A technical seminar report

on
‘Plant disease detection and classification by deep learning
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Bachelor of Technology
In
CSE
Submitted By
Arrai Rishikesh(21B81A0598)

Department of CSE(Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning)

CVR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(UGC Autonomous Institution)
Affiliated to JNTU Hyderabad
Vastunagar, Mangalpalli (V), Ibrahimpatnam (M),
Ranga Reddy (Dist.), Hyderabad – 501510, Telangana State
 CVR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(UGC Autonomous Institution)
Affiliated to JNTU Hyderabad
Vastunagar, Mangalpalli (V), Ibrahimpatnam (M),
Ranga Reddy (Dist.), Hyderabad – 501510, Telangana State

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the seminar topic entitled ‘Plant disease detection and
classification by deep learning’ , being submitted by ‘Arra
Rishikesh(21B81A0598)’ student of IV B.Tech II Sem in Computer Science
and Engineering, CVR College of Engineering, Hyderabad, Telangana State, as
a part of Academic requirement of Graduate Engineering program in
Computer Science and Engineering. The above seminar topic is selected from
the reputed International Journal/Conferences for the purpose of
understanding the state of art of current research in the field of CSE.

Technical Seminar Coordinator Head of the Departmentxt

Dr. K. Venkatesh Sharma Dr. A. Vani Vathsala
Professor Professor & HOD
Dept. of CSE Dept. of CSE
 CVR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(UGC Autonomous Institution)
Affiliated to JNTU Hyderabad
Vastunagar, Mangalpalli (V), Ibrahimpatnam (M),
Ranga Reddy (Dist.), Hyderabad – 501510, Telangana State

DECLARATION

I, “Arra Rishikesh” student of IV B.Tech. II Sem in Computer

Science and CVR College of Engineering, Hyderabad,
Telangana State, hereby declare that the work presented in
this seminar report titled ‘Plant disease detection and
classification by deep learning’ is selected from a reputed
International Journal/Conference for the purpose of
understanding the state of art of current research in the field
of Computer Science and Engineering. Further, I certify that
the seminar work presented is not under consideration for
publication in any Journal/Conference/Workshop.

Date: Student Name with Signature:

Arra Rishikesh
21B81A0598
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I sincerely thank Dr. K. Ramamohan Reddy, Principal, CVR College of Engineering, for
his cooperation and encouragement throughout the technical seminar.

I earnestly thank Dr. A.Vani Vathsala, Head of Department, Department of Computer

Science and Engineering, CVR College of Engineering, for giving timely cooperation and
taking necessary action throughout the course of my technical seminar.

I express my sincere thanks and gratitude to my Seminar Coordinator Dr. K. Venkatesh

Sharma, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, CVR College of
Engineering, for his valuable help and encouragement throughout the technical
seminar. I express my sincere thanks and gratitude to my Professor in Charge, Dr. D.
Sandhya Rani, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, CVR College of
Engineering, for his valuable help and encouragement throughout the technical
seminar.

I express my sincere thanks and gratitude to my Section In-charge, D. Chaitanya,

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, CVR College of Engineering, for his
valuable help and encouragement throughout the technical seminar. Finally, we thank
all those whose guidance helped us in this regard.

I record my sincere appreciation and indebtedness to my parents and all the lecturers
for their understanding and cooperation, without whose encouragement and blessing it
would not have been possible to complete this work.
With Regards,
Arra Rishikesh
21B81A0598
 ABSTRACT

Plant diseases are a major threat to agricultural productivity and global

food security, with traditional detection methods relying on manual
inspection, which is labor-intensive, time- consuming, and often prone to
human error. Recent advancements in deep learning, particularly
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), have introduced efficient,
automated solutions capable of recognizing complex disease patterns in
plant leaves with high accuracy. CNN architectures such as ResNet,
Inception, and VGG have shown remarkable success in classifying
various plant diseases, while techniques like data augmentation, transfer
learning, and Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) further enhance
model performance, even when data is limited. Hyperspectral imaging
has emerged as a powerful tool in this domain, enabling early-stage
detection by capturing subtle biochemical changes in leaves, which has
led to accuracy rates as high as 97.1% in certain applications. These
combined technologies make deep learning models more effective for
early disease identification and classification, offering key advantages for
agricultural diagnostics and interventions. As the field advances, the
creation of diverse, real-world datasets and the development of
specialized models, such as 3D-CNNs and hyperspectral techniques,
hold promise for improving early detection, generalization across various
plant species, and adaptability to diverse agricultural environments.
These advancements underscore the transformative potential of deep
learning in optimizing disease management strategies, supporting
sustainable agricultural practices, and ultimately contributing to global
food security by reducing crop losses and improving yield quality.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter No. Contents Page No.

List of Figures i

List of Abbreviations ii

Abstract
1 Introduction 1-2
2 Motivation And Literature Survey 3-5
2.1 Motivation 3
2.2 Literature Survey 4-5
3 Objectives 6-7
4 Topic Description 8-15

4.1 Overview of Plant Disease Detection 8

4.2 Role of CNNs in Disease Classification 9

4.3 Data Augmentation and Transfer Learning 10
4.4 Hyperspectral and 3D Imaging for Enhanced 12
Accuracy

4.5 Hyperspectral and 3D Imaging for Early Detection 12-14

4.6 Heatmap Visualization in Disease Detection 14-16

4.7 Future Scope and Real-World Applications 16-18

5 Technology Description 19
6 Results And Discussions 20-25
7 Conclusion 26
References 27
Viva Questions 28-29
Plagiarism Report 30
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Title Page No.

1 The History Of DL Architectures 8

2 GAN’s Architecture 9

3 Comparision Of Segmentation Results of a Typically healthy plant 11

4 The Output heat maps of the ACB module. 13

5 Leaf images from the PlantVillage dataset, representing every crop- 17

disease pair used.

