NONCHEMICAL ROCKETS

MODULE 5
Limitations of Chemical Rockets
• Chemical rocket: Exhaust ejection velocity intrinsically limited by
the propellant-oxidizer reaction.
• Larger velocity increment of the spacecraft could be obtained
only with a larger ejected mass flow.
• Mission practical limitation: Exceedingly large amount of
propellant that needs to be stored aboard.
 Electric Propulsion
• “The acceleration of gases for propulsion by electric heating
and/or by electric and magnetic body forces.”
• In electric propulsion the term thruster is used the same way as
engine is in liquid propellant and motor in solid propellant
rockets.
• In addition to a separate energy source, such as solar or nuclear
with its auxiliaries (concentrators, heat conductors, pumps,
panels, and radiators), the basic subsystems of a typical space
electric propulsion system are:
(1) Conversion devices to transform the spacecraft’s electrical power
to voltages, frequencies, pulse rates, and currents suitable for
particular electrical propulsion systems;
(2) One or more thrusters to convert the electric energy into kinetic
energy of the propellant exhaust.
(3) A propellant system for storing, metering, and delivering the
propellant and/or propellant fill provisions;
(4) Several controls for starting and stopping power and propellant
flow.
(5) Thrust vector control units (also called TGAs—thrust/gimbal
assemblies).
Features:
• High exhaust speed (i.e. high specific impulse), much greater
than in conventional (chemical) rockets
• Much less propellant consumption (much higher efficiency in
the fuel utilization)
• Continuous propulsion: apply a smaller thrust for a longer time
• Mission flexibility (Interplanetary travel, defense)
Electric Propulsion Concepts
• Variety of designs to accelerate ions or plasmas
• Most concepts utilize grids or electrodes
• Ion Engine
• Hall Thruster
• RF Plasma Thrusters (ECR- Electron Cyclotron Resonance,
VASIMR- Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket,
Helicon Double Layer)
• Magneto plasma Dynamic (MPD) Thrusters
• Plasmoid Accelerated Thrusters
The general classes of systems for electric propulsion are:
• Electrostatic propulsion devices
• Electro thermal propulsion devices
• Electromagnetic propulsion devices.
 Electro thermal rockets
Electrothermal rocket engines are very similar in principle to chemical
and nuclear thermal rockets, differing only in using electrical heating
to raise the temperature of the propellant prior to accelerating it in a
nozzle.
•Electric resistance heating, as in the “resistojet”
•Heating of the propellant by a high energy arc discharge passing
through it, as in the “arc jet”
•Heating by passing radio frequency (RF) electromagnetic waves
through the propellant to heat it.
Fairly high F at reasonably high Isp, but thermal limitations are the
same as in chemical and nuclear thermal rocket engines.
 1.Resistojet
• Propellant: Nitrogen, Xenon,butane & most gases

• Thrust: up to 100 mN

• Feed pressure: up to 10 bar

• Operation temperature to 500°C

• Redundant heaters
• A resistojet works by super-heating a propellant fluid, such as
water or nitrous oxide, over an electrically-heated element and
allowing the resulting hot gas to escape through a converging
diverging nozzle. Thrust and specific impulse (a measure of the
engine's efficiency) are limited by the material properties of the
resistor.
 2.Arcjet
A simple, reliable form of electro thermal propulsion used to provide
brief, low power bursts of thrust, such a satellite needs for
station-keeping.

A nonflammable propellant is heated, typically changing state from

liquid to gas, by an electric arc in a chamber.

It then goes out the nozzle throat and is accelerated and expelled at
reasonably high speed to create thrust.
Arcjets can use electrical power from solar cells or batteries,
and any of a variety propellants.

Hydrazine is the most popular propellant, however, because it

can also be used in a chemical engine on the same spacecraft to
provide high thrust capability or to act as a backup to the arcjet.
 Electrostatic rockets
The temperature limitations of electro thermal rockets may be
avoided if the acceleration of the propellant is achieved by electric
body forces. The ion rocket accomplishes this by using -
•An ion source to produce a stream of positively charged particles
•A negatively charged grid electrode to electrostatically accelerate
the ions
•An electron source to neutralize the accelerated ions
Thus there is no physical nozzle or pressure chamber and the only
temperature limitations are on the ion source device.
To cause ionization there are mainly 5 different procedures, they are :
• Electron bombardment
• Radio frequency
• Field emission
• Microwave
• Ion contact
 Ion rocket propulsion
A form of electric space propulsion in which ions are accelerated by an electrostatic
field to produce a high-speed (typically about 30 km/s) exhaust.

