Electromagnetic Spectrum

1. What is light? Write down the properties of light.

Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation, which is a type of energy that travels through space
in the form of waves. It is part of the broader electromagnetic spectrum, which includes various
types of electromagnetic waves ranging from radio waves to gamma rays. Light specifically
occupies the portion of the spectrum that is visible to the human eye.

i. Wavelike Nature: Light exhibits wave-like properties.

ii. Particle Nature: Light can also be considered as discrete packets of energy called
photons.

iii. Speed: Light travels at a constant speed in a vacuum, approximately 299,792 kilometers
per second (about 186,282 miles per second).

iv. Electromagnetic Spectrum: Light is part of the broader electromagnetic spectrum,

which includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible rays, ultraviolet
radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays.

v. Visible Light: The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human
eye is called visible light. It ranges from approximately 400 to 700 nanometers in
wavelength.

vi. Dispersion: Light of different colors (different wavelengths) can be separated or

dispersed, as seen in phenomena like rainbows or when light passes through a prism.

vii. Reflection and Refraction:

 Light can undergo reflection when it encounters a surface, bouncing off at an angle.

 Refraction occurs when light passes from one medium to another, causing it to change
direction.

viii. Polarization: Light waves can be polarized, meaning the oscillations occur in a specific
direction.
 ix. Absorption and Emission: Materials can absorb and emit light. When light interacts
with matter, it can be absorbed, raising the energy state of the material. Subsequently,
the material may emit light when returning to a lower energy state.

x. Dual Nature (Wave-Particle Duality): Light exhibits both wave-like and particle-like
properties, a phenomenon known as wave-particle duality. This duality is a fundamental
concept in quantum mechanics.

xi. Transverse Nature: Light waves are transverse, meaning the oscillations are
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

2. What is electromagnetic spectrum (EM)? Write down the equation of electromagnetic

spectrum.

Electromagnetic Spectrum:

The electromagnetic spectrum (EM) is the range of all frequencies of electromagnetic radiation. It
includes a wide range of electromagnetic waves, from the lowest frequencies used for radio
communication to the highest frequencies used for gamma-ray astronomy.

The relationship between the frequency (f) and wavelength (λ) of electromagnetic waves is given
by the equation:
 𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆

where

c is the speed of light in a vacuum (3.00×108 ms-1,

f is the frequency of the electromagnetic wave in hertz (Hz),

λ is the wavelength of the electromagnetic wave in meters (m).

This equation shows that the speed of light is constant, and as the frequency of the wave increases,
the wavelength decreases, and vice versa.

3. How many types of electromagnetic spectrum (EM)? Explain them with applications.

Or,

Mention the name of electromagnetic spectrum (EM). Define them with some examples.

The electromagnetic spectrum includes different regions such as: (i) gamma rays (-rays), (ii) X-
rays, (iii) ultraviolet (UV) radiation, (iv) visible light, (v) infrared radiation, (vi) microwaves, and
(vii) radio waves. Each corresponding to a specific range of frequencies and wavelengths.

i. Gamma Rays:

 Range: Shortest wavelength, highest frequency.

 Applications: Medical imaging (gamma ray imaging), cancer treatment

(radiotherapy), and industrial uses such as detecting flaws in materials.

ii. X-rays:

 Range: Shorter wavelength than UV rays.

 Applications: Medical imaging (X-ray radiography), airport security scanners, and

industrial inspection.

iii. Ultraviolet (UV) Rays:

 Range: Shorter wavelength than visible light.

 Applications: UV sterilization, fluorescent lamps, certain medical treatments, and

forensic investigations.
 iv. Visible Light:

 Range: The narrow range of wavelengths visible to the human eye.

 Applications: Optics, photography, human vision, and various lighting

technologies.

v. Infrared Waves:

 Range: Longer wavelength than visible light, shorter than microwaves.