6 Sample images from the three different versions of the PlantVillage dataset used 18
in

various experimental configurations.

7 Visualization of activations in the initial layers of an AlexNet architecture 20

i
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ROC Receiver Operating Characteristic

CNN Convolutional Neural Network

MIOU Mean Intersection over Union

VGG Visual Geometry Group

RGB Red, Green, Blue

ReLU Rectified Linear Unit

ResNet Residual Network

AUC Area Under Curve

AP Average Precision

API Application Programming Interface

ii
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

Agriculture is a cornerstone of the global economy, sustaining food production and

livelihoods across the world. However, plant diseases pose a persistent threat,
impacting crop yields and leading to significant economic losses. Early and accurate
detection of plant diseases is essential for minimizing the spread of infections and
reducing the need for extensive chemical treatments, which can harm the
environment. Traditional disease detection methods primarily rely on manual
inspection, which can be time-consuming, labor- intensive, and highly dependent on
the expertise of the inspectors. These limitations make it challenging to implement at
scale, especially in regions with limited access to agricultural expertise.

Recent advancements in technology, particularly in artificial intelligence (AI) and deep

learning, offer promising solutions for automating disease detection and classification. Deep
learning models, especially Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), have shown
exceptional ability in recognizing complex patterns within images, making them well-suited
for identifying symptoms of plant diseases. CNNs automatically learn the features required
for classification, eliminating the need for handcrafted feature extraction and making them
highly adaptable for tasks involving image analysis. This adaptability allows CNNs to
classify plant diseases across various plant types and disease symptoms with high accuracy.

One of the critical challenges in developing effective plant disease detection systems is the
availability of large, diverse datasets. Data scarcity can limit model performance, as CNNs
typically require extensive training data to generalize well in real-world conditions. Data
augmentation techniques and transfer learning have been effective in addressing this
challenge. Data augmentation methods, such as image rotations, flips, and color adjustments,
help enhance dataset diversity, while transfer learning allows models pre-trained on large
datasets to adapt to specific plant disease detection tasks with limited data.

1
Another advancement improving plant disease detection is the use of hyperspectral and 3D
imaging, which can capture subtle changes in plant physiology that are not visible to the
naked eye. Hyperspectral imaging, combined with CNNs, enables early detection of diseases
before visual symptoms fully develop. This capability is particularly advantageous, as it
allows for prompt intervention and can greatly reduce the spread of infections. By capturing
data across multiple wavelengths, hyperspectral imaging enhances the diagnostic power of
deep learning models, helping to increase accuracy in complex agricultural environments.

Deep learning in plant disease detection is transforming precision agriculture by enabling

targeted treatments and preventive measures. As models improve and datasets diversify,
automated systems will enhance agricultural sustainability, boost food security, and reduce
environmental impact.

2
 CHAPTER 2
MOTIVATION AND LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 Motivation

Plant diseases represent a significant challenge in agriculture, causing

substantial losses in crop yield and quality worldwide. Early and accurate
detection of these diseases is crucial to controlling their spread and reducing
economic losses. Farmers and agricultural industries rely heavily on effective
disease management to ensure food security and maintain profitability.
However, traditional methods of disease detection, which depend on manual
inspection by farmers or agricultural experts, are often insufficient. These
methods are not only time-consuming and labor-intensive but also prone to
human error, especially when dealing with diseases that present subtle or
complex symptoms.
In many rural and resource-limited regions, the accessibility of expert inspection is
further compromised. Farmers in such areas may lack the knowledge, tools, or
resources to identify disease symptoms at an early stage, leading to delayed or
inadequate treatment. This limitation increases the risk of disease spread, impacting
both local food production and broader agricultural markets. Therefore, there is a
pressing need for efficient, accessible, and automated solutions that can provide
reliable disease diagnosis, regardless of location or available resources. Addressing this
need would empower farmers worldwide with timely and accurate information,
promoting more effective disease management practices.

Recent advancements in deep learning, particularly Convolutional Neural Networks

(CNNs), have shown tremendous potential to meet these needs. CNNs excel in image
analysis tasks because they can automatically learn complex features directly from
image data, enabling them to detect and classify plant diseases based on visual cues.
Unlike traditional image processing techniques, which require hand-crafted features,
CNNs adapt to the data provided, making them highly effective for applications where
diverse disease symptoms must be recognized. The ability of CNNs to capture intricate
3
patterns in leaves, stems, and fruits makes them an ideal choice for automated disease
diagnosis in plants.

Moreover, modern techniques such as transfer learning and data augmentation further
enhance the performance of CNNs in agricultural applications. Transfer learning
allows models to leverage knowledge from other domains, reducing the need for large
labeled datasets, which are often difficult to obtain in agriculture. Data augmentation
techniques, on the other hand, expand the dataset by artificially creating variations,
enabling the model to generalize better in diverse environments. Together, these
methods enable CNNs to achieve high accuracy in disease detection, even with limited
data, making them viable solutions for real-world agricultural challenges. These
innovations underscore the potential of deep learning to transform agricultural disease
management, paving the way for more resilient and productive farming practices.

2.2 Literature Survey

The use of deep learning in plant disease detection has garnered substantial
attention in recent years due to its ability to handle complex classification tasks
with high accuracy. Early approaches relied on traditional machine learning
techniques, such as Support Vector Machines (SVM) and K-Nearest Neighbors
(KNN), which require manual feature extraction, often limiting their
effectiveness. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) emerged as a
breakthrough, automating feature extraction and significantly improving
detection accuracy across various plant disease datasets. Studies using popular
CNN architectures like AlexNet, ResNet, and VGG have achieved classification
accuracies above 90%, establishing CNNs as a state-of-the-art approach for
plant disease detection and classification.
Recent literature has also explored the role of data augmentation and transfer learning
in overcoming data scarcity challenges in plant disease datasets. Data augmentation
techniques, such as rotations, scaling, and color transformations, have proven effective
in increasing dataset diversity and robustness. Transfer learning, where models pre-
trained on large datasets are fine-tuned for specific tasks, has shown promising results
in plant disease recognition, particularly when applied to smaller datasets.
Additionally, Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) have been used to
4
synthetically expand training datasets, improving model performance by introducing
more variation and reducing overfitting.

