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CONTENTS
Acknowledgmentsxiii
Using This Book xv
1 Unit 1: Meeting Qualitative Methods 1
Intentions of This Unit 1
Truth, Reality, and Meaning in Research 1
Objectivist and Constructivist Ways of Knowing 2
Elements of Research 6
Qualitative Research and Culture 8
Qualitative Research and the Research Process 11
2 Unit 2: Terrain and Types of Qualitative Research 18
Intentions of This Unit 18
Terrain of Qualitative Research 18
Academic Rigor in Qualitative Research 23
Common Types of Qualitative Studies 24
Ethnography 25
Critical Ethnography 25
Autoethnography 25
Case Study 26
Interview Study 26
Narrative Inquiry 27
Phenomenological Study 27
Grounded Theory 27
Oral History 28
Arts-Based Approaches to Qualitative Research 28
viii Contents
3 Unit 3: Conceptualizing Qualitative Research 35
Intentions of This Unit 35
Subjectivities 35
Change Your Language, Change Your Paradigm 41
Thinking about Research Purpose 42
Thinking about Research Questions 47
Sample One 48
Sample Two 48
Data Sources in Qualitative Research 51
Conversations/Interviews 51
Observations 51
Documents and Archived Materials 52
Elicitations 52
4 Unit 4: Working with Theoretical Frameworks 57
Intentions of This Unit 57
Positivism and Postpositivism 57
Interpretivism 59
Symbolic Interactionism 60
Emphasis of Symbolic Interactionism 60
Tenets and Assumptions 60
Selected Major Scholars/Schools of Thought 60
Selected Methodologies Used by Symbolic Interactionists 61
Selected Critiques of Symbolic Interactionism 61
Phenomenology 64
Emphasis of Phenomenology 64
Tenets and Assumptions 65
Selected Major Scholars/Schools of Thought 65
Selected Methodologies Used by Phenomenologists 65
Selected Critiques of Phenomenology 65
Hermeneutics 69
Emphasis of Hermeneutics 70
Tenets and Assumptions 70
Selected Major Scholars/Schools of Thought 71
Selected Methodologies 71
Selected Critiques of Hermeneutics 71
Critical Theories 74
Critical Race Theory 74
Emphasis of Critical Race Theory 75
Tenets and Assumptions 76
Contents ix
Selected Major Scholars/Schools of Thought 76
Selected Methodologies Used by Critical Race Theorists 76
Selected Critiques of CRT 77
Feminism 80
Liberal Feminism 80
Marxist Feminism 80
Radical Feminism 81
Situated and Critical Feminisms 82
Emphasis of Feminism 83
Tenets and Assumptions 83
Selected Major Scholars/Schools of Thought 83
Selected Methodologies Used by Feminists 84
Selected Critiques of Feminism 85
5 Unit 5: Methodological Approaches to Qualitative Inquiry 92
Intentions of This Unit 92
Methodological Approaches 92
Narrative Inquiry 93
Types of Narrative Inquiry 94
Thematic Narratives 94
Biographical Study 94
Autoethnography 94
Life History 94
Oral History 94
Arts-Based Narratives 95
Designing a Narrative Inquiry Study: Using Our Wiki
Example 95
Research Purpose 95
Research Questions 96
Research Design (sample selection, duration of study, and data
collection methods) 96
Phenomenological Inquiry 98
Types of Phenomenological Inquiry 99
Transcendental Phenomenology 99
Existential Phenomenology 99
Hermeneutic Phenomenology 99
Designing a Phenomenological Study: Using Our Wiki
Example 100
Research Purpose 101
Research Questions 101
x Contents
Research Design (sample selection, duration of study, and data
collection methods) 101
Grounded Theory 104
Types of Grounded Theory Inquiry 104
Classical/Objectivist Grounded Theory 104
Constructivist Grounded Theory 105
Designing a Constructivist Grounded Theory Study: Using Our
Wiki Example 106
Research Purpose 107
Research Questions 107
Research Design (sample selection, duration of study, and data
collection methods) 107
Case Study 109
Types of Case Study Inquiries 110
Single Instrumental Case Study 110
Collective/Multiple Case Studies 110
Intrinsic Case Study 110
Example of a Multiple Case Study 111
Research Purpose 111
Research Questions 111
Research Design 112
Data Analysis 112
Ethnography 115
Types of Ethnographic Research 117
Realist Ethnography 117
Critical Ethnography 117
Virtual Ethnography 118
Digital Ethnography 118
Visual Ethnography 119
Considerations for Ethnography 120
Example of a Mini Virtual Ethnography Study 120
Research Purpose 121
Research Questions 121
Research Design 121
Data Analysis Process for a Mini Virtual Ethnography 121
6 Unit 6: Data Collection Methods 126
Intentions of This Unit 126
What Are Qualitative Interviews? 126
The Interview Process 131
Contents xi
Types of Interview Questions 132
Descriptive Questions 132
Grand Tour Questions 132
