BIO 203 General Physiology I (2 Credit Units) (Mrs R.

P Ayuba’s part)

Introduction

Biological processes are essential for the survival, growth, and development of living organisms.
These processes include respiration, photosynthesis, material transportation, reproduction,
germination, growth regulation by hormones, and enzymology. Understanding these processes at
the biochemical and physiological levels is crucial for a deeper insight into life sciences.

2. Respiration in Plants and Animals

2.1 Definition of Respiration

Respiration is the biochemical process in which organisms break down glucose to release energy
in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). It occurs in all living cells and is essential for
cellular activities.

2.2 Biological Importance of Respiration

 Provides energy for cellular processes.

 Facilitates active transport of materials across membranes.
 Generates metabolic intermediates for biosynthesis.
 Enables muscle contraction in animals.

2.3 Biochemical Processes and Equations of Respiration

Aerobic Respiration: Occurs in the presence of oxygen and involves three main stages:
Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, and Electron Transport Chain. Aerobic respiration is a cellular process
that occurs in the presence of oxygen to generate energy (ATP). It takes place in three main
stages: Glycolysis, the Krebs Cycle, and the Electron Transport Chain (ETC).

1. Glycolysis (Occurs in the Cytoplasm)

 The first stage of aerobic respiration.

 Breaks down glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) into two molecules of pyruvate (C₃H₄O₃).
 Produces a net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH molecules.
 Does not require oxygen but is necessary for the next stages.

2. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) (Occurs in the Mitochondrial Matrix)

 Pyruvate is converted into Acetyl-CoA, which enters the cycle.

 Produces CO₂ as a waste product.
 Generates high-energy electron carriers: NADH and FADH₂.
 Produces 2 ATP per glucose molecule.

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3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC) & Oxidative Phosphorylation (Occurs in the Inner
Mitochondrial Membrane)

 Uses NADH and FADH₂ to transfer electrons through a chain of proteins.

 Electrons move down the chain, releasing energy to pump H⁺ ions across the membrane,
creating a proton gradient.
 Oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor, forming water (H₂O).
 ATP Synthase uses the proton gradient to generate around 34 ATP.

Final Energy Yield:

 Total ATP per glucose molecule: ~36-38 ATP.

 Byproducts: Carbon dioxide (CO₂) and Water (H₂O).

Summary Equation:

C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+Energy(ATP)C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 → 6CO_2 + 6H_2O +

Energy (ATP)C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O + Energy(ATP)

General Equation:

Anaerobic Respiration: Occurs in the absence of oxygen and results in the production of less
ATP and byproducts such as lactic acid or ethanol. Anaerobic respiration occurs when oxygen is
not available. Unlike aerobic respiration, it produces less ATP and results in different byproducts
depending on the organism. The two main types of anaerobic respiration are lactic acid
fermentation (in animals) and alcoholic fermentation (in yeast and some bacteria).

Equation in Animals: Anaerobic Respiration in Animals (Lactic Acid Fermentation)

 Occurs in muscle cells during intense exercise when oxygen supply is low.
 Glucose is partially broken down into lactic acid instead of CO₂ and H₂O.
 Produces only 2 ATP per glucose molecule (much less than aerobic respiration).
 Lactic acid buildup causes muscle fatigue and soreness.
 Once oxygen becomes available, lactic acid is converted back to pyruvate and
metabolized aerobically.

Equation in Animals:

C6 H12 O 6 →2C3H6 O3+2ATP C6 H12 O6 → 2C3 H6 O3 + 2ATP C6 H12 O6 →2C3 H6 O3+2ATP

(Glucose → Lactic Acid + Energy)

Equation in Yeast: Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast (Alcoholic Fermentation)

 Used by yeast and some bacteria.

 Converts glucose into ethanol (alcohol) and carbon dioxide (CO₂).

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  This process is used in brewing, baking, and biofuel production.
 Like in animals, only 2 ATP is produced per glucose molecule.

Equation in Yeast:

3. Photosynthesis

3.1 Definition of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and
water into glucose and oxygen.

3.2 Biological Importance of Photosynthesis

 Produces oxygen essential for respiration.