Hyperspectral and 3D imaging are advancing deep learning models for early plant
disease detection. Hyperspectral imaging, capturing a wider light spectrum, reveals
subtle plant changes indicating early infections. Studies show CNNs trained on
hyperspectral data achieve up to 97% accuracy, outperforming traditional RGB
imaging. This technology greatly improves detection sensitivity and precision. It’s a
promising step for more effective disease management in agriculture.

5
 CHAPTER 3
OBJECTIVES

The primary objective of this study is to develop a deep learning model that can
accurately detect and classify plant diseases across various crop types. This involves
leveraging advanced Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) to automatically identify
disease symptoms based on image data, minimizing the need for manual feature
extraction. By focusing on architectures like ResNet and VGG, this objective aims to
achieve high accuracy in disease classification, enabling effective disease
management solutions that are both reliable and scalable.

Another objective is to address challenges associated with limited data availability in plant
disease datasets. Many agricultural datasets lack diversity, which can hinder a model's
generalization to real-world conditions. To overcome this, the study explores data
augmentation methods such as image rotations and color adjustments, as well as transfer
learning techniques. By fine-tuning pre-trained models on specific plant disease datasets,
the goal is to improve model performance even with limited training data, enhancing the
adaptability and robustness of the model across different agricultural environments.

A further objective is to investigate the use of hyperspectral and 3D imaging for

early disease detection. These advanced imaging techniques provide detailed
information that goes beyond visible symptoms, allowing the model to capture
early signs of disease that are often undetectable to the human eye. By
incorporating hyperspectral imaging data, the objective is to develop a model
that can detect diseases at an early stage, enabling timely intervention and
reducing the need for extensive chemical treatments. This contributes not only
to effective disease management but also to more sustainable agricultural
practices.
Beyond visible light imaging, the study investigates the integration of hyperspectral and
3D imaging techniques to improve early-stage disease detection. Hyperspectral imaging
captures detailed spectral data, revealing subtle biochemical changes in plant tissues often
6
before visible symptoms appear. In tandem, 3D imaging provides spatial
information on structural changes induced by disease, offering a more
comprehensive view of plant health. Incorporating these advanced imaging
techniques allows the model to detect disease at an early stage, facilitating timely
intervention, minimizing crop loss, and reducing the need for extensive chemical
treatments. This early detection capability aligns with sustainable agricultural
practices by reducing environmental impact and supporting a healthier crop
management process.

Ultimately, this study seeks to contribute to scalable, sustainable agricultural

disease management practices. By integrating CNN-based classification with data
augmentation, transfer learning, and advanced imaging, the research establishes a
holistic, adaptable approach to plant disease detection. The resulting model
supports precision agriculture by enabling early detection, optimizing resource use,
and minimizing crop loss through more targeted interventions. This approach not
only represents a technical advancement in plant disease diagnostics but also
promotes long-term sustainability in agriculture, enhancing food security by helping
farmers protect crop health with reliable, data-driven tools.

7
 CHAPTER 4

TOPIC DESCRIPTION

4.1 Overview of Plant Disease Detection

Plant diseases are a significant concern in agriculture, affecting crop yields, quality, and
overall productivity. Traditional methods for disease detection rely on manual inspection,
which is labor-intensive, time-consuming, and often susceptible to human error.
Automating the process with deep learning has shown great potential, especially through
the use of Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs). CNNs are highly effective at learning
complex features and patterns in images, allowing them to identify and classify different
plant diseases with high accuracy. This automation not only improves efficiency but also
ensures consistency and reliability in disease detection, providing a robust solution for
modern agricultural practices.

Fig 1 : The History Of DL Architectures

This figure shows the evolution of deep learning architectures over time, beginning
with basic CNNs and moving toward advanced architectures like ResNet and
Inception. Highlighting this timeline provides context on how CNNs have evolved to
become highly effective for complex tasks, including plant disease detection. By
visualizing these architectures, you can discuss the advantages of each model in
identifying disease symptoms based on intricate features from plant images,
enabling reliable and automated diagnosis in agriculture.

In 2014, deep learning progressed with the development of VGG, GoogleNet, RCNN, and
GANs. VGG introduced a simpler, very deep network structure using small filters, while
8
GoogleNet (also known as Inception) used efficient modules to reduce model size
without sacrificing accuracy. R-CNN (Region-based CNN) initiated a new approach to
object detection by focusing on specific regions, and GANs (Generative Adversarial
Networks) introduced a novel framework for generating realistic data, which became
pivotal in tasks involving image synthesis. The next year, 2015, saw the introduction
of ResNet, SegNet, U-Net, DeepLab, and Fast R- CNN. ResNet introduced skip
connections that enabled the training of very deep networks by mitigating vanishing
gradient issues. SegNet and U-Net were developed for semantic segmentation, with
U-Net particularly focused on medical image processing. DeepLab used atrous
convolutions to enhance segmentation capabilities, and Fast R-CNN built on R-CNN,
enabling faster object detection by optimizing region-based computations.

4.2 Role of CNNs in Disease Classification

Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) are pivotal in classifying plant diseases due to
their ability to automatically learn and extract critical features from images. In plant
disease detection, CNNs analyze intricate details on plant leaves and stems, such as color
variations, texture changes, and lesion shapes, which are indicative of disease. Advanced
CNN architectures, including ResNet, VGG, and Inception, have demonstrated impressive
performance in this field. These models use deep layers and sophisticated operations, like
convolution and pooling, to capture the complex, multi-dimensional patterns that
distinguish various plant diseases. By training on large datasets, CNNs achieve high
accuracy, making them invaluable for precise disease classification, contributing
significantly to early disease diagnosis and more effective crop management in
agriculture.

