 2: FTTH Network architecture
Chapter 2
FTTH Network architecture
Both passive optical network (PON) and Ethernet point-to-point solutions have
been deployed worldwide. The choice of equipment depends on many variables
including demographics and geographical segmentation, specific deployment
parameters, financial calculations, and more. In particular, the choice is highly
dependent on the ease of deploying the passive infrastructure. Clearly, in today’s
marketplace there is room for both solutions.
The PON equipment comprises an optical line terminal (OLT) in the point of
presence (POP) or central office, one fibre to the passive optical splitter and a
fan-out towards a maximum of 64 end-users, each having an optical network
unit (ONU), where the fibre is terminated.
The ONU exists in several versions, including an MDU version that handles
many customers for in-building applications, reusing existing in-building
cabling (CAT5/Ethernet).
It is important to note that the last part of the network – between the last splitter
and the end-user – is the same for a point-to-point or a PON solution: every
home passed will be connected with one (or more) fibres up to the point where
the last splitter will be installed, also known as a fibre concentration point (FCP)
or fibre flexibility point (FFP). One of the differentiators of PON will be that the
number of fibres between the FFPs and the POP can be reduced significantly
(splitting ratio in combination with the subscriber take rate can result in a 1:100
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Chapter 2: FTTH Network architecture
All PON systems have essentially the same theoretical capacity at the optical
level. The limits on upstream and downstream bandwidth are set by the
electrical overlay, the protocol used to allocate the capacity and manage the
connection. The Full Services Access Network (FSAN) Group develops
technical specifications, which are then ratified as standards by the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU).The first PON systems that achieved
significant commercial deployment had an electrical layer built on
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM, or "cell switching") and were called
"APON." These are still being used today, although the term "broadband PON"
or BPON is now applied. APON/BPON systems typically have downstream
capacity of 155 Mbps or 622 Mbps, with the latter now the most common.
Upstream transmission is in the form of cell bursts at 155 Mbps.
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Chapter 2: FTTH Network architecture
Trends for access technology over the next ten years will be towards more
symmetrical bandwidth. Multimedia file sharing, peer-to-peer applications and
the more data-intensive applications used by home-workers will drive subscriber
upstream bandwidth. Still, it is difficult to envision complete symmetry in
residential applications due to the enormous amount of bandwidth required for
HDTV and entertainment services in general – although small businesses could
benefit from symmetric, broadband connectivity. Nonetheless, it is the high
upstream bit rate of the PON that gives FTTH operators their main competitive
advantage over DSL or cable providers.
GPON provides a 20 km reach with a 28dB optical budget using class B+ optics
with a split ratio of 1:32. Reach can be extended to 30 km by limiting the
splitting factor to a maximum of 1:16, or by introducing C+ optics, which add
up to 4 dB to the optical link budget and can increase the optical reach to 60 km.
10G-EPON can also provide a 20 km reach with a 29dB optical budget.
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Chapter 2: FTTH Network architecture
Note:
The standards have been defined in such a way that both GPON and XG-PON
can coexist on the same fibre through the use of different wavelengths for both
solutions.
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Chapter 2: FTTH Network architecture
Standard PON equipment consists of an optical line terminal (OLT) and the
optical network unit (ONU). The OLT is usually situated at the central office or
concentration point. The OLT boards can handle up to approximately 8,200
subscribers (based on 64 users per GPON connection) per shelf.
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Chapter 2: FTTH Network architecture
Depending on the application, the ONU can offer analogue phone connections
(POTS), Ethernet connections, RF connections for video overlay or in the case
of FTTB, a number of VDSL2 or Ethernet connections.
In the IEEE world the subscriber equipment is always referred to as the ONU.
However, in the context of GPON and X-GPON it was agreed that the term
ONU should be used in general; ONT was kept only for particular use to mean
an ONU supporting a single subscriber. Therefore, the term ONU is more
general and always appropriate. However this definition is not followed by
everyone and in other (non-PON) cases any device that terminates the optical
network is also referred to as optical network termination (ONT). In this
document no preference is expressed and both terminologies are used and as
such should be interpreted in their broadest sense.
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Chapter 2: FTTH Network architecture
To make use of the inherent fibre usage advantage of PON, the location of the
splitters should be optimised.
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Chapter 2: FTTH Network architecture
In typical European city areas, the optimum node size will be somewhere
between 500 and 2000 homes passed.
In most city areas, there are a lot of high-rise buildings with several tens or even
hundreds of apartments (MDUs). This also is an important input for the design
of the network, and we can decide to put splitter(s) in the basement of such
buildings. Some networks employ a two-level splitting strategy, also known as
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Chapter 2: FTTH Network architecture
distributed splitting where, for instance, 1:8 splitters are put in the buildings and
a second 1:8 splitter is put at the node level. In mixed areas containing a
combination of MDUs and stand-alone houses, the optimal node size may
increase (one fibre coming from a building now represents up to eight homes
passed). In some cases even higher levels of splitting, also known as multi-level
splitting, can be deployed.
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Chapter 2: FTTH Network architecture
For Ethernet architectures, there are two possibilities, one dedicated fibre per
customer between the Ethernet switch located at the POP and the home, or one
fibre to an aggregation point and dedicated fibre from there onwards. The first
option is easy and straightforward to implement, the second limits the fibre
usage in the access loop and is often used in FTTB solutions.
From a civil engineering perspective the topologies of the cable plant for point-
to-point fibre deployments can look identical to those for PON. However the
number of fibres/cables between the POP and the FFP will be significantly
lower for a PON deployment.
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Chapter 2: FTTH Network architecture
From the POP, individual feeder fibres for each subscriber are laid down
towards some distribution point in the field – typically a fibre flexibility point –
either in an underground enclosure or a street cabinet. From this distribution
point, fibres are laid towards each individual home.
The higher number of feeder fibres does not pose any major obstacle for from a
civil engineering perspective. However, since the fibre densities in the feeder
and drop part are very different, it is likely that different cabling techniques will
be employed in the two parts of the network.
Fibres arriving in the POP are terminated on an optical distribution frame (ODF)
– this is a flexible fibre management solution that makes it possible to connect
any customer to any port on the switches in the POP.
Due to the large number of fibres handled in a POP, the density of the fibre
management solution has to be very high in order to reduce space required. This
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Chapter 2: FTTH Network architecture
figure shows an example of a high-density ODF that can terminate and connect
more than 2300 fibres in a single rack. For illustration purposes it is positioned
next to a rack with active equipment that can terminate 1152 fibres on individual
ports.
