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FLOW MESURMENT

Flow Measurement
Flow measurements are essential in many applications such as transportation of solids as slurries, compressed natural
gas in pipelines, water and gas supply systems. The types of flows encountered in the measurements may be any one
or combination of the following types:

• clean or dirty/opaque,
• wet or dry,
• hazardous/corrosive or safe,
• laminar or transitional or turbulent,
• pressure may vary from vacuums to high pressures of many atmospheres,
• temperature may vary from cryogenic levels to hundreds of centigrade,

The selection of a particular flow-measuring equipment depends primarily on the nature of the metered
fluid and the demands of the associated plant.
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Important points

Bernoulli’s Equation
The Bernoulli Equation can be considered to be a statement of the conservation of energy principle appropriate for flowing fluids.

The qualitative behavior that is usually labeled with the term

"Bernoulli effect" is the lowering of fluid pressure in regions
where the flow velocity is increased. This lowering of pressure
in a constriction of a flow path may seem counterintuitive, but
seems less so when you consider pressure to be energy density.
In the high velocity flow through the constriction, kinetic
energy must increase at the expense of pressure energy
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Bernoulli’s Principle Example

Volumetric Flow Rate

Volumetric flow rate is the volume of fluid which passes per unit of time. Common units of measure include litres/sec (l/s)
or cubic feet per second (ft3/s).

Differential pressure flow meter uses a variation of Bernoulli’s principle to infer the volumetric flow rate in a pipe. For our application of the
principle, it states that the velocity of the flow increases and the pressure decreases as the flow moves through a restriction in the pipe;
therefore, the pressure is higher before the restriction than after. Knowing this differential pressure, the flow rate can be determined. The
square root of the differential pressure across the restriction in the pipe is proportional to flow.
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Mass Flow Rate

Mass flow rate is the amount of mass of a substance which passes per unit of time. Common units of measure include
Kg/s or lbs/min.

This type of measurement needs more detailed input than just differential pressure. It also needs temperature, static pressure of the
line, the composition of the fluid, and more information of the primary element.

Flow measuring devices generally fall into two categories:

1. Primary devices or quantity meters

2. Secondary devices or rate meters

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PRIMARY OR QUANTITY METERS

Quantity or total flow measurement signifies the amount of fluid in terms of mass or volume that flows past a
given point in a definite period of time.

The flow meter calibration procedures using the quantity measurements fall into the following two categories.

1. Volumetric Method
In this technique, the fluid flowing in the flow meter which is being calibrated, is diverted into a tank of known
volume. When the tank is completely filled, then this known volume is compared with the integrated, volumetric
quantity registered by the flow meter under test.

2. Gravimetric Method
In this technique also, the fluid flowing in the flow meter, which is being calibrated, is diverted into a vessel which
can be weighed either continuously or in the vessel after a pre-determined time.

Positive Displacement Meters

• The term positive-displacement meter is applied to a flow measuring device so designed that the metered fluid is repeatedly
filled and emptied from a space of known volume.

• Positive-displacement meters chop the flow into ‘pieces’ of known size and then count the number of ‘pieces’.

• Positive-displacement meters are widely used in low flow rate metering applications where high accuracy and
repeatability under steady flow conditions are required.

• Easy to install and maintain and have moderate cost. These types of meters are generally used by the water and oil
undertakings for accounting purposes.

• In most positive-displacement meters, the transduction of the flow takes place in the form of rotary motion.
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As illustrated in the example above, the pulse is generated as the liquid in green is sealed from both
the inlet and exit. The pulse is typically generated by a magnet embedded in the rotor passing under a
sensor that creates or switches a small voltage. The set up above would produce four pulses as the
meter transmits four identical volumes for every cycle.

What are different types of Positive Displacement flow meter technologies?

Examples of meters using the positive displacement concept of measurement are:

nutating disc meters, lobed impeller meter, sliding vane type meter, spur gear meters, oval gear meter, variable
area flow meters, screw meters, oscillating piston meters, helical gear meters.