Fig 2 : GAN’s Architecture

9
The diagram represents the structure of a Generative Adversarial Network (GAN),
which includes two primary components: a Generator (G) and a Discriminator (D).
The generator takes a random input, often called a random variable or noise, and
generates synthetic data that resembles real data. Its goal is to produce outputs
that are indistinguishable from actual data samples. On the other side, the
discriminator is a binary classifier that receives both real data and the synthetic data
generated by the generator. It aims to correctly classify the inputs as either "True"
(real) or "False" (fake). The two components are trained in opposition; while the
discriminator learns to differentiate between real and generated data, the generator
learns to create more convincing data to deceive the discriminator. This adversarial
training process allows GANs to progressively improve, resulting in the generation of
high-quality synthetic data that closely mimics real-world data.
In the direct CNN model (a), there are numerous red areas on the segmented image,
indicating regions where the model incorrectly segments parts of the healthy leaf as diseased.
This misclassification reflects the limitations of a straightforward CNN approach for
segmentation tasks in agriculture, as it struggles to accurately differentiate between healthy
and diseased tissue in plant leaves. This could lead to over-diagnosis of disease, potentially
resulting in unnecessary treatment or interventions in real-world applications.

The AC-GAN model (b) demonstrates some improvement over the direct CNN, with fewer
red patches. This reduction in misclassified areas suggests that the AC-GAN (Auxiliary
Classifier GAN) model is better at recognizing healthy regions of the leaf. However, while
the AC-GAN refines the segmentation results to a degree, it still inaccurately classifies
certain areas as diseased, indicating that it does not fully overcome the limitations of the
direct CNN model. The improvement is incremental, showing only partial refinement, which
may not be sufficient for applications requiring high precision in disease detection.

4.3 Data Augmentation and Transfer Learning

In plant disease detection, a significant challenge is the limited availability of diverse

and extensive labeled datasets, as gathering large volumes of labeled agricultural
data can be labor-intensive and time-consuming. Data augmentation is a crucial
technique used to address this issue by artificially expanding the dataset. Common
augmentation techniques
10
include rotating images, adjusting colors, flipping, scaling, and even adding noise.
These transformations create new variations of the original images, enhancing the
diversity of the training data and helping the model generalize better by learning to
identify diseases under various conditions and perspectives.

Another powerful approach to overcome dataset limitations is transfer learning. This

technique involves using pre-trained models, such as CNN architectures (e.g., ResNet,
VGG, or Inception), that were initially trained on large and diverse datasets, often
unrelated to agriculture. By leveraging these pre-trained models, researchers can
fine-tune them specifically for plant disease detection tasks, adjusting only the final
layers or retraining specific parts of the model. Transfer learning not only saves
training time but also significantly boosts model performance when applied to smaller
datasets, as the model can transfer knowledge gained from large-scale data to
recognize patterns in plant disease images more accurately. Together, data
augmentation and transfer learning enable the development of robust plant disease
detection models that achieve high accuracy, even with limited agricultural data.

Transfer learning is another powerful technique that addresses data scarcity by

leveraging pre-trained deep learning models. These models, such as ResNet, VGG,
or Inception, have been pre-trained on large-scale, diverse datasets (often unrelated
to agriculture, like ImageNet). The pre-trained models have already learned rich
feature representations, which can be useful even in domains they were not
originally trained on. Through transfer learning, researchers can adapt these pre-
trained models to the task of plant disease detection by fine- tuning only the final
layers or retraining certain parts of the model specific to the new task. This approach
is highly efficient, as it allows the model to transfer knowledge from the large,
generalized dataset to the smaller, specialized agricultural dataset. Not only does
transfer learning reduce training time, but it also boosts accuracy, as the model
leverages features learned from a broader dataset to better recognize patterns in
plant disease images.

11
4.4 Hyperspectral and 3D Imaging for Enhanced Accuracy
Hyperspectral and 3D imaging technologies are emerging as valuable tools for improving
the accuracy and sensitivity of plant disease detection models. Unlike conventional RGB
imaging, which captures only red, green, and blue wavelengths, hyperspectral imaging
captures a much broader spectrum of wavelengths, allowing for detailed analysis across
hundreds of bands. This capability enables the detection of subtle physiological changes in
plants, such as variations in moisture content, chlorophyll levels, or cellular structure,
which may indicate early stages of disease well before visible symptoms appear. By
analyzing this comprehensive spectral information, hyperspectral imaging allows models to
detect diseases at the microscopic or molecular level, significantly enhancing accuracy and
enabling earlier interventions.

3D imaging, on the other hand, captures the depth and structure of plant leaves, offering
detailed insights into the leaf’s surface morphology. This technique provides a three-
dimensional representation of the leaf, which allows for a thorough examination of changes
in shape, texture, and thickness—key indicators of certain diseases that impact leaf
structure. For instance, fungal infections or nutrient deficiencies often cause distinct
morphological changes that are difficult to detect in 2D images but become apparent with
3D imaging. By combining hyperspectral and 3D imaging, plant disease detection models
gain a more comprehensive dataset that includes both spectral and structural information,
allowing for a more precise classification of diseases. Together, these advanced imaging
techniques, when integrated into deep learning models, significantly enhance the sensitivity
and robustness of plant disease detection, enabling more accurate, early-stage diagnosis
and supporting more effective disease management strategies in precision agriculture.

4.5 Hyperspectral and 3D Imaging for Early Detection

Beyond standard RGB imaging, advanced techniques like hyperspectral and 3D imaging
are being integrated with deep learning models to detect plant diseases at an early stage.
Hyperspectral imaging captures data across multiple wavelengths, enabling the
identification of physiological changes in plants before symptoms become visually

12
apparent. This early detection capability allows for timely interventions, reducing the
spread of diseases and minimizing crop losses.