Take rates in FTTH projects typically take some time to ramp up and usually
stay below 100%. Fibre management allows a ramp up of the number of active
ports in synchrony with the activation of customers. This minimizes the number
of unused active network elements in the POP.
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Chapter 3: Passive Optical Network
Aim of study
- By the end of this chapter the trainee can recognize Passive Optical Network
architectures.
Contents Pages
1
Chapter 3: Passive Optical Network
Chapter 3
Passive Optical Network
2
Chapter 3: Passive Optical Network
The optical budget of 28dB with GPON technology using class B+ optics
enables a reach of 30km when the splitting factor is limited to 1:16. New class
C+ optics add another 4dB of link budget, and thus either more distributed
splitting capabilities or more reach. GPON extenders increase capabilities
further to either 60km reach or 128 end-users.
Although GPON is perceived to possess sufficient bandwidth for the next few
years, XG-PON is already standardized and this is not the limit; PON
parameters will be pushed to higher values.
3
Chapter 3: Passive Optical Network
4
Chapter 3: Passive Optical Network
through an optical power splitter to all the ONUs in the access network.
Correspondingly, all broadcasted information is received at every ONU. The
data streams for different ONUs can be virtually differentiated using ONU
address labels that are embedded in the transmission. At the ONU, only the
relevant data with correct address labels is processed and all other data is
discarded. There is an apparent security issue as the data intended for one
ONU also reaches the other entire ONUs in the PON. To avoid information
security problems, commercial TDM-PONs use encryption.
5
Chapter 3: Passive Optical Network
6
Chapter 3: Passive Optical Network
Bandwidth demands are constantly growing with new evolving services and
increase in the number of users requiring enhanced access network
performance. The performance of TDM-PON systems is limited by mainly
two factors:
The ONUs must run at the aggregate bit rate of the whole PON making the
hardware design more difficult with higher transmission rates.
The splitting ratio introduced by the passive splitter that limits:
o the maximum number of ONUs in a PON,
o the maximum reach of a PON decreasing scalability,
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Chapter 3: Passive Optical Network
o the bandwidth per ONU-ratio because the channel is divided among the
ONUs.
These TDM-PON problems can be shunned with the WDM-PON that in
contrast to the TDM-PON features .
Each ONU operates on an individual bit rate relaxing the hardware
requirements.
The usage of the AWG router removes the splitting loss problem increasing the
reach and scalability of the WDM-PON architecture.
Each ONU can be assigned an individual wavelength to provide a high
bandwidth per ONU-ratio.
The next step could be to further increase the line speed on the fibre to 40 or
even 100 Gbps.
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Chapter 3: Passive Optical Network
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Chapter 3: Passive Optical Network
so far not affordable. The technologies required for WDM-PON are available
today, but they have to undergo some cost reduction in order to be considered
suitable for mass deployment.
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Chapter 3: Passive Optical Network
11
Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
Aim of study
-By the end of this chapter the trainee can recognize Conventional duct
Contents Pages
1
Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
Chapter 4
Deployment Techniques
2
Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
Product map
Duct network
The use of a single duct maximizes the amount of space inside the duct, but in
practice can limit the number of cables that can be installed. Entanglement of the
cables and high friction between cable jackets can make it difficult to extract
older cablesewcd from full ducts to create room for new cables – older cables
typically end up at the bottom of the duct.
Using rigid subduct reduces the total number of cables that can be installed, but
at least older cables can be removed. This method also allows the use of cable
blowing as well as cable pulling, since it is easier to create an airtight connection
to the subduct. Using flexible textile subduct maximizes the total number of
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
cables which can be installed in a duct and allows older cables to be removed
easily. In general using flexible subduct triples the amount of cables which can
be installed in a main duct.
Main duct sizes which can be sub ducted with rigid sub ducts vary from about
60 mm up to 110 mm. Main duct sizes for single cable use are smaller, typical
internal diameter is between 20 and 40 mm. Smaller main ducts can be sub
ducted with flexible inner sub ducts or micro ducts.
Cables can be installed into the ducts by pulling, blowing or floating. If they are
to be pulled, then the duct either needs to contain a pre-installed draw rope or
must have one installed by rodding and roping. If cables are to be blown in or
floated, then the duct and any connections between sections of duct need to be
airtight.
The inner wall of the duct or rigid sub duct is manufactured to ensure low
friction with the cable sheath. This is typically achieved with a low friction
coating. Alternatively, the duct or rigid sub duct may have a low-friction
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
extruded profile or special duct lubricants are used. Flexible sub ducts are
prelubricated during manufacturing to achieve low friction.
A number of factors govern the continuous length that can be pulled or blown,
including coefficient of friction, bends in the duct route (vertical as well as
horizontal), the strength and weight of the cables, and the installation equipment
used. Fill ratios should be calculated as part of the planning process. The cable
diameter should not be too large compared to the inner diameter of the duct. For
existing networks the condition of the ducts should be checked for any potential
damage and suitable space and capacity for future cabling.
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
Although cable designs can vary, they are based on a small number of elements.
The first and most common building block is a loose tube, comprising a plastic
tube containing the required number of fibres (typically 12) together with a tube
filling compound that both buffers the fibres and helps them to move within the
tube as the cable expands and contracts at environmental and mechanical
extremes. Other building blocks include multiple fibres in a ribbon form or in a
thin easy-strip tube coating. Fibres may also be laid in narrow slots grooved out
of a central cable element.
Tubes containing individual fibres or multiple ribbons are laid around a central
cable element that comprises a strength member with plastic jacketing. Water
blocking materials such as water-swell able tapes or grease can be included to
prevent moisture permeating radially or longitudinally through the cable, which
is over-sheathed with polyethylene (or alternative materials) to protect it from
the external environment. Fibres, ribbons or bundles (protected by a coloured
micro-sheath or identified by a coloured binder) may also be housed within a
large central tube. This is then over sheathed with strength elements included.
If cables are pulled in using a winch, then they may need to be stronger than
blown versions, because the tensile force applied may be much higher. Blown
cables need to be suitably lightweight with a degree of rigidity to aid the
blowing process. The presence of the duct affords a high degree of crush
protection, except where the cable emerges into the footway box. Duct cables
are normally jacketed and non-metallic – to remove the need for earthing, for
lightning protection and for environmental reasons. However, they may contain
metallic elements for higher strength (steel central strength members), for
remote surface detection (copper elements) or for added moisture protection
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
(longitudinal aluminum tape). Duct environments tend be benign, but the cables
are designed to withstand potential long-term flooding and occasional freezing.
