3)Design an algorithm for performing

selection sort and compute best

case,worst case and average case
efficiency 4RTH SEM ADA BE
Selection sort is a simple comparison-based sorting algorithm that divides the input list
into a sorted and unsorted portion. It repeatedly selects the smallest element from the
unsorted segment and swaps it with the leftmost unsorted element. Here's a detailed
breakdown:

Algorithm Design

Pseudocode:

procedure selectionSort(A: list)

n = length(A)
for i from 0 to n-2
min_idx = i
for j from i+1 to n-1
if A[j] < A[min_idx]
min_idx = j
swap A[i] and A[min_idx]

Key Steps:

1. Outer Loop: Iterates through each position i in the array (from 0 to n-2).

2. Inner Loop: Finds the index of the minimum element in the unsorted subarray
A[i...n-1].

3. Swap: Places the minimum element at position i.

Time Complexity Analysis

The efficiency is determined by the number of comparisons and swaps:

Case Comparisons Swaps Time Complexity

Best $ \frac{n(n-1)}{2} $ $ n-1 $ $ O(n^2) $

 Worst $ \frac{n(n-1)}{2} $ $ n-1 $ $ O(n^2) $

Average $ \frac{n(n-1)}{2} $ $ n-1 $ $ O(n^2) $

Explanation:

 Comparisons: Always $ \frac{n(n-1)}{2} $ (quadratic) because the inner loop

scans the entire unsorted subarray regardless of input order.

 Swaps: Fixed at $ n-1 $ (linear), as one swap occurs per outer loop iteration.

 No Adaptive Behavior: Performance remains $ O(n^2) $ even for partially sorted

inputs.

Space Complexity

Selection sort uses $ O(1) $ auxiliary space, as it operates in-place with temporary
variables for swaps.

2)Design an algorithm for performing

brute force string matching and
computing best case,worst case and
average case efficiency ADA 4rth sem BE
Brute-force string matching is a straightforward pattern-searching algorithm that
compares each position in the text with the pattern sequentially. Here's a detailed
analysis:

Algorithm Design

Pseudocode:

procedure bruteForceStringMatch(text: string, pattern: string)

n = length(text)
m = length(pattern)
for i from 0 to n - m
j=0
while j < m and text[i + j] == pattern[j]
j += 1
if j == m
 return i # Match found at index i
return -1 # No match found

Key Steps:

1. Outer Loop: Iterates through all possible starting positions i in the text (from 0 to n
- m).

2. Inner Loop: Compares characters of the pattern with the text starting at i until a
mismatch occurs or the entire pattern matches.

3. Termination: Returns the starting index if a match is found; otherwise, returns -1.

Time Complexity Analysis

The efficiency depends on the number of character comparisons:

Case Scenario Comparisons Time Complexity

Best Pattern not present; $n-m+1$ $ O(n) $

first character
mismatches in all
positions

Worst All characters match $ m(n - m + 1) $ $ O(mn) $

except the last one for
every shift (e.g.,
text=AAAAA,
pattern=AAAB)

Average Random text/pattern ~$ n $ $ O(n) $

with large alphabet
(e.g., English)

Explanation:

 Best Case: Occurs when the pattern’s first character never matches the text,
resulting in $ n - m + 1 $ quick comparisons.

 Worst Case: Quadratic time $ O(mn) $ arises when partial matches occur
frequently (common in small alphabets like binary strings).

 Average Case: Linear time $ O(n) $ assumes uniform character distribution and
finite alphabet size, where most mismatches occur early.
Space Complexity

The algorithm uses $ O(1) $ auxiliary space, as it only requires indices for comparison.

5)EXPLAIN WITH THE NEAT DIAGRAM THE

ALGORITYHM DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
PROCESS 4rth sem ADA BE
The algorithm design and analysis process is a systematic approach to creating
efficient algorithms and evaluating their performance. This process ensures that the
algorithm is correct, efficient, and suitable for solving the given problem. Below is an
explanation of the process, accompanied by a step-by-step breakdown and a neat
diagram.

Steps in Algorithm Design and Analysis

1. Understand the Problem

 Clearly define the problem statement, including inputs, outputs, and constraints.

 Analyze the problem type (e.g., sorting, searching, graph traversal).

 Identify edge cases, boundary values, and special scenarios.

2. Decide on the Approach

 Choose between exact or approximate solutions based on requirements.

 Select appropriate data structures and algorithm design techniques (e.g., divide-
and-conquer, dynamic programming).

 Choose between top-down or bottom-up approaches depending on the problem

complexity.

3. Design the Algorithm

 Develop a high-level solution using pseudocode or flowcharts.

  Break down the problem into smaller sub-problems or steps (functional
decomposition).

 Ensure clarity in logic to make implementation easier.

4. Prove Correctness

 Verify that the algorithm produces correct results for all valid inputs.

 Use techniques like mathematical induction or testing with sample cases to ensure
correctness.

5. Analyze Time and Space Complexity

 Determine the time complexity (e.g., O(n), O(n 2)) by analyzing loops, recursive
calls, etc.

 Evaluate space complexity to understand memory usage.

6. Implement the Algorithm

 Translate the algorithm into code using a programming language.

 Optimize code for readability and maintainability.

7. Test and Refine

 Test the algorithm with various inputs, including edge cases.

 Fine-tune performance by optimizing bottlenecks or reducing unnecessary

computations.