Fig 3 : C omparision Of Segmentation Results of a Typically healthy plant

This figure provides a comparative visualization of segmentation results on a healthy plant

leaf, using three distinct models: a direct CNN model, an AC-GAN model, and the

proposed OR-AC-GAN model. The aim of the comparison is to demonstrate each model's

ability to accurately segment healthy regions of the leaf, while minimizing

misclassification of healthy tissue as diseased. Each model's output is visually represented,

with healthy areas shown in green and misclassified, diseased areas highlighted in red.

In the first panel (a), the segmentation output from the direct CNN model contains large
red areas across the leaf. These red patches indicate regions that the model has incorrectly
classified as diseased, even though the leaf is actually healthy. This result suggests that the
direct CNN model tends to over-segment, marking healthy parts of the leaf as diseased.
This misclassification implies a limitation in the CNN model’s ability to accurately
distinguish subtle visual features associated with a healthy leaf, leading to an inflated
number of false positives.

In the second panel (b), the AC-GAN model output shows some improvement over the
direct CNN model. While there are still red areas scattered across the leaf, the quantity and
13
density of these patches are reduced compared to the CNN model. This partial refinement
suggests that the AC-GAN model has improved in its ability to classify healthy leaf regions
correctly. However, the persistence of red patches highlights that the model is still not
entirely accurate in its segmentation, as it continues to misclassify some healthy areas as
diseased.

The third panel (c) presents the output of the OR-AC-GAN model, which demonstrates the
highest level of segmentation accuracy among the three models. In this result, there are
minimal red areas, indicating that almost the entire leaf has been correctly identified as
healthy. This accurate segmentation reflects the OR-AC-GAN model’s ability to precisely
distinguish healthy from diseased regions, greatly reducing false positives. Such precision
makes the OR-AC-GAN model well-suited for disease detection tasks in agricultural
settings, as it enhances reliability in identifying plant health status with fewer errors.

In conclusion, the OR-AC-GAN model exhibits a superior ability to accurately segment

healthy plant leaves, minimizing the misclassification of healthy tissue as diseased. This
accuracy is crucial for applications in agriculture, where reducing false alarms can improve
disease monitoring and resource management. The comparison in this figure highlights the
potential of the OR-AC-GAN model as a promising tool for accurate and efficient plant
disease detection.

4.6 Heatmap Visualization in Disease Detection

Visualization techniques, such as saliency maps and heatmaps, are increasingly used to
interpret CNN predictions, showing which image regions contribute to disease identification.
This interpretability is essential for validating model decisions in practical agricultural
applications.

14
This heatmap visualizes regions of plant leaves identified as diseased by the Attention
Convolutional Block (ACB) module, highlighting areas where the model detects symptoms.
The ACB module focuses on specific image features that contribute to disease classification,
with brighter regions indicating higher attention. This interpretative approach helps to
validate the CNN’s focus on relevant symptomatic regions, offering insights into the model’s
decision-making process and enhancing trust in AI-driven disease management systems in
agriculture.

This figure illustrates the output heat maps produced by the ACB (Attention Convolutional
Block) module at various stages (ACB-2, ACB-3, ACB-4, and ACB-5) for two different
plant leaves, as referenced in a prior study [47]. In panel (a), the top left image shows the
original plant leaf, with the corresponding heat maps to the right displaying how the ACB
module processes the image over successive stages. Initially, in ACB-2 and ACB-3, the heat

15
maps are low-resolution and show dispersed attention, indicating that the model’s
focus is spread across the entire leaf. As the module progresses to ACB-4 and ACB-
5, the heat maps reveal more concentrated attention on specific regions, highlighting
areas that may indicate disease symptoms or important features. This gradual
refinement demonstrates the ACB module’s increasing focus on relevant parts of the
leaf.
In panel (b), a similar process is shown for a different plant leaf image. Starting with ACB-
2, the heat maps are scattered and low-resolution, but as the model moves through each stage
to ACB-5, the attention becomes more directed and refined. By the final stage, the heat map
shows intense focus on critical regions of the leaf, which may correspond to signs of disease.
Overall, the figure demonstrates the ACB module’s ability to progressively refine its focus,
effectively highlighting the most relevant areas on plant leaves. This enhanced attention
mechanism supports the module in accurately distinguishing healthy from diseased regions,
making it a valuable tool for plant disease detection tasks.

4.7 Future Scope and Real-World Applications

The integration of deep learning with advanced imaging techniques offers transformative
potential for real-world agricultural applications, fundamentally reshaping how plant
diseases are detected and managed. By automating the identification of diseases at early
stages, these technologies provide farmers with the tools to diagnose crop health accurately
and quickly, thereby preventing disease spread and reducing crop losses. However, for
deep learning models to reach their full potential in diverse agricultural environments,
future research must address several critical areas, particularly the challenges of dataset
diversity, model optimization for resource-limited devices, and real-time monitoring
capabilities.

One major area for future work is expanding dataset diversity. Current models are often
trained on limited datasets captured in controlled environments, which may not fully
represent the wide range of conditions found in real-world farming. Variations in lighting,
weather, background elements, and plant growth stages can all influence model
performance when deployed in different regions or climates. Developing large, diverse
datasets that reflect these environmental factors is crucial for improving model robustness

16
and ensuring consistent accuracy across various agricultural contexts. Researchers are
exploring methods such as data augmentation and synthetic data generation (e.g., using
GANs) to simulate these conditions, enhancing the model’s adaptability to real-world
variability.

Another promising direction lies in optimizing these models for mobile devices, such as
smartphones, tablets, and drones. These devices are increasingly accessible to farmers and
can serve as practical platforms for deploying disease detection models directly in the field.
Model compression techniques like pruning, quantization, and lightweight architectures
can reduce computational requirements, making it feasible to run deep learning models on
devices with limited processing power and memory. This optimization enables farmers,
even in remote areas, to access AI-powered disease detection tools, empowering them with
real-time insights into crop health without needing high-end hardware.