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
When cables are pulled into a duct, there needs to be either a pre-existing draw-
rope or one must be installed prior to cable winching. The cable should be fitted
with a swivel, which allows the cable to freely twist as it is installed, and a fuse
rated at or below the cable‟s tensile strength. Long cable section lengths can be
installed if the cable is rated to take the additional tensile pulling load, or by
“fleeting” the cable at suitable section mid-points to allow a secondary pull
operation, or by using intermediate assist pullers (capstans or cable pushers).
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
Fleeting involves laying loops of fibre on the surface during a pull using figure
of eight loops to prevent twisting in the cable. If spare ducts or sub ducts are
installed, then subsequent cables can be installed as the need arises (“just in
time”).
When installing cables, due account should be taken of their mechanical and
environmental performances as indicated on the supplier‟s datasheets, which
should not be exceeded. The tensile load represents the maximum tension that
should be applied to a cable during the installation process and ensures that any
strain imparted to the fibres is within safe working limits. The use of a swivel
and mechanical fuse will protect the cable if the pulling force is exceeded. Cable
lubricants can be used to reduce the friction between the cable and the sub-duct,
hence reducing the tensile load. The minimum bend diameter represents the
smallest coil for cable storage within a cable chamber. Suitable pulleys and
guidance devices should be used to ensure that the minimum dynamic bend
radius is maintained during installation. If the cable outer diameter exceeds 75%
of the duct inner diameter the pulling length may be reduced.
Considering that most outside plant underground cables are exposed to water
over a major part of their life, floating is an alternative method to blowing.
Floating can be done with machinery originally designed for blowing: air is
simply replaced by water. Compared to blowing, floating makes it possible to
place considerably longer cables in ducts without an intermediate access point.
Floating can prove very efficient for over-laying cable in many situations. The
performance of the process decreases when placing cables with an outer
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
diameter exceeding 75% of the duct inner diameter. Nevertheless good results
have also been obtained for higher fill factors; for example, a 38mm cable was
floated over 1.9km in a duct with inner diameter of 41 mm (fill factor 93%).
Floating is also a safe method for removing cables from the duct, thus making
possible the re-use of such cable. Blowing out cable is, by comparison, a
hazardous operation.
Cable de-coring
Cable de-coring.
New techniques have been developed to successfully de-core cables. With this
method, the core of copper cables can be replaced cost-effectively and speedily
with fibre-optics.
Instead of digging up the entire cable length, the cable is now only accessed at
two points 50 to 400 metres apart. A special fluid is pumped under pressure into
the space between cable sheath and cable core wrapping, detaching the core
from the sheath.
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
Next, the old cable core is extracted mechanically and treated for clean,
environmentally friendly disposal or recycling. Simultaneously, an empty,
accurately fitted sheathing for the new fibre-optic cable is drawn into the old
cable sheath.
Afterwards these so-called “micro ducts” are connected, the pits are closed and,
finally, the empty cable sheath is refilled with fibre optics.
Apart from the positive environmental aspects – old cables can be recycled
homogenously, and the fluid is biodegradable – this technique can be 40 to 90%
cheaper than installing a new cable, especially due to the much faster
completion time and the reduction in planning and building costs.
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
The closure must be resistant to long term flooding and any future need to re-
open for adding or changing customer fibre circuits.
This option utilises compressed air to blow fibre unit and small diameter cables
quickly through a network of tubes to the customer/ premises. Fibre deployment
can be deferred until the customer requirement has been confirmed, hence
deferring costs compared to speculative up-front build programmes. Also, the
number of splices can be minimised by blowing long lengths of fibre through
the network of tubes (which themselves are easily joined via push-fit
connectors). Blown micro ducts may be used in combination with duct, direct
buried and aerial infrastructure and the tubes may be housed in constructions
designed for any of these three methods.
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
Product Map
Micro ducts are small, flexible, lightweight tubes typically less than 16mm in
diameter. They could be smaller versions of conventional duct (e.g. 10 mm outer
diameter, 8 mm inner diameter) that are pre-installed or blown into a larger sub
duct. Micro duct can be used to further segment a sub duct (for example using
five 10mm micro ducts). The micro ducts may be blown directly into the sub
ducts. They could also be small tubes (e.g. 5mm outer diameter, 3.5 mm inner
diameter) manufactured as a single or multi-tube cable assembly, known as a
“protected micro duct”. Protected micro duct assemblies (typically containing
from one to twenty-four micro ducts) may be constructed in a similar fashion to
the aerial, direct buried or duct cables described previously, and would be
installed in a similar fashion.
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
Thick walled micro duct bundle. Branching of thick walled micro duct.
Lose bundled micro ducts are notable for their high crush resistance and
record-breaking distances over which fibre can be blown. Loose bundled micro
ducts are installed in two ways:
Sections of micro duct can be joined with specialist connectors, which are
available in water and gas-sealed versions.
Thick-walled micro duct connectors have a simple design that allows the
installer to snap together the ends of two micro ducts – there is no need for a
closure, Y-branch, or tube management box. Gas-tight connectors or
terminations must be used at network access points to protect the integrity and
safety of the design.
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
Branching component.
Branching component.
Branching component.
Push-fittings (left to right): gas block tube connectors, straight tube connectors,
and end-tube connectors.
Micro ducts tubes house micro duct cables (e.g. 96 fibre 6.4mm diameter for use
in a 10mm/8mm micro duct) or very small blown-fibre unit cables 1 to 3 mm in
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
The micro duct size must be chosen to suit the cable and required fibre count.
Typical combinations of cable and duct size are given in the table following.
Other sizes and combinations can be used.
Micro duct outer Micro duct inner Typical fibre Typical cable
diameter (mm) diameter (mm) counts diameter (mm)
16 12 24-216 9.2
12 10 96-216 6.5-8.4
10 8 72-96 6-6.5
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
4 3 22-12 1-1.6
Protected cable micro duct with tight integral outer duct (not to scale).
The distance achieved by blowing will depend on the micro duct, cable and
installation equipment used plus route difficulty, particularly turns in the route
and vertical deviations. As the fibre reaches its final drop to the home, it may be
possible to use even smaller tubes (e.g. 4mm/3mm or 3mm/2.1mm), since the
blowing distance will be quite short.
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
The installation method will be very similar to the equipment for full-size
cables, but with smaller blowing equipment and using smaller, lighter and more
flexible cabling payoff devices – reels instead of drums and cages and pans.
Under certain conditions, micro cables can be floated using smaller floating
equipment.