An ion engine has a high specific impulse (making it very fuel-efficient) but a very
low thrust.

Therefore, it is useless in the atmosphere or as a launch vehicle, but extremely useful

in space where a small amount of thrust over a long period can result in a big
difference in velocity.

This makes an ion engine particularly useful for two applications:

(1) as a final thruster to nudge a satellite into a higher orbit and or for
orbital maneuvering or station-keeping, and

(2) as a means of propelling deep-space probes by thrusting over a

period of months to provide a high final velocity. The source of
electrical energy for an ion engine can be either solar or nuclear.
NUCLEAR ROCKET PROPULSION
Nuclear rocket propulsion refers to the use of nuclear energy to
propel a rocket.
Unlike traditional chemical propulsion systems, which rely on the
combustion of chemical propellants, nuclear rockets utilize the
energy released from nuclear fission to heat a propellant, typically
hydrogen, which is then expelled through a rocket nozzle to
generate thrust.
There are two main types of nuclear rocket propulsion:

1. Nuclear Thermal Rocket (NTR):

In an NTR, nuclear energy heats a propellant, usually liquid hydrogen, in a reactor,
and the hot propellant is then expelled through a rocket nozzle to produce thrust.
The advantage of NTRs is their high specific impulse (Isp), which means they can
achieve higher velocities with less propellant compared to chemical rockets.
However, NTRs require the development of efficient and safe nuclear reactors
that can operate in space.
2. Nuclear Electric Rocket (NER):
NERs use a nuclear reactor to generate electricity, which is then used to
power electric propulsion systems such as ion thrusters or Hall effect
thrusters.
These thrusters accelerate ionized propellant (usually xenon gas) to generate
thrust.
While NERs typically have lower thrust levels compared to NTRs, they can
operate continuously for long durations, making them suitable for deep space
missions requiring constant acceleration.
NERs offer very high specific impulse, making them ideal for interplanetary
travel and deep space exploration missions.
 SOLID CORE NUCLEAR THERMAL ROCKET
In a solid core nuclear rocket, a nuclear reactor heats a solid material, typically
a refractory metal like tungsten or graphite, to very high temperatures.
The heated material serves as both the reactor core and the propellant.
As it heats up, it expands and is expelled through a rocket nozzle to produce
thrust.
SCNRs can achieve high specific impulse, making them efficient for space
travel.
One advantage of SCNRs is their simplicity and potential for high thrust,
which could make them suitable for rapid interplanetary travel or heavy cargo
transport missions.
 SOLAR SAIL