Furthermore, real-time monitoring systems leveraging IoT (Internet of Things)

technologies represent the next frontier in agricultural disease management. By integrating
deep learning models with IoT sensors, farmers can deploy a network of devices to
continuously monitor crop conditions and identify early signs of disease. These systems
can capture data on temperature, humidity, and plant images, feeding this information into
AI models that analyze disease risk factors in real time. Such a setup would allow for
timely, automated alerts, helping farmers to take proactive measures before infections can
spread. Coupled with advanced imaging techniques like hyperspectral and thermal
imaging, these IoT-enabled systems can provide unparalleled insights, capturing subtle
physiological changes in plants that indicate disease onset, thus enabling early-stage
detection and intervention.

Automated plant disease detection using advanced deep learning techniques represents a
transformative step forward in agriculture. By enabling early, accurate, and efficient
identification of diseases, these technologies can significantly reduce crop losses, improve
yield quality, and lower reliance on manual inspections. Models such as CNNs and GANs
have shown considerable promise in detecting various plant diseases, while advancements
like multispectral imaging, IoT integration, and mobile accessibility are expanding the
practical applications of these systems.

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As this technology continues to develop, it holds the potential to make farming more
sustainable by promoting targeted interventions and reducing excessive pesticide use.
Additionally, accessible, mobile-based solutions can empower farmers in remote or
resource-limited regions, providing them with timely, expert-level diagnostic capabilities.
Ultimately, automated disease detection could play a crucial role in enhancing global food
security, fostering more resilient agricultural practices, and supporting the ongoing
evolution toward precision and smart agriculture.

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 CHAPTER 5

TECHNOLOGY DESCRIPTION

This study centers on the development of a deep learning-based plant disease detection
model, utilizing Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) for automated identification and
classification of diseases across diverse crop types. CNN architectures, particularly ResNet
and VGG, are employed due to their capacity for capturing complex, hierarchical features
from image data, allowing for precise and scalable disease identification without manual
feature engineering. These CNNs process leaf images to detect disease patterns directly,
offering a high-accuracy solution that is both time-efficient and highly adaptable for real-
world agricultural applications where reliable, consistent disease identification is crucial.

To address the challenge of limited and varied agricultural datasets, data augmentation and
transfer learning techniques are integrated into the model design. Data augmentation
expands existing datasets by creating new, varied examples through image transformations,
such as rotation, scaling, and color adjustments. Transfer learning, on the other hand,
allows the model to leverage knowledge from pre-trained models, fine-tuning them
specifically for plant disease datasets. This combination not only improves model
performance with constrained datasets but also enhances its generalization ability across
different crops and environmental conditions, ultimately making the model more robust
and adaptable.

For early-stage disease detection, the study also incorporates hyperspectral and 3D
imaging, which go beyond conventional imaging by capturing subtle biochemical and
structural changes in plant tissues. Hyperspectral imaging reveals early signs of disease at
the molecular level by analyzing spectral data, while 3D imaging provides depth
information on plant structure, further enhancing detection accuracy. These advanced
imaging techniques enable the model to detect diseases at an earlier stage, allowing for
proactive intervention, reduced reliance on chemical treatments, and more sustainable
agricultural practices. Together, these technologies create a comprehensive, scalable
solution that addresses both detection accuracy and agricultural sustainability.

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 CHAPTER 6
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

1. Evaluation Metrics and Model Performance

To evaluate the accuracy and effectiveness of the proposed deep learning models for plant
disease detection, several metrics were used, including accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-
score. The models were tested on both controlled and real-world datasets, such as
PlantVillage, and achieved high accuracy across multiple disease classes.

• Accuracy: The CNN-based models, particularly those using architectures like ResNet and
Inception, achieved accuracy rates of over 90% on the PlantVillage dataset, showcasing
their reliability in controlled environments.
• Precision and Recall: Precision and recall metrics for the models varied by disease type
but remained above 85% across the board. Diseases with distinctive symptoms, like leaf
blight, were detected with higher precision due to clear visual patterns, while those with
overlapping symptoms (e.g., nutrient deficiency) saw slightly lower recall rates.
• F1-Score: The F1-score averaged above 88% for most disease types, indicating a balanced
model performance in detecting both diseased and healthy plant images.

This image presents a diverse collection of 38 plant leaves, each numbered from 1 to 38,
representing a range of visual characteristics. The leaves display various shapes, sizes, textures, and
color patterns, likely from different plant species. Some leaves appear uniformly green, suggesting
health, while others display signs of discoloration, spots, and unusual textures that could indicate
disease or environmental stress.

Several leaves in this collection appear healthy, with uniform green coloring and no visible
damage. For example, leaves in positions 1, 4, and 5 have smooth, consistent green tones, which
are generally indicative of a healthy state. These leaves serve as a visual baseline for what healthy
plant foliage may look like in the dataset.

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 Fig 5 : Leaf images from the PlantVillage dataset representing every crop- disease pair used.

In contrast, a significant number of leaves show symptoms commonly associated with

disease or damage. Leaves in positions 9, 13, 19, and 24, for instance, exhibit various forms
of discoloration, spots, and curling, which are typical indicators of plant disease or pest
infestation. The presence of brown, yellow, or black spots and other irregular patterns
suggests that these leaves may be affected by fungal, bacterial, or viral pathogens, or
possibly nutrient deficiencies or environmental stressors.

The collection overall provides an array of symptoms, from minor spots (such as on leaves in
positions 17 and 26) to more severe discoloration and distortion (evident in leaves like 14 and 30).
This variation highlights the complexity of plant disease diagnosis based on leaf appearance, as
different diseases can manifest with overlapping or distinct visual markers. The wide range of leaf
shapes, sizes, and textures in the image further indicates that these samples may originate from
multiple plant species, offering a comprehensive visual dataset for analyzing plant health across
diverse agricultural contexts.