The same principles apply as for micro duct cable normal cable. Additionally, it
is possible to branch micro duct tubes at hand-hole locations using a suitable
swept branch closure, rather than requiring a full-size chamber.
Micro cable joint closures have the same basic features as duct joint closures.
There are different types, depending on whether the joint is being used to join or
branch fibres, or whether it is the tubes themselves that are to be branched or
jointed. These closures allow considerable flexibility with the routing of the
ducts whilst minimising the number of installation steps, because the cables or
fibres may be blown through the whole route once the tubes are connected, and
may be facilitated using simple joints rather than full-scale joint closures.
External tubing can be joined directly to suitable indoor tubing, hence avoiding
the need for a joint splice at the building entry point. Additional safety features
may be required, particularly with respect to pressure relief. If a fully jointed
airtight closure is required, then dangers may occur when fibre is blown through
a joint if there happens to be an air-leak within the tubes housed in the joint. To
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
prevent pressure build-up in the joint that could cause it to blow apart, the fitting
of a reliable safety valve or other pressure relief mechanism is strongly
recommended.
Direct burial offers a safe, protected and hidden environment for cables, but
requires careful survey to avoid damaging other buried services. A narrow
trench must be excavated in order to effectively bury and protect the cable.
Excavation techniques include mole ploughing, open trenching, slotting and
directional boring. A combination of these options can be used in a deployment
area.
Product map
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
Direct buried cables are designed in a similar fashion to duct cables, employing
similar elements, such as filled loose tubes. The cables may have additional
armouring to protect them, although this depends on the burial technique. Pre-
trenching and surrounding the buried cable with a layer of sand can permit the
use of quite lightweight designs, whereas direct mole-ploughing or backfilling
with stone-filled soil may require a more robust design. Crush protection is a
major feature and could consist of a corrugated steel tape or the application of a
thick sheath of suitably hard polyethylene.
Lightning protection
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
Rodent protection
Corrugated steel tape has proven to be one of the best protections against rodent
damage or other burrowing animals. If the cable needs to be non-metallic, then a
complete covering of glass yarns may deter rodents to some degree.
Termite protection
Depending on the actual application, buried joints are typically used in lieu of
the access and jointing chambers used in duct installation.
Basic joint closures for direct buried cable are similar to those used for duct
cables, but may require additional mechanical protection. The closure may also
need to facilitate the distribution of smaller drop cables.
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
With the different sizes, lower profiles and smaller above-ground footprint,
modern street cabinets are less of an eyesore than the larger cabinets required for
a copper or VDSL network. Although visibility is an important consideration, it
is not the only one. Other considerations include:
When the advantages of a cabinet are required but there are issues with location,
an underground solution is also available that allows the cabinet can be raised
out of the ground for access; when stored no more than a manhole cover is seen.
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
Base
management.
Duct
management.
Fibre
management.
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
Street cabinets can also be provided pre-stubbed and terminated. These cabinets
are assembled in the factory and tested prior to delivery. The cabinets have a
cable stub that is run back to the next closure and offer a patch panel for simple
plug-and-play connectivity. This provides faster installation, and greatly reduces
the incidence of installation faults on site.
Compact pedestals and cabinets that are designed to be the last premises
distribution/termination point can be placed directly in front of residents‟
property or along the street. These cabinets are also used as an easy repair and
access point in the fibre optical network.
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Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
This is the point where the passive network ends and the active equipment is
installed. The fibre is terminated inside the CPE with connectors, usually
SC/APC or LC/APC.
The position of the CPE depends on the operator. Some networks have the CPE
mounted outside to the premise to aid access and maintenance. Other operators
choose to position the equipment inside the premises, to ensure the active
equipment is retained close to the equipment it will feed. For MDUs the CPE
may be positioned in a basement or at a floor level.
27
Chapter 4: Deployment Techniques
One downside with an external CPE is the need to get power to the unit; also it
is exposed to potential vandalism.
28
Chapter 5: FTTH network planning
Aim of study
By the end of this chapter the trainee can recognize Network planning guidelines
cabling considerations.
Contents Pages
1
Chapter 5: FTTH network planning
Chapter 5
Whilst fibre is a reliable medium whose reliability has been proven in service
over tens of years, it is still vulnerable to unexpected breakdown that will
require mobilisation and rapid and efficient repair. During such times immediate
access to the networks records by those tasked with repair is essential. It is vital
from the onset of the network build that records and documentation are collated
and centralised to support all subsequent network analysis.
Familiarity and experience working with underground or aerial duct and cable
systems, practices and working operations is essential.
Careful planning of the installation will lead to an efficient and safe operation.
Liaison with the local authorities prior to installation is recommended, where
appropriate.
A full appreciation of nearby utility services must be obtained both from the
local authorities and by on site confirmation using suitable detection equipment.
Safety
Proper safety zones using marker cones and traffic signals should be organised.
All manholes and cable chambers should be identified and those intended for
access should be tested for flammable and toxic gases before entry.
3
Chapter 5: FTTH network planning
For confined spaces, full air and oxygen tests should be carried out before entry
and forced ventilation provided as necessary. Whilst working underground, all
personnel must have continuous monitoring gas warning equipment in operation
at all times – flammable, toxic, carbon dioxide and oxygen levels.
In cases where flammable gas is detected, the local Fire Service should be
contacted immediately.
All existing electrical cables should be inspected for any possibility of damage
and exposed conductors.
A full survey of the complete underground duct system or aerial plant should be
carried out prior to installation.
Manhole and cable chambers with excess levels of water should be pumped out.
Ducts should be checked for damage and potential obstructions. Rodding of the
duct sections using a test mandrel or brush is recommended prior to installation.
Manholes should be checked to ensure suitable space for coiling slack cables,
provision of cable supports and space for mounting splice joint closures.
4
Chapter 5: FTTH network planning
Fleeting the cable at mid sections using a “figure of 8” technique can greatly
increase the pulled installation section distance using long cable lengths.
Preparation is needed to make sure these locations are suitable for cable fleeting.
The duct or inner duct manufacturer should be contacted for established cable
installation guidelines.
Ribbed, corrugated ducts and ducts with a low-friction liner are designed to
reduce cable/duct friction during installation. Smooth non lined ducts may
require a suitable compatible cable lubricant.
Pulling grips are used to attach the pulling rope to the end of the cable. These
are often mesh/weave based or mechanically attached to the cable end
minimising the diameter and thus space of duct used. A fused swivel device
should also be applied between the cable-pulling grip and pulling rope.