All the meters use very precise machining of a moving blade or gear against a uniform chamber wall.
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Nutating Disc Meter

• A nutating disc meter has around disc mounted on a spindle in a

cylindrical channel.

• By tacking the movement of the spindle the flow meter determines

the no of time chamber traps and empties fluid.

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Sliding-Vane-Type Meter

• By tacking the movement of the spindle the flow meter

determines the no of time chamber traps and empties
fluid.

Video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CHbwsZ7vZp8

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Lobed-impeller Meter

• This type of meter consists of two rotors mounted on separate parallel shafts.

• The rotors are lobed and revolve in opposite directions in a close fitting chamber.

• The rotor lobes have cycloid or involute shape which ensures accurate mating.

Video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_-fwWrFLiyY

SECONDARY OR RATE METERS

• The secondary or rate meters are also termed as inferential type of flow measuring devices.

• They do not measure the flow directly but instead measure another physical quantity which is related to the
flow.

• These devices fall into two categories, namely, the flow rate meters and the velocity meters.

• The transduction principle of some typical flow rate meter is as follows:

 Variable head meter

 Variable are meter
 Variable head and variable area meter
 Constant head devices
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Some typical secondary flow measurement devices are:

• Variable head meter

• Target flow meter
• Turbine/ propeller Type meter Ultrasonic flow meter
• Electromagnetic flow meter
• Hot wire/hot film anemometer
• Laser Doppler anemometer

• Variable head meter : In this device the difference between the pitot head i.e., the stagnation pressure head and
the static head gives the dynamic head which gives the indication of local velocity at the location of the sensor.
• Target flow meter: Here in, the flowing fluid impinging on the target is brought to rest. The pressure increases by
the velocity head term, i.e., K2/(2g). Further, the force measured on the target is proportional to the velocity head
of the flowing fluid.
• Turbine/ propeller Type meter In this type of device, the fluid flow causes rotation of the curved vanes and its
rotational speed is proportional to the average flow velocity passing through the vanes. Quite often these vanes are
fitted inside a casing of a given area of cross-section. In that case, the rotational speed can be calibrated for the
flow rate as, in such a case, the flow rate is obtained by the average velocity multiplied by a constant area of
cross-section of the flow meter.
• Ultrasonic flow meter: In this type of flow meter, the transit time of the ultrasonic pulse between the transmitter
and the receiver is obtained which is a function of the average velocity of flow.
• Electromagnetic flow meter: In this type of device, a magnetic field is applied on the moving con- ducting fluid.
It results in the production of emf which is proportional to the average velocity of flow and it is in the direction
perpendicular to the plane of velocity and the magnetic field according to the Faraday’s law of induction.
• Hot wire/hot film anemometer: In this device, a laser beam gets scattered due to the presence of particle in a
flowing fluid. The Doppler frequency shift of the scattered laser beam is directly proportional to the local fluid
flow velocity as well as the turbulence level.
• Laser Doppler anemometer In this device, the resistance of a thin heated wire changes due to the cooling effect of
the flowing fluid stream. The change in resistance is the transduction principle for the measurement of local fluid
flow velocity as well as the turbulence level.
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Variable Head Meters

• These meters essentially introduce an engineered constriction in the flow passage. The, devices in general can be as termed
obstruction type of flow meters.

• The term ‘obstruction meter’ applies to the devices that act as obstacles placed in the path of the flowing fluid, causing
localized changes in the velocity. Concurrently with the velocity change, there is a corresponding pressure change in the
flow.

• This variation in pressure change is correlated with the rate of flow of the fluid. It may be noted that these devices cause a
loading error in the metered value because obstruction introduces extra resistance in the flow system consequently, the flow
rate reduces somewhat.

• The main forms of restriction used in the flow are venturi tube, orifice plate and a nozzle.