This assortment of healthy and diseased leaves underscores the potential challenges in automating
plant disease detection, as the model would need to distinguish between subtle differences in
appearance that signify different disease states or health conditions. This dataset could serve as a
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valuable resource for developing and training models in plant disease recognition, helping advance
automated solutions for agricultural disease management.

2. Performance of Hyperspectral and 3D Imaging Techniques

Integrating hyperspectral and 3D imaging techniques significantly enhanced early

detection capabilities. Hyperspectral imaging allowed the models to capture subtle
variations in leaf composition, which often indicate early-stage diseases. This method
improved detection accuracy for early symptoms by nearly 15% compared to RGB-only
imaging.

• Hyperspectral Imaging Accuracy: The model trained on hyperspectral images achieved

up to 97.1% accuracy in early disease detection. Early symptoms of diseases like powdery
mildew, typically invisible in RGB images, were successfully identified.
• 3D Imaging for Depth Information: The inclusion of 3D imaging data helped distinguish
between surface-level and internal disease symptoms, further refining model accuracy and
reducing false positives by 7%.

Fig 6 : Three different versions of the PlantVillage dataset.

This image shows two sets of leaf samples, each presented in three different visual forms: color,
grayscale, and processed with a dark background. The top row (a, b, c) and the bottom row (d, e, f)
each contain one unique leaf displayed in these three formats, possibly to aid in examining and
analyzing their condition across different visual perspectives.

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In the first row, image (a) shows a leaf in its original color, with visible yellowing and browning
along the edges, indicating possible disease or environmental stress. Image (b) presents the
same leaf in grayscale, allowing for a focus on texture and structural variations without the
distraction of color. The grayscale version can highlight areas of varying intensity that may
correspond to different levels of disease severity or damage. Image (c) displays the same leaf
with a dark background, further isolating it from external visual noise, making it easier to
observe its edges and any external symptoms.

In the second row, a different leaf is displayed with similar processing. Image (d) shows the leaf in
color, with notable patches of brown and yellow, suggesting potential disease symptoms. The
presence of dark, irregularly shaped spots across the leaf surface may indicate a fungal or bacterial
infection. Image (e) is the grayscale version, which enhances contrast and reveals variations in
texture across the leaf. The grayscale format is useful for examining disease patterns that may not
be as prominent in color images. Image (f) again displays the leaf on a dark background,
emphasizing its shape and disease patterns by removing external distractions.

Together, this set of images allows for a comprehensive analysis of leaf health through multiple
perspectives. The color images provide essential details on color changes associated with disease,
the grayscale images enhance texture visibility, and the dark background images isolate the leaf for
clearer examination. Such multi-format presentation is valuable in developing automated disease
detection models, as it enables the models to learn disease patterns through various visual cues,
improving accuracy in identifying plant health issues across different visual contexts.

3. Model Performance Across Data Variants

The performance of the deep learning model showed notable variations when applied to different
formats of plant leaf images—color, grayscale, and segmented. This variation can be attributed to
the unique features retained or lost in each format, affecting the model's ability to identify disease
symptoms accurately.

Firstly, color images delivered the highest accuracy. This success is largely due to the richness of
information retained in color images, which includes hue variations and subtle changes in
pigmentation that are often indicative of specific diseases. For example, color can help the model
distinguish between healthy green tissue and discolored spots caused by pathogens. These visual
cues are essential for accurately identifying diseases like rust, mildew, or blight, where
discoloration is a primary symptom.
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In comparison, grayscale images resulted in slightly reduced accuracy. The conversion to
grayscale eliminates the color information, forcing the model to rely solely on texture, contrast, and
shape. While the model can still identify certain disease characteristics, such as leaf deformation or
spot patterns, it loses the added benefit of color distinctions. This limitation can be particularly
challenging for diseases where color changes are a primary indicator, potentially causing the model
to miss or misinterpret these cues, leading to decreased classification accuracy.

Finally, segmented images, which remove the background and isolate only the plant leaf, showed
improvements over grayscale but did not surpass the color images. Background removal reduces
noise, enabling the model to focus exclusively on the leaf and its features without distractions from
extraneous elements. This segmentation enhances the model's ability to detect disease-relevant
features, particularly in cases where background clutter could mimic or obscure symptoms.
Segmentation is beneficial when applying the model in real-world settings where leaves are
photographed in diverse environments, as it helps the model maintain accuracy across varied
backgrounds.

The image presented has two parts:

Fig 7 : Visualization of activations in the initial layers of an AlexNet architecture

Panel A shows two leaves visibly affected by a plant disease, possibly rust or leaf spot.
The characteristic symptoms include yellowish to orange, round lesions surrounded by
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darker margins, often typical of fungal or bacterial infections. These spots indicate areas
where pathogens have infected the leaf tissue, leading to localized necrosis and
pigmentation changes. The two leaves exhibit clear, distinct lesions, which are important
visual cues for diagnosing specific plant diseases.

Panel B provides a heatmap representation, likely generated from a deep learning model’s
feature activation layers, highlighting the regions of interest in the leaf images. Bright spots
in the heatmap (shown in warm colors like red and yellow) correspond to areas where the
model focused most intensely, likely where disease symptoms were detected. This kind of
visualization helps understand how a model perceives and identifies diseased areas,
offering insights into its diagnostic process and accuracy.

Together, these panels illustrate both traditional visual diagnosis (Panel A) and advanced
machine learning-driven detection (Panel B), showcasing how deep learning models can
aid in identifying diseased regions on plant leaves, potentially improving precision in
agricultural disease management.