The swivels are designed to release any pulling generated torque and thus
protect the cable. A mechanical fuse protects the cable from excess pulling
forces by breaking a sacrificial shear pin. Pins are available in different tensile
values.
A pulling winch with a suitable capacity should be used. These should be fitted
with a dynamometer to monitor tension during pulling.
Sheaves, capstans and quadrant blocks should be used to guide the cable under
tension from the payoff, to and from the duct entry and to the take-up equipment
to ensure that the cable’s minimum bend diameter is maintained.
5
Chapter 5: FTTH network planning
Use of a cable payoff device – a reel or drum trailer – is also recommended. For
aerial applications, appropriate equipment such as bucket trucks should be
foreseen. Specific safety instructions for working at height need to be respected.
Specific hardware is available for cable and closure fixture.
Duct and buried cables can have similar constructions, with the latter having
more protection from the environment in which it is to be installed.
When calculating the route length, make allowance for jointing: typically 3-5m
per joint will suffice.
Space cable spare/slack loops at chamber positions of typically 20m. This will
allow for mid-span access joints to be added at a later date.
6
Chapter 5: FTTH network planning
Minimum bend radii (MBR) and maximum tensile load values for the cables
must not be exceeded.
MBR is usually expressed as a multiplier of the cable diameter (e.g. 20xD) and
is normally defined as a maximum value for static and dynamic situations Static
MBR is the minimum allowable bend value for the cable in operation, i.e. coiled
within a manhole or chamber. The dynamic MBR value is the minimum
allowable bend value for the cable under installation pulling conditions.
Pulling load (or pulling tension, N; or force, Kgf) values are normally specified
for short and long-term conditions. Short-term load values represent the
maximum tension that can be applied to the cable during the installation process
and long-term values represent the maximum tension that can be applied to the
cable for the lifetime of the cable in service.
In cases where cables are to be installed by blowing, the cable and duct must be
compatible for a blowing operation. The cable and duct supplier/s must be
contacted for installation guidelines.
Confirm minimum bend radii of cable and maximum pulling tensions for
installation and long-term service conditions.
7
Chapter 5: FTTH network planning
Ensure cable tension is monitored during burial and cable maximum limits are
not exceeded.
A full survey of the buried section will ensure an efficient installation operation.
Cross over points with other services and utilities must be identified.
All buried cables must be identified and marked for any future location.
Backfilling must ensure the cables are suitably protected from damage from
large rocks e.g. sand. All back filling must be tamped to prevent future ground
movement and settlement.
Cables need a defined amount of slack between poles to reduce the cable
loading due to its own weight.
On-pole slack needs to be stored for cable access or closure installation. Sharing
of poles between operators or service providers (CATV, electricity, POTS, etc.)
is common practice and will require specific organisation as well.
8
Chapter 5: FTTH network planning
measurements
fibre cable and duct records
marking of key infrastructure items
complete documentation
identification of infrastructure elements subject to maintenance operations
minor maintenance list
plan for catastrophic network failure from external factors, such as
accidental digging of cable or duct
spare infrastructure items to be kept on hand in case of accident
location and availability of network records for the above provision of
maintenance agreement(s)
9
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
Aim of study
By the end of this chapter the trainee can recognize Fibre construction,
Contents Pages
1
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
Chapter 6
Several types of optical fibre are available. FTTH schemes are usually based on
single mode fibre, but multimode fibre may also be used in specific situations.
The choice of fibre will depend on a number of considerations. Those listed
below are not exhaustive; other factors may need to be considered on a case-by-
case basis.
2
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
Fibre is manufactured from high purity silica, starting from glass-like rods,
which are drawn into fine hair-like strands and covered with a thin protective
plastic coating.
Fibre is made up of a core, cladding and outer coating. Light pulses are launched
into the core region. The surrounding cladding keeps the light travelling down
3
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
the core and prevents it from leaking out. An outer coating, usually made of a
polymer, is applied during the drawing process.
The fibre core can be designed in varying geometrical sizes. These impact how
the light pulse travels, thus producing differing optical performance.
4
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
There are many other parameters, which affect fibre transmission performance.
Further information can be found in IEC 60793 series of specifications.
Single mode fibre has a small core size (<10μm) which supports only one mode
(ray pattern) of light. Most of the world’s fibre systems are based on this type of
fibre.
Single mode fiber provides the lowest optical attenuation loss and highest
bandwidth transmission carrying capacity of all the fibre types. Single mode
fiber incurs higher equipment cost than multimode fibre systems.
For FTTH applications, the ITUT G.652 recommendations for single mode fibre
should adequately cover most users’ needs.
5
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
More recently, a newer type of single mode fibre was introduced to the market
that has reduced optical losses at tight fibre bends. This fibre is standardized in
the ITU-T G.657 recommendation.
Multimode fibres have a larger core size (50 or 62.5 μm), which supports many
modes (different light paths through the core). Depending on the launch
characteristics, the input pulse power is divided over all or some of the modes.
The different propagation speed of individual modes (modal dispersion) can be
minimised by adequate fibre design.
Multimode fibre can operate with cheaper light sources and connectors, but the
fibre itself is more expensive than single mode. Multimode fibre is used
extensively in data centres and sometimes used in campus networks and for in-
building applications. It has lower bandwidth capability and restricted
transmission distance.
The ISO/IEC11801 specification describes the data rate and reach of multimode
fibre grades, referred to as OM1, OM2, OM3 and OM4.
An optical distribution frame (ODF) is the interface between the outside plant
cables and the active transmission equipment. ODFs are usually situated in the
POP, bringing together several hundred to several thousand fibres. A single
ODF cabinet can connect up to 1400 fibres; large POPs will use multiple ODF
cabinets.
6
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
The POP is an access node and should be classified as a secure area. Therefore
provision for fire, intrusion alarm, managed entry/access and mechanical
protection against vandal attacked must be considered.
7
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
In most cases, the ODF offers flexible patching between active equipment ports
and the field fibre connectors. Fibres are identified and stored in physically
separated housings or shelves to simplify fibre circuit maintenance and prevent
accidental interference to.
For a compact ODF system, climate controlled street cabinets can provide a
flexible solution. The cabinets can be equipped with the same security measures
and un-interrupted power supply as in large scale access nodes.
Internal optical cables are run between the ODFs and active equipment. A fibre-
guiding platform is built between the active equipment and the ODF cabinets.
This provides a protected path for the internal cables to run between the two
locations.
8
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
Air-conditioning unit.