Venturi meter

When a fluid flows through a venturimeter, it

accelerates in the convergent section and then
decelerates in the divergent section. The pressure
difference between an upstream section and the
throat is measured by a manometer. Using that
differential pressure, applying Bernoulli’s
Equation and Contininuity Equitation the
volumetric flow rate can be estimated.

Materials for Venturimeter

Small-size venturimeter are made of brass, glass, or bronze and large venturimeters
are made of cast iron, steel, or stainless steel.

Video Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WvFNqEPNPOc

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•Cylindrical Entrance Section: Venturimeter

entrance is a straight cylindrical section with a
length equal to 5 to 8 times the pipe diameter.

•Convergence Conical Section: In this section,

the venturi meter tube diameter gradually
decreases. The conical angle is normally 210 ±
20. While the liquid flows inside the
venturimeter, the velocity of fluid increases at
the expense of a decrease in pressure.

•Cylindrical Throat: Throat consists of the

minimum venturemeter diameter. In the throat
section, the velocity is maximum and pressure
is minimum. Normally, throat diameter = 1/3 to
1/4th of inlet pipe diameter.

•Diverging Conical section: At this section of

venturimeter, the tube diameter gradually
increases. So, the pressure is build up again to
the original inlet pressure. The cone angle is 5-
70. British Standard BS-1042 specifies two
conical angles, 5–70 and 14–150 for the outlet
cone.

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Limitations/Discussion

The diffuser in a Venturi meter is used to assure the gradual and steady deceleration of the flow after the throat.
Moreover, it helps the flow to regain most of its initial pressure (before the instrument). The design angle of the diffuser
is strictly between 6 and 8 degrees. The reason for this strict range is that a wider angle will possibly cause flow
separation after the throat, while a lower angle would require a long instrument and, consequently, the pressure losses
will become significant. Diffuser’s efficiency rarely exceeds 80%.
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Orifice meter

Orifice meter Example

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Nozzle Meter

When a flow nozzle is placed in a

pipe carrying whose rate of flow is to
be measured, the flow nozzle causes
a pressure drop which varies with
the flow rate.
This pressure drop is measured using
a differential pressure sensor and
when calibrated this pressure
becomes a measure of flow rate.

https://instrumentationtools.com/flow-nozzle-principle/
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The figure represents the trail of three streamlines inside the

instruments. The absence of a converging section in both nozzle
and orifice meters causes a greater energy loss in the flow
comparing with the Venturi case. This is the reason why Venturi
meters are preferred.

The empirical discharge coefficient Cd is introduced in

order to denote the difference between ideal and real
situation.

Typical values of Cd are given below:

Orifice meter: 0.60–0.65
Venturi and nozzle meter: 0.98

The general expression for the rate of flow in these devices can be derived as follows:

Say, the pressure, velocity and area of fluid stream at point 1, upstream of obstruction are p1 , V1 and A1 and at point 2 just downstream of
the obstruction are p2, V2 and A2 . Further, we assume the flow to be incompressible, i.e., its density does not vary in the flow field.
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Eliminating V1 and V2 from Eqns. we get the ideal rate of discharge as:

In actual practice, the actual rate of fluid flow is always less than ideal because of the losses in the fluid
flow due to friction and eddying motions. To account for this discrepancy, we define the term
coefficient of discharge Cd as:

Thus, we can write the actual rate of fluid flow as:

Problem:
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Problem: A horizontal venturi meter with inlet diameter 30 cm and throat diameter 10 cm is used to
measure the flow of water. The pressure intensity at inlet is 13.734 N/cm2 while the vacuum pressure
head at the throat is 37 cm of Mercury. Find the rate of flow. Find also the value of Cd for the venturi
meter. Assume that 4% of differential head is lost between inlet and throat.

Problem: Determine the flow of water flowing through a 40 X 15 cm horizontal venturi meter, when the
differential gauge connected to inlet end of meter and its throat shows 25 cm Hg. Assume the Coff. Of
discharge is 0.98.
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Variable Area Meters

• In variable head meters (Venturimeter), the constricted area of opening A2 is fixed and the change in the volume rate of
flow produces a corresponding pressure differential.