Solar sails (also called light sails or photon sails) are a method of spacecraft
propulsion using radiation pressure exerted by sunlight on large mirrors.
Solar sails are a spacecraft propulsion method utilizing a curious quirk of photons.
These particles of light have no mass and yet when they impinge on something, they
can impart momentum and provide a tiny push.
How does solar sailing work?
Light is made up of particles called photons. Photons don’t have any mass, but as
they travel through space they do have momentum. When light hits a solar
sail—which has a bright, mirror-like surface—the photons in that light bounce
off the sail (i.e. they reflect off it, just like a mirror). As the photons hit the sail
their momentum is transferred to it, giving it a small push. As they bounce off
the sail, the photons give it another small push. Both pushes are very slight, but
in the vacuum of space where there is nothing to slow down the sail, each push
changes the sail’s speed.
How does a solar sail control its direction?
When a solar sail faces the Sun directly, photons push the spacecraft forward, away
from the Sun. But a solar sail can move in other directions by tacking like a sailboat,
changing the angle of the sail relative the Sun. It’s even possible to shift the
spacecraft's orbit around the Sun, by angling the sail so that solar photons push against
the direction it is traveling. Solar sails can also control their direction in other ways,
such as changing their center of mass or using tip vanes.
Solar Thermal Propulsion
 Introduction
The concept of solar thermal propulsion stems from the better known
solar-dynamic power system.
This propulsion system has been proposed as an alternative means of
rocket propulsion for orbit transfer and planetary missions.
In this system, solar energy is accumulated by an absorber and is used to
burn propellant during the thrust phase.
 Concept of Solar Thermal Propulsion
In general, solar thermal propulsion utilises solar light to heat a propellant up
to 2000 K. The gaseous propellant is then fed through a conventional rocket
nozzle to produce thrust. A solar propelled rocket only needs a means by
which it can capture solar energy. No electrical generator is needed. The
thrust of the engine is dependent on the surface area of the solar collector
(concentrators and mirrors) and the local intensity of the solar radiation.
Light is collected by a parabolic reflector and then focused onto a blackbody
cavity to generate a high internal temperature. Here, heat is transferred to
the propellant to produce thrust. The best performance can be achieved with
hydrogen because of its low molecular weight.
 Concentrators
Concentrators are used to collect solar light and to focus it into a
receiver/absorber. Large collector surfaces in the range of several square
meters are needed to produce the required thermal energy. A desired solar
power input will be about 1350 W/m². This is typically realised by the primary
concentrators and thus, they are considered to be the most technologically
demanding part of the concentrator system.
Absorber/Receiver
The function of the absorber/receiver is to absorb and transfer the energy of
the concentrated solar radiation to the propellant. A heat exchanger is
employed in the heating of the propellant. The transfer of energy can be
achieved either continuously or after accumulation.
 Classification
There are two solar thermal propulsion concepts, differing primarily in the
method by which they use solar power to heat up the propellant:
1. Indirect solar heating involves pumping the propellant through passages in
a heat exchanger that is heated by solar radiation. The windowless heat
exchanger cavity concept is a design taking this radiation absorption
approach.
2. Direct solar heating involves exposing the propellant directly to solar
radiation. The rotating bed concept is one of the preferred concepts for direct
solar radiation absorption; it offers higher specific impulse than other direct
heating designs by using a retained seed (tantalum carbide or hafnium
carbide) approach. The propellant flows through the porous walls of a rotating
cylinder, picking up heat from the seeds, which are retained on the walls by
the rotation. The carbides are stable at high temperatures and have excellent
heat transfer properties.
 Performance
Solar thermal propulsion performance is in between that of conventional
propulsion and ion drive propulsion. For indirect solar heating, the design
cannot achieve specific impulses of more than 900 s. This is because there
are some limitations to the temperature that the heat exchanger material
can withstand. For direct solar heating, direct heat absorption allows higher
propellant temperatures and hence has higher specific impulses of
approximately 1200 s.
However, only indirect solar thermal heating has been experimentally tested.
This was carried out by the United States Air Force Rocket Propulsion
Laboratory using small-scale models.
 Applications
Solar thermal propulsion could be applied in two particular areas: Earth-orbit transfer and
scientific interplanetary missions.
Orbit Transfer Stage
The major application of commercial solar thermal propulsion is the orbital transfer of big
communication satellites from low to geosynchronous Earth orbits. Multiple ignitions
seem to be the most promising method for orbital transfer. This requires 11.5 tons of
liquid hydrogen, producing a specific impulse of 750 s.
Interplanetary Spacecraft
Solar thermal propulsion systems can be used for interplanetary missions. In such
missions, large arcs of solar concentrators are used to accurately focus sunlight onto the
absorber. The heat is then transferred directly to the propellant, creating a continuous
thrust to power the system. Such a method affords a higher efficiency of conversion of
solar light to energy.
 Comparison
Comparisons have been made between conventional chemical propulsion
and solar thermal propulsion. In the example of a Pluto flyby mission, it
has been shown that a larger payload can be carried using solar thermal
propulsion with the same amount of propellant. As such mission cost can
be reduced.
 Advantages
Solar thermal propulsion is a promising rocket drive which has the potential to
reduce the launch costs of commercial satellites and to raise performance for
interplanetary missions. However, the development of key technologies is
necessary before operational systems can be built. These include
improvements in the heat capacity of heat exchangers, lightweight and rigid
structures and the capability to store cryogenic hydrogen.
Currently, the best utilisation of solar thermal propulsion lies in commercial
satellites and any future developments in this area is likely to hinge on the
cost of this propulsion. Space performance has thus been traded for lowered
cost.
 Disadvantages
Due to limitations in the temperature that heat exchanger materials can
withstand (approximately 2800 K), the indirect absorption designs cannot
achieve specific impulses beyond 900 seconds