Connector types
Patch cords are fiber-optic cables fitted with a connector at one end (pigtail) or
both ends (jumper). The cables are generally available in two different
constructions:
9
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
The optical loss of a connector is the measured loss of two mated connectors
fitted within an adapter housing. The typical loss of a connector is 0.5dB when
randomly mated, and 0.2dB when mated with a reference connector (an “ideal
connector”).
Some connector types are also available in low loss versions with typical
insertion loss of 0.15dB when randomly mated. Power budget considerations
will determine the class of connector to be used. Where low loss connector
performance is required, many vendors are able, through design, to achieve
lower loss by tuning connectors to minimize the lateral fibre offset between a
mated pair.
Connectors are also characterized with a return loss value. When light is
transmitted into a connector, a portion of the light is reflected back from the
fibre end face. For PC connectors this gives rise to attenuation of 45dB; for UPC
types this value is 50dB; and for APC it is 60dB (non-mated versions). It is
desirable for this figure to be as high as possible to avoid problems with
transmission lasers.
Cable regulation in Europe usually requires that polymers for indoor wiring are
LSZH-rated (low smoke, zero halogen) to minimise toxic gases when burned.
10
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
An optical fiber connector terminates the end of an optical fiber, and enables
quicker connection and disconnection than splicing. The connectors
mechanically couple and align the cores of fibers so that light can pass. Better
connectors lose very little light due to reflection or misalignment of the fibers.
Most optical fiber connectors are spring-loaded. The end faces of the fibers in
the two connectors are pressed together, resulting in a direct glass to glass or
plastic to plastic contact. This avoids a trapped layer of air between two fibers,
which would increase connector insertion loss and reflection loss.
11
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
The current requirements catalogue is based in part on IEC 61753. This standard
defines loss values. Additionally, the standards IEC 61755-3-1 and IEC 61755-
3-2 play a role. They define geometric parameters for fibre-optic plug-in
connectors. The interaction of these three standards creates the basis for the
12
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
Theoretically, the attenuation grades (A* to D) can be mixed at will with return
loss grades. However, a Grade A*/4 would not make sense, and for this reason
the following common combinations have been established:
Each-to-each values
The loss values specified in IEC 61753 are also referred to as each-to-each (or
random mate) values. Each-to-each means that the loss of a connector to a
reference connector is not measured, but rather that for testing purposes, every
connector of a lot is connected to every other connector once and the loss of the
combination connector/sleeve/connector measured.
The rational for this model: loss values generated according to the IEC
specification for random connector pairs is much closer to actual operating
conditions than manufacturer-specified loss values that, in many cases, are based
upon a best-case measurement under laboratory conditions. In best-case
measurements, the connector is measured against a reference cable. Here, the
reference cable is selected so the measurement in the factory results in the
lowest possible value (lower than can be achieved later in practice).
Mean values
One new development resulting from grades is the call for mean values. This is
an optimal basis for the calculation of link attenuation. Particularly in large
networks, it was previously necessary to calculate attenuation using the
maximum value, which as already noted had low reliability for each-to-each
connections. Now the stated mean values can be used for calculation. In this
way, every planner can use the proper class to meet existing needs – which
guarantees an optimal cost/benefit ratio. Example:
14
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
The causes of loss are known to the IEC standardisation committees. For this
reason they defined the parameters H, F, and G presented below:
15
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
An example from real life demonstrates why the use of grades is so important: A
network operator uses patch cable with an insertion loss specified by the
manufacturer of 0.1 dB. During measurements on the ground, the patch cables
"suddenly" exhibit values between 0.2 and 0.3 dB. Where do these serious
discrepancies originate that often occur in practice?
The manufacturer had determined the value found in the product specification in
a best-case environment. For this, particularly low-loss reference or master
cables are used to achieve the lowest possible value during insertion loss
measurement. However, if the patch cables are connected each-to-each, this
value can no longer be reproduced; it lies significantly above the best-case
measurement result.
16
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
The network operator in the example above would have done better with patch
cables according to IEC 61753 Grade A*. Then he could have counted on a
maximum insertion loss of 0.15 dB.
It is important to use connectors with the IEC 61753 grades and additionally that
manufacturers use an in-factory worst-case quality check.
Two technologies are common for splicing fibre to fibre: fusion and mechanical.
Fusion splicing
Fusion splicing requires the creation of an electric arc between two electrodes.
The two cleaved fibres are brought together in the arc, so that both ends melt
together.
17
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
The optical losses of the splice can vary from splicer to splicer, depending on
the alignment mechanism. Splicing machines with core alignment match up the
light-guiding channel of the fibre (9µm core) one to the other. These machines
produce splices with losses typically <0.05dB.
18
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
Some splice machines (smaller handheld versions for example) align the
cladding (125 µm) of a fibre instead of the cores that transport the light. This is a
cheaper technology, but can cause more error because of the larger dimensional
tolerances of the cladding. Typical insertion loss values for these splice
machines are <0.1dB.
Mechanical splicing
Mechanical splices can be angle cleaved or non angle cleaved, but the angled
cleave has higher return loss. The insertion loss of a mechanical splice is
typically <0.5 dB.
19
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
Since cables are not endless in length and need to be branched off at several
locations, intermediate splice closures are needed. These are environmental and
mechanically protected housings for outdoor use that offer a small compact
means of managing fibres for storage within underground chambers and on
overhead poles. Security risks are low and easy access is possible if the
underground chamber in which the enclosure is stored is well managed.
Closures are available in many different sizes and shapes. The typical splice
capacity exceeds 500 fibre circuits per joint closure. Fibre management systems
allow fibre identification, and protect against and avoid accidental interference
of fibre circuits when specific fibres are accessed.
Some closures offer the opportunity to access selected fibres out of a complete
cable for splicing, while the other fibres in the cable are left untouched. This is
mostly referred to as mid-span cable access. This capability drastically reduces
the installation time of a branch, and the required down time of a link.
20
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
The fibre deployment technology used will also influence the joint closure
features. For example, deployments in sewer systems require closures that are
suitable to deal with very harsh chemical environments. Blown fibre closures
need to handle the blown fibre tubes and allow for access of the blowing
equipment. For this reason, each application might require a different closure
solution.
21
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
Hand holes in FTTH networks are used for easy access to splice closures, duct
distribution points and cable slack storage. There are basically four
types/materials available: concrete, HDPE, polyester and polycarbonate.
Different sizes and shapes are available in all types of materials, and most of the
plastic types are also available in modular versions.
22
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
access when repeated access is required. Alternatively you can use a hand hole
with a cover that can be locked with special keys – several types are available.