• In the variable area meter, the area of the restriction can be altered to maintain a steady pressure difference.

• A commonly used variable area flow meter is the rotameter.

• In this device, the flow enters the bottom of a vertically placed tapered tube and causes the bob or ‘float’ (which has
higher density than the fluid) to move upwards.

• The float will rise to a point in the tube where the drag force (upward direction) and buoyant force (upward direction) is
balanced by the weight of float (downward direction).

• The position of the float in the tube is taken as an indication of the flow rate. Since the elevation of the float is
dependent on the annular area between it and the tapered glass tube, it is also called the variable area orifice meter.

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The force balance equation of the float is

Now a kind of constriction is formed between the downward surface and

upward surface of the float. Using above we get the volume rate of flow:

rotameter
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Pitot-Static Tube

A pitot tube is a pressure measurement instrument that is used to measure fluid flow velocity. They are widely
used to determine airspeed of aircraft, water speed of boats and to measure liquid, air and gas velocities in
industrial applications. A pitot tube is used to measure the local velocity at a given point in the flow stream and
not the average velocity

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Assuming a steady, one-dimensional flow of an incompressible, frictionless fluid,

we can derive the expression for free stream velocity by applying Bernoulli’s
equation between a point in the free stream and another point at the tip of the
stagnation tube. Thus:

where V is the flow velocity, p is the density of the fluid

Pstag is the stagnation or total pressure of the free stream given by the stagnation
tube
Pstat, is the free stream static pressure given by static tube.
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Pitot-Static Tube

• It consists of two concentrically arranged tubes bent at right angles. The inner tube, also known as stagnation tube, is open-ended and
faces the incoming stream of fluid.

• The fluid impinging this open end is brought to rest and its kinetic energy is converted to the pressure head commonly known as
velocity head. Thus, the pressure sensed by the stagnation tube (called the stagnation pressure) is greater than that in the free stream by
velocity head.

• In other words, the stagnation pressure consists of the velocity head and the static pressure head of the free stream. Now, the outer or
static tube of the pitot tube is closed at the nose of the tube.

• it is shaped in the form of a streamlined body (ellipsoidal shape) at the nose of the tube so as to avoid flow separations.

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The pitot tube has the following advantages

• It is a simple and low-cost device,
• It produces no appreciable pressure loss in the flow system,
• It can be easily inserted through a small hole into the pipe or duct, and
• It is very useful for checking the mean velocities of the flows in venturi, nozzle, orifice plate or any other complex
flow field.

The limitations of this device are follows

• It is not suitable for measuring low velocities, i.e., below 5 m/s, because of difficulties in the accurate measurement of pressure
differential.
• It is sensitive to misalignment of the probe with respect to free stream velocity. Usually an angle of yaw or misalignment up to 5° has
little effect on the velocity values but beyond 20° the error in the velocity determination is of the order of 2%.
• It is not suitable for the measurement of highly fluctuating velocities, i.e., highly turbulent flows.
• The use of pitot-tube is limited to exploratory studies. It is not commonly used in industrial ap- plications as numerous pitot tube
traverses are required for velocity distribution data which is quite tedious and time-consuming.
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SPECIAL METHODS
• There are certain flow measuring devices that cannot be strictly categorised as
fluid mechanical types of primary flow measuring devices or the indirect type
of rate flow meters. Therefore, these are discussed as special type of devices
where principle of operation is generally non-fluid-mechanical in nature. For
example, ultrasonic time delay technique, electromagnetic effects of fluid flows,
heat transfer from heated wires, Doppler frequency shift of scattered light, etc.
1. Ultrasonic Flow Meters
2. Electromagnetic Flow Meter
3. Hot Wire Anemometer
4. Laser Doppler Anemometer