Specific Grand Tour Questions 132
Task-Related Grand Tour Questions 133
Mini Tour Questions 133
Example Questions 133
Structural Questions 133
Contrast Questions 134
Tips and Strategies for Conducting Qualitative Interviews 137
What Are Observations? 140
The Observation Process 140
Tips and Strategies for Conducting Participant
Observations 141
What Are Documents in Qualitative Research? 146
The Process of Collecting Documents 146
Example of Documents Collected in Wiki Study and Trivia
Study 146
Tips and Strategies for Collecting Documents 146
7 Unit 7: Data Analysis, Interpretation, and Re-Presentation 149
Intentions of This Unit 149
What Does Data Analysis Mean? 149
What Is Inductive Analysis? 150
An Approach to Inductive Analysis 150
Do Themes Really Emerge? 151
An Example of Inductive Analysis 151
Mapping as Inductive Analysis 155
Interpretation and Data Re-Presentation in Qualitative
Research 158
Cautions about Choosing Re-Presentations 160
Re-Presenting Your Study 160
But Writing Is Hard 161
8 Unit 8: Pulling It All Together 170
Intentions of This Unit 170
Revisiting Your Research Interest 170
Expand Your Thoughts about Your Research Project 173
Research Design and Theoretical Alignment 173
xii Contents
Methods of Data Collection 175
Data Analysis Methods 177
Representation of Your Work 181
Appendix A 186
Appendix B 189
References194
Index200
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This book has taken years in its making. What started out as handouts in my
qualitative methods classes culminated in this book, and for that I need to thank
several people.To Norman Denzin, thank you for introducing me to Mitch Allen,
who placed enormous faith in me, when I was this new academic, fresh out of
graduate school. This book was Mitch’s vision, for which he gave me countless
rounds of feedback. My deep gratitude to Mitch for never giving up on this book
or me. To my students in my qualitative research classes who offered loving, criti-
cal feedback that continued to shape the book over the years – this book is as
much theirs as it is mine.To Beverly Cross, for taking a chance on me early on and
piloting this book in her classes and offering me feedback – I thank you for dis-
solving academic hierarchies to support this project. Special thanks to Jeong-Hee
Kim for helping me realize that this book had become more than a “workbook”
and suggesting its current title. Thank you Jeong-Hee for your countless hours of
listening to me and offering me advice whenever I felt stuck or frustrated in the
writing process.
To my mentors at the University of Georgia, without whom I would have
never imagined a career of being a qualitative methodologist – there are just not
enough words through which I can express my gratitude. Kathleen deMarrais,
Kathy Roulston, and Jude Preissle have modeled the kind of mentoring that
humbles me. To this day they stand with me, well over a decade after graduation;
they offer me advice, think with me on various qualitative research issues, and
inspire me to be a methodologist who helps people conceptualize and execute
qualitative research situated in multiple paradigms, and not just the one in which
I love to play.
To Hannah Shakespeare, Hannah Slater, and others at Routledge – thank you
for working with me at the terminal stages of this project, when so much was
xiv Acknowledgments
already done as this work passed from Left Coast Press to you. Your guidance,
patience, flexibility, and willingness to work with me have inspired me to develop
a long-term relationship with Routledge. I remain deeply grateful for the count-
less hours you have already invested in this project with me.
To my partner Paul Maxfield and my dog Gigi Bhattacharya Maxfield the
first™ – thank you Paul for being patient with me as I wrote this book. Thank
you for listening to me talk about this book and its contents ad nauseam for years
now. Thank you for feeding me and taking care of the house while I wrote this
book. Thank you Gigi for being the best arm-rest, pillow, stress buster, and nap
companion anyone could ever ask for.You are both the light of my life.
Finally, I extend my deepest gratitude to my mother. An academic herself,
her relentless enthusiasm for learning is contagious. The amount of tenacity and
perseverance she has demonstrated for surviving against all odds has been awe-
inspiring. Years ago at a qualitative conference, a senior, well-known scholar dis-
missed this work by saying, “Oh this is just about teaching qualitative methods.”