The load that the hand hole has to take is regulated by European Standard: EN
124. All required tests are also described in this standard.
B 125 [125
Foot-walks, pedestrian areas, parking areas –can
kN test
be crossed by cars in restricted extension.
load]
D 400 [400
kN test All traffic ways (except landing runways).
load)
If the hand hole is used for cable slack or splice closures, it is important to
respect the maximum bend radius that the installed cable will allow.
hand holes are expensive to install and should be chosen with care, ensuring
sufficient space is available and that local regulations are incorporated in the
design such as load profile, and type of pavement topping, whether tiles,
concrete, etc.
23
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
Street cabinets
Cabinets can also be used as above-ground access points for fibre closures.
Where these are mounted inside the street cabinet, an easy-to-remove solution is
required to allow clean and efficient access when required.
Street cabinets are often used to store PON splitters, which also require flexible
connectivity to customer-dedicated fibres. Street cabinets are also used in point-
to-point network architectures.
24
Chapter 6: Choice of optical fibre for FTTH
An important factor in the roll-out of new networks is speed. Cabinets are now
being provided pre-stubbed and terminated. These cabinets are assembled in the
factory and tested prior to delivery. They have a cable stub that is run back to
the next closure, and offer a patch panel for simple plug-and-play connectivity.
This provides faster installation, and reduces the incidence of installation faults.
25
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
Aim of study
By the end of this chapter the trainee can recognize How to check connectors,
Contents Pages
1
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
Chapter 7
Fttx network termination
A single particle mated into the core of a fibre can cause significant back
reflection (also known as return loss), insertion loss, and equipment damage.
Visual inspection is the only way to determine if fibre connectors are truly clean.
2
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
If dirt particles get on the core surface the light becomes blocked, creating
unacceptable insertion loss and back reflection (return loss). Furthermore, those
particles can permanently damage the glass interface, digging into the glass and
leaving pits that create further back reflection if mated. Also, large particles of
dirt on the cladding layer and/or the ferrule can introduce a physical barrier that
prevents physical contact and creates an air gap between the fibres. To further
complicate matters, loose particles have a tendency to migrate into the air gap.
3
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
Increased insertion loss and back reflection due to dirty fibre connection.
A 1μm dust particle on a single mode fibre core can block up to 1% (0.05 dB
loss) of the light—imagine what a 9μm dust particle can do. Another important
reason for keeping end-faces free of contaminants is the effect of high-intensity
light on the connector end-face—some telecommunication components can
produce optical signals with a power up to +30dBm (1W), which can have
catastrophic results when combined with a dirty or damaged connector end face
(e.g. fibre fuse).
Inspection zones are a series of concentric circles that identify areas of interest
on the connector end face (see figure). The inner-most zones are more sensitive
to contamination than the outer zones.
4
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
Dust, isopropyl alcohol, oil from hands, mineral oils, index matching gel, epoxy
resin, oil-based black ink and gypsum are among the contaminants that can
affect a connector end-face. These contaminants can occur on their own or in
combinations. Note that each contaminant has a different appearance, but
regardless of appearance, the most critical areas to inspect are the core and
cladding regions—as contamination in these regions can greatly affect the
quality of the signal. Figure 3 illustrates the end-face of different connectors that
have been inspected with a video-inspection probe.
5
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
patch panel
test jumper
cable connectors
6
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
on delivery
before installation
before testing
To inspect the connector end-face properly, the use of a microscope designed for
the fibre-optic connector end-face is recommended. There are many types of
inspection tools on the market, but they all fall into two main categories: fibre
inspection probes (also called video fibrescopes) and optical microscopes.
The table below lists the main characteristics of these inspection tools:
7
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
(100X/200X/400X).
Adapter tips for all connector types available.
Optical Safety filter* protects eyes from direct contact with a live
microscopes fibre.
A fibre inspection probe comes with different tips to match the connector type:
angle-polished connectors (APC) or flat-polished connectors (PC, SPC or UPC).
Inspection instructions
8
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
There are two methods for fibre end-face inspection. If the cable assembly is
accessible, you can insert the connector ferrule into the microscope to do an
inspection; this is generally known as patch cord inspection. If the connector is
within a mating adaptor on the device or patch panel, you can insert a probe
microscope into the open end of the adaptor and view the connector inside; this
is known as bulkhead or through adaptor connector inspection.
1. Select the appropriate tip that corresponds to the connector type under
inspection and fit it on to the microscope.
2. Insert the connector into the tip and adjust focus to inspect.
10
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
Dry Cleaning
Simple dry cleaning wipes including many types of lint free wipes and other
purpose built wipes are available. This category also includes purpose built
fibre-optic connector cleaning cassettes and reels, e.g. Cletop cartridges.
Cleaning materials must be protected from contamination until just prior to use.
11
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
Wipes should be used in the hand or on a soft surface or resilient pad. Use on a
hard surface can cause damage to the fibre. Do not use the surface of the wipe
that you handled as this can contain finger grease residue.
Damp cleaning
Cleaning fluid is only effective when used with the mechanical action
provided by a wipe.
The solvent type must be fast drying.
Do not saturate as this will over-wet the end-face. Lightly moisten the
wipe.
The ferrule must be cleaned immediately with a clean dry wipe.
Do not to leave solvent on the side walls of the ferrule as this will transfer
onto the optical alignment sleeve during connection.
Wipes must be used in the hand or on a soft surface or resilient pad.
12
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
Not all connectors can be readily removed from a bulkhead/through adaptor, and
are, therefore, more difficult to access for cleaning. This category includes
ferrule interface (or fibre stubs) and physical contact lenses within an optical
transceiver, but does not include non-contact lens elements within such devices.
Sticks and bulkhead cleaners are designed to reach into alignment sleeves and
other cavities to reach the end face or lens, and aid in removal of debris. These
tools make it possible to clean the end face or lens in-situ, within the adaptor or
without removing the bulkhead connector. When cleaning transceiver or
receptacles care must be taken to identify what is within the port prior to
cleaning. Take care when cleaning transceiver flat lenses due to possible
damage.
13
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
When testing in a patch panel, only the port corresponding to the fibre
under test should be uncapped — protective caps should be replaced
immediately after testing.
Unused caps should be kept in a small plastic bag.
The life expectancy of a connector is typically rated at 500 mattings.
The test jumpers used in conjunction with the test instruments should be
replaced after a maximum of 500 mattings (refer to EIA-455-21A).