 Forms the base of the food chain.
 Helps in carbon cycling and climate regulation.

3.3 Biochemical Processes and Equations of Photosynthesis

 Sunlight → Absorbed by chlorophyll in the chloroplast.

 Water (H₂O) → Taken in by roots and split into oxygen (O₂) and hydrogen (H).
 Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) → Absorbed from the air through stomata.
 Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and Oxygen (O₂) → Produced as final products.

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This can be visualized with arrows showing inputs (sunlight, water, CO₂) going into a leaf and
outputs (O₂, glucose) coming out.

Light-dependent Reactions:

 Occur in the thylakoid membranes.

 Convert light energy into ATP and NADPH.

Light-independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle):

 Occur in the stroma, Stroma of the chloroplast.

 Utilize ATP and NADPH to fix carbon dioxide into glucose.
 CO₂ is fixed into organic molecules using ATP and NADPH.
 Glucose is synthesized.

General Equation:

(Diagrams illustrating photosynthesis mechanisms)

4. Transportation of Materials in Plants and Animals

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4.1 Transport Mechanisms in Plants

 Xylem: Conducts water and minerals from roots to leaves.

 Phloem: Transports sugars and nutrients.
 Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the first stage, light-dependent reactions or light
reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy-storage molecules
ATP and NADPH. During the second stage, the light-independent reactions use these
products to capture and reduce carbon dioxide.

Light Reaction of Photosynthesis (or) Light-dependent Reaction

 Photosynthesis begins with the light reaction which is carried out only during the day in
the presence of sunlight. In plants, the light-dependent reaction takes place in the
thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts.
 The Grana, membrane-bound sacs like structures present inside the thylakoid functions
by gathering light and is called photosystems.
 These photosystems have large complexes of pigment and proteins molecules present
within the plant cells, which play the primary role during the process of light reactions of
photosynthesis.
 There are two types of photosystems: photosystem I and photosystem II.
 Under the light-dependent reactions, the light energy is converted to ATP and NADPH,
which are used in the second phase of photosynthesis.
 During the light reactions, ATP and NADPH are generated by two electron-transport
chains, water is used and oxygen is produced.

The chemical equation in the light reaction of photosynthesis can be reduced to:

2H2 O + 2NADP+ + 3ADP + 3Pi → O2 + 2NADPH + 3ATP

Dark Reaction of Photosynthesis (or) Light-independent Reaction

 Dark reaction is also called carbon-fixing reaction.

 It is a light- independent process in which sugar molecules are formed from the water and
carbon dioxide molecules.
 The dark reaction occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast where they utilize the NADPH
and ATP products of the light reaction.
 Plants capture the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through stomata and proceed to
the Calvin photosynthesis cycle.
 In the Calvin cycle, the ATP and NADPH formed during light reaction drive the reaction
and convert 6 molecules of carbon dioxide into one sugar molecule or glucose.

The chemical equation for the dark reaction can be reduced to:

3CO 2 + 6 NADPH + 5H2 O + 9ATP → G3P + 2H+ + 6 NADP+ + 9 ADP + 8 Pi

* G3P – glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.

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4.2 Transport Mechanisms in Animals

 Circulatory System: Blood transports oxygen, nutrients, and waste products.

 Lymphatic System: Moves lymph fluid and aids in immune responses.
 The following table lays out some of the basic similarities and differences:

Mammals: Plants:
Specialised tubes - arteries, capillaries and Specialised tubes - xylem vessels and tracheids and
veins. phloem sieve tubes.
Some tubes are composed of living cells, e.g.
All tubes are composed of living cells. phloem. Others are composed of dead cells, e.g.
xylem.
The concentration of substances
The concentration of the substances being
transported is controlled (see
transported is not controlled.
homeostasis).
The heart controls the circulatory system.
The heart is controlled by the nervous There is no such control in plants.
system.
The rate of flow in the xylem and phloem is quite
The rate of flow is moderate and is
slow. The rate of flow in the xylem is controlled by
regulated by vasoconstriction and
external factors via the stomata (e.g. temperature,
vasodilation.
wind, humidity).
Uses water as a medium in which to
transport substances (it is a good solvent,
Uses water as a medium in which to transport
it has a high specific heat capacity, has
substances.
good surface tension but is not viscous,
and is unreactive).
Substances being transported are: sucrose, amino
The substances being transported are:
acids, fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins, hormones (in
respiratory gases, glucose, amino acids,
the phloem) and minerals and water (in the xylem).
fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins, minerals,
Respiratory gases are not transported by this system
hormones.
but move via a series of inter-connecting air spaces.

 TRANSPORTATION IN UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS: For simple unicellular

organisms only the cell membrane separates the cell from its surroundings. This means
that only diffusion is needed to access the materials they require to support life.
 TRANSPORTATION IN MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS : When living organisms
get more complex, simple diffusion is no longer sufficient and more elaborate ways of
transporting oxygen and material is needed. It is because of this why plants and animals
have developed transport systems. In plants, the transport systems are known as the
phloem and xylem (vascular system). In humans and other animals, the transport system
is made up of blood, blood vessels and a muscular pump (the heart).
 Types of materials transported in humans -Hormones are transported to their target from
the glands they are produced -Oxygen and other nutrients -Carbon dioxide- waste from
respiration -Nitrogenous waste (urea and uric acids) from the breakdown of protein
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  The waste products (carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste) are transported to organs
which will remove them from the body. If they are allowed to build up, they are
potentially toxic.

5. Reproduction

5.1 Types of Reproduction

 Asexual Reproduction: Involves a single parent (e.g., budding, fragmentation).

 Sexual Reproduction: Involves the fusion of male and female gametes.

5.2 Reproductive Systems in Plants

 Pollination, fertilization, and seed formation.

5.3 Reproductive Systems in Animals

 Male and female reproductive organs and their functions. (Assignments)

6. Germination. Germination is the process by which a seed develops into a seedling. Seeds
germinate when they encounter suitable conditions. Some seeds may be dormant for very long
periods before they start to develop into new plants. The conditions necessary for germina tion
are: Water- which activates the enzymes in the seed. Oxygen- which is needed for respiration.
Suitable temperature- enzymes have a certain range of temperatures in which they are able to
operate.

6.1 Types of Germination

 Epigeal Germination: Cotyledons emerge above ground.

 Hypogeal Germination: Cotyledons remain underground.
 In epigeal germination (or epigeous germination), the hypocotyl elongates and forms a
hook, pulling rather than pushing the cotyledons and apical meristem through the soil.
Once it reaches the surface, it straightens and pulls the cotyledons and shoot tip of the
growing seedlings into the air. Beans, tamarind, and papaya are examples of plants that
germinate this way.
 Hypogeal
 Germination can also be done by hypogeal germination (or hypogeous germination),
where the epicotyl elongates and forms the hook. In this type of germination, the
cotyledons stay underground where they eventually decompose. Peas, gram and mango,
for example, germinate this way.

6.2 Factors Affecting Germination

 Water, temperature, oxygen, and light.

7. Growth Hormones

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7.1 Types of Growth Hormones

 In Plants: Auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene, abscisic acid.

 In Animals: Growth hormone, insulin, thyroid hormones.

7.2 Roles of Growth Hormones

 Regulate growth, development, and metabolism.

8. Enzymology. Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up reactions without being
consumed.

8.2 Enzyme Kinetics and Mechanisms

 Lock and key model, induced fit model.

 Michaelis-Menten equation.
 Lock and key hypothesis
 This is the simplest model to represent how an enzyme works. The substrate simply fits
into the active site to form a reaction intermediate.


 Induced fit hypothesis
 In this model the enzyme molecule changes shape as the substrate molecules gets close.
The change in shape is 'induced' by the approaching substrate molecule. This more
sophisticated model relies on the fact that molecules are flexible because single covalent
bonds are free to rotate.


8.3 Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

 Temperature, pH, substrate concentration, inhibitors.

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