Having seen my mother teaching in classrooms, connecting with people across
age, culture, and other axes of difference, I can say now with confidence that to
be able to communicate one’s knowledge to a wide interdisciplinary audience has
been one of the hardest things I have ever had to do. So to my mother, I dedicate
this book, because it is her passion for teaching, creating entry points for learners,
and arousing curiosity and wonder about inquiry that became the foundation of
this book.
USING THIS BOOK
This handbook is designed as a supplementary text for any introductory qualita-
tive methods class. Generally speaking, this book is not intended to be a stand-
alone textbook; however, students can use this book as a refresher and can return
to it for a quick reference.
What started out as handouts in class has culminated in this book. Every week
as I would teach my introductory qualitative methods class, I would create hand-
outs to bridge between some of the dense readings and assignments. I have been
using Michael Crotty’s (1998) text The Foundations of Social Research: Meaning and
Perspective in the Research Process in my classes. Students sometimes found the read-
ings to be a bit too dense for their liking, but I have felt strongly about introducing
students to some of the history of social science and a well-synthesized narrative
about the development of various theoretical and methodological perspectives
that inform social science research. Thus, I began to create some handouts, make
interactive activities, and list additional resources, etc. Eventually these handouts,
activities, and resources for each week became a unit, as seen in this book. The
units are arranged topically for each week with exercises peppered in as relevant.
What I found in my introductory qualitative methods classes is that when
students meet qualitative methods for the first time, they struggle not only with
learning a different paradigm of inquiry, but also with translating and internalizing
some of the abstract concepts. This book allows for connecting concepts in vari-
ous qualitative methods textbooks with experiential learning.
I have used this book with various texts that I have tried in my introductory
qualitative research methods classes. Students have been able to follow along no
matter what textbook I have switched to in different semesters. Most importantly,
this book makes qualitative research accessible to different types of learners and
mitigates some of the anxiety students have when they meet qualitative research
xvi Using This Book
for the first time. I intend for this book to be useful anywhere in the world,
helping students learn qualitative inquiry in a way that does not oversimplify the
discipline and yet preserves some of the complexity and nuances.
Golden Nuggets
At the end of each unit I have added a golden nugget. This golden nugget is a
concluding reflective interactive activity that often pulls together the concepts
of the unit. Readers can use the activity to assess their understanding of the unit
and identify gaps in their understanding. Additionally, readers can use the activity
included under golden nuggets to crystallize their understanding. Usually in class
I assign a few minutes at the end to do some reflective exercises where students
identify an idea that resonated, or something with which they were in conflict, or
something that they need to think about some more, or an idea that crystallized
their understanding of a topic. The golden nuggets offered in this book are my
attempt to demonstrate the spirit of reflection as we conclude a unit.
1
UNIT 1: MEETING QUALITATIVE
METHODS
So you are new to qualitative methods and do not really know what it is and how
to think about it. To top it off, you have to understand the methods, the dense
theories, the new language and terms, but also do projects and maybe even some
data analysis. Sure, sounds overwhelming to me.This book is designed to help you:
• supplement the readings and activities in a qualitative methods class
• have a space to explore your understanding of qualitative research
• use it as a reference manual for your qualitative projects.
Intentions of This Unit
In this unit, learners will be introduced to the ways in which ideas about reality
and truth are taken up in research. Additionally, they will be exposed to the ele-
ments of an empirical study, the research process, and the ways to identify these
elements in existing qualitative research articles.
Truth, Reality, and Meaning in Research
How one understands truth and reality has a direct bearing on the kind of
research one conducts. One way of understanding the concepts of truth, reality,
and meaning is to situate them outside of conscious processing. In other words,
a chair remains a chair, regardless of whether someone identifies a chair as such.
This way of understanding a chair means that there are some inherent stable
characteristics of a chair that exist regardless of whether an observer perceives
those characteristics. Understanding truth, reality, and meaning this way is not
right or wrong, but an approach some people take when thinking about research,
and informing their research purpose, their questions, and the way they want to
2 Meeting Qualitative Methods
design and report their research. Researchers operating from this understanding
of truth, reality, and meaning aim to capture truth that can exist as truth, regardless
of who views it, who processes it, and who derives meaning from it. This would
be considered to be objectivist truth. The assumption in this kind of knowledge
making is that with appropriate processes, verifiable information can be recorded
and reported objectively, and repeatedly with similar results, thus generating pre-
dictability and generalizability. Chances are, you are probably well familiar with
this type of understanding of research.