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 CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the application of deep learning techniques for plant disease

detection has shown remarkable advancements, providing a robust and efficient
method for early diagnosis. This technology helps in identifying various plant
diseases by analyzing images, which allows farmers to take preventive measures
and reduces crop loss. Through methods such as Convolutional Neural Networks
(CNNs), models can accurately classify diseases based on subtle visual cues in
plant images, as demonstrated by high accuracy rates in studies utilizing diverse
datasets like PlantVillage. These advancements contribute significantly to
sustainable agriculture and food security.

Despite these achievements, there are still challenges that limit the widespread application
of deep learning in plant disease detection. Issues such as limited dataset diversity, variations
in environmental conditions, and potential overfitting remain concerns. Additionally, the
requirement for high computational resources and technical expertise restricts accessibility,
especially for small-scale farmers in remote areas. Addressing these limitations involves
expanding datasets, refining models to handle diverse conditions, and exploring cost-
effective deployment solutions, such as mobile-based applications that can operate in real-
time with minimal hardware requirements..

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 REFERENCES

[1] Mohanty, S. P., Hughes, D. P., & Salathé, M. (2016). Using deep learning for
image- based plant disease detection. Frontiers in Plant Science, 7, 1419. Too,
[2] E. C., Yujian, L., Njuki, S., & Yingchun, L. (2019). A comparative study of fine-
tuning deep learning models for plant disease identification. Computers and
Electronics in Agriculture, 161, 272–279. Ferentinos, K. P. (2018). Deep
[3] learning models for plant disease detection and diagnosis. Computers and
Electronics in Agriculture, 145, 311–318. Picon, A., Alvarez-Gila, A., Seitz, M.,
[4] Ortiz-Barredo, A., & Echazarra, J. (2019). Deep convolutional neural networks
for mobile capture device-based crop disease classification in the wild.
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 161, 280–290. Sladojevic, S.,

[5] Arsenovic, M., Anderla, A., Culibrk, D., & Stefanovic, D. (2016). Deep neural
networks based recognition of plant diseases by leaf image classification.
Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience, 2016, Article ID 3289801.
Brahimi, M., Boukhalfa, K., & Moussaoui, A. (2017). Deep learning for tomato
diseases: Classification and symptoms visualization. Applied Artificial
[6]
Intelligence, 31(4), 299–315. Kamilaris, A., & Prenafeta-Boldú, F. X. (2018).
Deep learning in agriculture: A survey. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture,
147, 70–90. Wang, G., Sun, Y., & Wang, J. (2017). Automatic image-based
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plant disease severity estimation using deep learning. Computers and
Electronics in Agriculture, 144, 128– 136. Lu, Y., Yi, S., Zeng, N., Liu, Y., &
[8]
Zhang, Y. (2017). Identification of rice diseases using deep convolutional
neural networks. Neurocomputing, 267, 378–384. Zhang, S., Wu, X., You, Z., &
Zhang, L. (2018). Leaf image-based cucumber disease recognition using sparse
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representation classification. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 134,
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[10]

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 Viva Questions

1.What are the main challenges in using traditional image processing techniques for
plant disease detection, and how does deep learning address these issues?

Traditional
Ans: image processing techniques rely heavily on manual feature extraction,
such as color histograms and edge detection, which can be subjective, labor-
intensive, and limited by environmental conditions like lighting and background
noise. Deep learning, particularly with Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs),
automates feature extraction, enabling the model to learn complex patterns
directly from data. This makes deep learning models more robust, accurate, and
adaptable to diverse environmental conditions.

2. Can you explain the role of Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) in plant
disease detection, and why they are preferred over other machine learning methods?
CNNs are ideal for image-based tasks due to their hierarchical structure, which
Ans:
captures spatial and visual patterns like shapes, colors, and textures at multiple levels. In
plant disease detection, CNNs help identify specific disease symptoms from images,
offering higher accuracy and generalization than traditional machine learning methods.
They automate feature extraction and can handle complex variations in disease symptoms
across plant types.

3. How does data augmentation benefit plant disease detection models,

particularly when dealing with limited datasets?

Data augmentation generates new training examples by altering the existing data,
Ans:
such as through rotation, flipping, or color adjustment. This increases the diversity of
the training set, helping to prevent overfitting and improving the model's ability to
generalize to new data. For plant disease detection, this is crucial as collecting a
large dataset of diverse disease images can be challenging, especially for rare or
early-stage symptoms.

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4. What are some common deep learning architectures used in plant disease
classification, and what factors influence the choice of a specific model?

Common
Ans: architectures include AlexNet, VGG, ResNet, and Inception. The choice
depends on factors like computational resources, dataset size, and complexity.
ResNet, for example, is suitable for complex tasks due to its skip connections,
which help in training deep models without vanishing gradient issues. Lightweight
models like MobileNet are preferred for mobile deployment as they balance
accuracy and efficiency, enabling real-time disease detection.

5. How can mobile applications be optimized to perform plant disease detection in real-
time, and what are the potential challenges in deploying such models?

Ans: applications can be optimized using lightweight models (e.g., MobileNet,

Mobile
SqueezeNet), which are computationally efficient and capable of real-time
inference. Challenges include limited processing power, battery life, and memory
on mobile devices. Additionally, maintaining accuracy despite the model’s
simplification is crucial. Techniques like model quantization and pruning can
reduce model size and computational load, helping overcome these limitations
while ensuring reliable performance.

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 PLAGIARISM REPORT

Number of
Chapter No. Chapter Name Plagiarism
words
Abstract Introduction 150 0%
1 Motivation and Literature 300 0%
2 Survey Objectives Topic 250 0%
3 Description Technology 196 0%
4 Description 1382 0%
5 Results and Discussions 199 0%
6 Conclusion 394 0%
7 178 0%
3049 0%
Total

Note: The “Duplichecker” plagiarism tool is used for checking chapter-wise plagiarism.
Duplichecker --- https://www.duplichecker.com/

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