If a launch cord is used for OTDR testing, do not use a test jumper in
between the OTDR and launch cord or in between the launch cord and the
patch panel. Launch cords should be replaced or sent back to
manufacturers for re-polishing after 500 mattings.
Unmated connectors should never be allowed to touch any surface, and a
connector ferrule should never be touched for any reason other than
cleaning.
Each connector should be cleaned and inspected using a fiberscope or,
better yet a video scope, after cleaning or prior to mating.
Test equipment connectors should be cleaned and inspected (preferably
with a video scope) every time the instrument is used.
should select the most appropriate method, depending on the constraints you
are facing: labour costs, loss budget, testing time combined with service
activation time, maximum acceptable measurement uncertainty, and so on.
Another factor that needs taking into account when determining how much
testing is necessary is the skill level of your technicians. Do not make the
mistake of trying to use technicians that lack fibre-optic skills. Mistakes
made during construction are extremely expensive to rectify both before and
after service is added, resulting in a huge increase of your cost per-customer-
passed. When it comes to testing during the construction phase, there should
be no shortcuts.
This first method involves using an optical loss test set (OLTS), comprising two
test sets that share data to measure insertion loss (IL) and optical return loss
(ORL). First, the two units should be referenced prior to measuring IL.
Next, ORL sensitivity is set by calibrating the minimum ORL that the units can
measure. The limitation comes from the weakest part of your test setup, which is
most likely to be the connector between the units and reference test jumper. You
should set ORL sensitivity on both units – follow the manufacturer’s
15
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
instructions to set the ORL sensitivity and to reference the source and the power
meter.
Now you are ready to perform measurements on the end-to-end network or any
individual installed segment, such as the fibres between the FCP and the drop
terminal. The purpose of the test is to identify whether there are any transposed
fibres, and measure the IL and ORL to make sure that the loss budget has been
met.
16
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
The following table illustrates the expected ORL values for the network:
50 53 56 57
300 46 50 50
500 44 47 48
1000 41 45 46
These values only take two connections into account. In FTTH networks there
are often multiple connection points and, with reflectance values being very
sensitive to dust and scratches, these values can easily be blown away by bad
connections. For example a single connector may generate an ORL of 40dB,
which would exceed the expected value for the entire network. For point-to-
17
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
18
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
point networks
Fast testing
This method uses an optical time-domain reflect meter (OTDR). The main
difference between the OLTS and the OTDR is the identification and location of
each component in the network. The OTDR will reveal splices loss, connector
loss and reflectance, and the total end-to end loss and ORL.
All fibres between the OLT and before the first splitter (transport side) may be
tested to characterize the loss of each splice and find macro bends. The test
could be done in both directions. Post-processing of the results will be required
to calculate the real loss of each splice (averaged between each direction).
19
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
The engineer can measure the loss of the splitter and the cumulative link loss, as
well as identifying whether any unexpected physical event has occurred before,
or after, the splitter. Construction testing can significantly reduce the number of
problems that occur after customer activation by certifying end-to-end link
integrity.
Using a launch fibre makes it possible to characterize the first connector on any
segment of your network. A pulse width of 300-500m will be sufficient for this
test.
20
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
21
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
another combination of
wavelengths involving the
1625nm wavelength.
Fast testing
Service activation
The service-activation phase may seem very straightforward at first glance, but
this task should not be taken lightly because this is the moment at which the
customer experience begins. The service-activation scheme can be different,
depending on topology of the fibre network. There is also a trend towards pre-
engineered plug-and-play components with multiple connection points, rather
than an all-spliced approach, particularly for deployments in MDUs.
In terms of data storage, PON service activation brings about two new
dimensions:
2. More than one test location may be required, typically two or three.
Verifying optical levels at various locations along the same fibre path helps test
engineers pinpoint problems and/or defective components before activating a
customer’s service. Since FTTH network problems are often caused by dirty or
damaged connectors, component inspection greatly reduces the need for
troubleshooting, as power levels are verified for each network section. It is also
23
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
Testing points
24
Chapter 7: Fttx network termination
the customer ONU must meet their specifications. The best way to
guarantee this is to perform a pass-through connection to fully
characterize all operating wavelengths (upstream and downstream) in the
PON. The only way to achieve this at the service-activation phase is to
use a dual-port PON power meter with a pass-through connection; a
normal power meter can only certify downstream signals from the CO.
25
الشبكة الذكية
Smart Network
الشبكه الذكيه
Smart Network
زف هذه الحاله يتم ربط النقاط بنظام P2Pمن كل نقطه ألقرب كابينه Passiveومن ثم التجميع عىل مكان الداتا سني ويتم تركيب Switchعند كل نقطه ذكيه لتوصيل األجهزه الذكيه بكابالت UTPمع العلم ان
المسافات ال تتعدي 90مي.
Surveillance system
المشوع التجارى وهنا يتم توصيل الكاميات بكابالت UTPعىل اقرب سويتش ONU/ ONT /تم تركيبه زف نقطه ذكيه.
وهو النظام الخاص بكاميات المراقبه الت تخدم الكمبنود او ر
Intercom
ز
النهائي بالبوابات او مداخل العمارات او بمكان المراقبه والتحكم. وهو النظام الخاص بربط العمالء
Smart Pole
وهنا يتم تركيب أعمده ذكيه عند كل نقطه ذكيه يوضع عليها خدمات متعدده منها الكاميات /نقاط توزي ع واى فاي /أجهزه لقياس الحراره والرطوبه /شواحن / USPشاشات عرض ....وهكذا
Smart lighting
وهو النظام الخاص باالضاءه الذكيه بحيث يتم التغي زف شده اضاه كشافات االناره تبعا للحركه المروريه زف شوارع المديه وهذا يكون له مردود مادي زف التوفي زف استهالك الكهرباء
Digital Signage
ي
ز
لقاطت المدينه الت يتم استخدامها زف االعالنات واالستفاده من دخلها او يتم استخدمها لتوصيل رسائل
وه شاشات العرض ي
ي
Smart Parking
وهو النظام الخاص بأداره والتحكم زف الجراجات سواء تجاريه او سكنيه .
Public WIFI
وهو النظام الخاص بتوفي خدمه انينت wirelessزف نقاط معينه سواء كانت Indoorأو . Outdoor
وهو النظام الخاص باداره والتحكم زف نظام اداره المخلفات بحيث يتم رصد جميع الصناديق الت ارتفع فيها مستوى المخلفات ومن ثم ارسال اشاره لغرفه التحكم لعمل الالزم وهذا يكون له مردود زف توفي تكلفه
التشغيل.
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