Another way of understanding the concepts of truth, reality, and meaning is
to situate these ideas within the perceptions of the observer and argue that these
ideas only take shape within the human consciousness. A chair is not a chair until
it is perceived to be so through a human mind and that nothing exists without
being processed by human consciousness. In this way of thinking about truth and
reality, meaning is constructed based on people’s own understanding of their
worlds, experiences, interaction with events, and circumstances in their lives.These
kinds of truths, realities, and meanings are relative, situated, and context-driven.
There are other variations of truth and meaning making known as subjectiv-
ism and pragmatism, which are not discussed in this book. A decent discussion of
these approaches can be found in Michael Crotty’s book titled The Foundations of
Social Research: Meaning and Perspective in the Research Process.
Objectivist and Constructivist Ways of Knowing
Remember, objectivist ways of knowing promote knowing that relies on stable
characteristics of the object that can be verified regardless of who the observer is.
In other words, a tree would be a tree regardless of whether there is someone to
observe the tree being a tree. Constructivist ways of knowing would purport the
tree is only a tree when an observer constructs meaning about the object with the
characteristics of a tree.
Shifting Between Knowing: Interactive Exercise
Complete the following table with your understanding of objectivist
and constructivist perspectives.
TABLE 1.1 Examples of Objectivist and Constructivist Ways of Knowing
Objectivist Constructivist
Heart A muscular organ, which is A place from where one feels
hollow, that pumps blood love for other human beings.
through the circulatory
system through dilation and
contraction.
Table A piece of furniture with flat A place where one can
horizontal surface supported dance in a bar with adequate
by four legs. amount of alcohol intake.
Dog?
Your research topic?
Instructor Note: If students struggle to think about their research topic
from an objectivist perspective, guide them to think about the topic in
closed-ended ways, where there is a yes/no answer or questions about
causes or effects are being asked, or questions about differences are being
asked. In other words, questions that take the format of “Is there a difference
between X and Y?” or “Does X cause Y?” could start the thinking process on
objectivist ways of knowing. If they still struggle, it might be an opportunity
to discuss the probable nature of social science research and how absolute,
100 percent objective, and generalizable claims in social science research are
nonexistent.
© 2017, Fundamentals of Qualitative Research: A Practical Guide, Taylor & Francis, Routledge.
The Black Box of Research: Interactive Exercise
This is a class exercise I have conducted to help students understand
the various ways in which meaning making occurs. This exercise works if the
materials used in the exercise are kept hidden from the students. Students, if
you want to do this exercise on your own, then have someone else create a
box for you so you do not know what is inside the box.
• Take an empty box and put various objects inside it. These could be
objects such as paperclips, pencils, stones, or paper. Or it could be objects
like a small piece of sponge, a comb, or a glowing ball. Seal the box so
that no content can come out of the box or can be seen.
• Repeat this process with several boxes, enough where a group of three
to four students can work with one box.
• Ask students to document what they would consider to be objectivist
truths and constructionist truths about the contents in the box. What
would be something that could be agreeable across multiple groups of
people in terms of statements made about the contents inside the box?
What could be agreeable about the contents of the box if only two peo-
ple share the same perception? Could there be items in the box that are
not knowable, or not knowable fully?
• Connect the claims made by students to the nature of inquiry in social
sciences. What is measurable? What is knowable? How much can truly
be known if at all? What can be said about what is not knowable in tan-
gible terms but still influences some form of meaning making?
• At the end of the exercise, please do not open the box. Students often
want to know exactly what is inside the box. This is where we get into
the discussion about research where nothing is ever 100 percent know-
able, generalizable, predictable, or holistic—that we can come as close
as we possibly can, but our claims are never fully absolute and we use
many probabilistic and tentative tools to construct knowledge from
research.
After conducting the activity, students should reflect on the following in
their research journals. Students, if you do not have a research journal, then
start one, where you would document your thoughts about everything that
comes up during your academic journey.
© 2017, Fundamentals of Qualitative Research: A Practical Guide, Taylor & Francis, Routledge.
What ways do you understand the process of inquiry now? When
determining what was inside the boxes, what did you use as your
criteria? What did you miss? How did you compare to other people
in your group? What does this tell you about your approach to inquiry?
© 2017, Fundamentals of Qualitative Research: A Practical Guide, Taylor & Francis, Routledge.