Diagram: Algorithm Design and Analysis Process

Below is a structured representation of the process:

+----------------------+
| Understand Problem |
| (Inputs/Outputs) |
+----------+-----------+
|
v
+----------+-----------+
| Decide Approach |
| (Data Structures, |
| Techniques) |
+----------+-----------+
|
v
+----------+-----------+
| Design Algorithm |
| (Pseudocode/Flowchart)|
+----------+-----------+
|
v
+----------+-----------+
| Prove Correctness |
| (Verification) |
+----------+-----------+
|
v
+----------+-----------+
| Analyze Complexity |
| (Time/Space) |
+----------+-----------+
|
v
+----------+-----------+
| Implement Algorithm |
| (Code Translation) |
+----------+-----------+
|
v
+----------+-----------+
| Test & Refine |
| (Optimization) |
+-----------------------+

Efficiency Metrics

 Time Complexity: Measures how execution time grows with input size.

 Space Complexity: Evaluates memory usage during execution.

 Best Case: Minimum time required for execution.

 Worst Case: Maximum time required for execution.

 Average Case: Expected time for typical input scenarios.

This structured process ensures that algorithms are not only functional but also optimized
for performance and scalability.
⁂

Bubble Sort Algorithm

Pseudocode:

def bubble_sort(arr):
n = len(arr)
for i in range(n-1): # Outer loop for passes
swapped = False
for j in range(n-i-1): # Inner loop for comparisons
if arr[j] > arr[j+1]: # Compare adjacent elements
arr[j], arr[j+1] = arr[j+1], arr[j] # Swap if needed
swapped = True
if not swapped: # If no swaps occurred, array is sorted
break

How Bubble Sort Works:

1. Compares adjacent elements and swaps them if they are in the wrong order.

2. After each pass, the largest unsorted element "bubbles" to its correct position.

3. Stops early if no swaps occur during a pass (optimized version).

Time Complexity:

 Best Case: O(n) (already sorted array).

 Worst Case: O(n 2) (reverse sorted array).

 Average Case: O(n 2).

Space Complexity:

 O(1) (in-place sorting).

Sequential Sort Algorithm

Sequential sort is typically referred to as Selection Sort, where the smallest element is
repeatedly selected and placed at its correct position.
Pseudocode:

def selection_sort(arr):
n = len(arr)
for i in range(n-1): # Outer loop for passes
min_idx = i
for j in range(i+1, n): # Inner loop to find the smallest element
if arr[j] < arr[min_idx]:
min_idx = j
arr[i], arr[min_idx] = arr[min_idx], arr[i] # Swap smallest element with current index

How Sequential Sort Works:

1. Divides the array into sorted and unsorted parts.

2. Finds the smallest element in the unsorted portion and places it in the sorted
portion.

3. Repeats until the entire array is sorted.

Time Complexity:

 Best Case: O(n 2) (no optimization for sorted arrays).

 Worst Case: O(n 2) (unsorted array).

 Average Case: O(n 2).

Space Complexity:

 O(1) (in-place sorting).

Comparison of Bubble Sort vs Sequential Sort

Feature Bubble Sort Sequential Sort

Approach Swap adjacent elements Select smallest element

Best Case O(n) 2

O(n )

Worst Case 2 2
O(n ) O(n )

Average Case 2 2
O(n ) O(n )
 Space Complexity O(1) O(1)

Asymptotic Notations and Basic Efficiency Classes

What is Asymptotic Notation?

Asymptotic notation is a mathematical framework used to describe the efficiency of

algorithms in terms of their time or space complexity as the input size ( n ) grows very
large. It abstracts away machine-specific constants and focuses on the growth rate of an
algorithm's resource usage.

Types of Asymptotic Notations

There are three primary asymptotic notations:

1. Big-O Notation (O ):

o Represents the upper bound of an algorithm's running time.

o Describes the worst-case scenario.

o Example: If f (n)=3 n2 +2 n+1, then f (n)∈ O(n2 ).

2. Big-Omega Notation (Ω ):

o Represents the lower bound of an algorithm's running time.

o Describes the best-case scenario.

o Example: If f (n)=3 n2 +2 n+1, then f (n)∈ Ω(n 2).

3. Big-Theta Notation (Θ ):

o Represents a tight bound, meaning it describes both the upper and lower
bounds.

o Used to express the average-case complexity.

 o Example: If f (n)=3 n2 +2 n+1, then f (n)∈ Θ(n2 ).

Basic Efficiency Classes

Efficiency classes categorize algorithms based on their growth rates, which determine
their performance as input size increases. Common classes include:

Efficiency Class Growth Rate (Example Function) Description

Constant O(1) Time does not depend on input

size.

Logarithmic O(log ⁡n) Grows slowly as input size

increases.

Linear O(n) Grows proportionally to input

size.

Linearithmic O(n log ⁡n) Common in efficient sorting

algorithms.

Quadratic 2 Common in nested loops.

O(n )

Cubic 3 Grows very quickly; inefficient

O(n )
for large inputs.

Exponential n Extremely inefficient for large

O(2 )
inputs.

Why Use Asymptotic Notations?

1. To compare algorithms independently of hardware or implementation details.

2. To predict scalability and performance for large inputs.

3. To identify bottlenecks and optimize algorithms.

By focusing on the dominant term in a function, asymptotic analysis simplifies complexity

expressions, making it easier to understand an algorithm's behavior for large inputs [1][2][3].

⁂
1. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/types-of-asymptotic-notations-in-complexity-analysis-of-
algorithms/

2. https://www.engati.com/glossary/asymptotic-notation

3. https://dev.to/abhishekchandra2522k/asymptotic-notations-14nn