 Applications: Infrared heaters, night vision technology, infrared imaging in

astronomy, and some communication systems.

vi. Microwaves:

 Range: Shorter wavelength than radio waves, higher frequency.

 Applications: Microwave ovens, satellite communication, radar, wireless

communication, and certain medical treatments.

vii. Radio Waves:

 Range: Long wavelength, low frequency.

 Applications: Broadcasting (AM and FM radio), television, communication

signals, radar, and some medical applications.

4. State the postulates of Newton’s corpuscular theory.

Postulates of Newton’s corpuscular theory:

 Every source of light emits large number of tiny particles known as ‘corpuscles’ in a
medium surrounding the source.

 These corpuscles are perfectly elastic, rigid and weightless.

 The corpuscles travel in a straight line with very high speeds which are different in different
media.

 One gets a sensation of light when the corpuscles fall on the retina.

 Different colors of light are due to different sizes of corpuscles.

5. State the drawbacks of Newton’s corpuscular theory.

Drawbacks of Newton’s corpuscular theory:

 It could not explain partial reflection and refraction at the surface of a transparent medium.

 It was unable to explain phenomenon such as interference, diffraction, polarisation etc.

 This theory predicted that speed of light in a denser medium is more than the speed of light
in a rarer medium which was experimentally proved wrong by Foucault. Hence Newton’s
corpuscular theory was rejected.

 When particles are emitted from the source of light, the mass of the source of light must
decrease but several experiments showed that there is no change in the mass of the source
of light.

6. Give a brief account of Huygen’s wave theory of light.

Huygens’ wave theory of light:

In 1678, Dutch physicist Christian Huygens proposed a theory to explain the wave nature of light.
This theory is called Huygen’s wave theory of light.

Main postulates of Huygen’s wave theory:

i. Light energy from a source is propagated in the form of waves.

ii. In homogeneous isotropic medium, the velocity of wave remains constant.

iii. Different colours of light waves are due to different wavelengths of light waves.

iv. The material medium is necessary for the propagation of wave.

7. State the merits of Huygen’s wave theory of light.

Merits of Huygens’ wave theory of light:

i. It gives satisfactory explanation for laws of reflection, refraction and double refraction of
light assuming transverse nature of the light waves.

ii. It also explains the theory of interference and diffraction.

 iii. It experimentally proved that velocity of light in rarer medium is greater than that in a
denser medium.

8. State demerits of Huygens’ wave theory of light.

Demerits of Huygens’ wave theory of light:

i. This theory could not explain rectilinear propagation of light.

ii. It could not explain polarisation of light, Compton effect, photoelectric effect etc.

iii. It could not explain properly the propagation of light through vacuum. This is because ether
has high elastic constant and zero density which gives contradictory results.

iv. According to Huygen’s wave theory, luminiferous ether medium exists everywhere in the
universe even in vacuum which is treated as material medium for propagation of light
waves. However, Michelson’s and Morley’s theory disapproved the existence of ether
medium.

9. State Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory.

Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory:

Maxwell's electromagnetic theory, formulated by the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell in
the 19th century, describes the behavior of electric and magnetic fields and their interactions.

Maxwell's equations are a set of four fundamental equations that summarize his theory. The
equations are as follows:

i. Gauss's Law for Electricity:

→ → 𝜌
General form: 𝛻. 𝐸 = 𝜀
0

→ → 𝑄(𝑉)
Integral form: ∯ 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜀0

This equation states that the electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the electric
charge enclosed divided by the permittivity of free space (0).

ii. Gauss's Law for Magnetism:

→ →
General form: 𝛻. 𝐵 = 0
 → →
Integral form: ∯ 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑠 = 0

This equation expresses that there are no magnetic monopoles, and the magnetic field lines are
always closed loops.

iii. Ampère's Circuital Law with Maxwell's Addition:

→
→ → → 𝜕𝐸
General form: 𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐽 + 𝜇0 𝜀0 𝜕𝑡

→ →
→ 𝜕𝛦 →
Integral form: ∮𝜕𝛴 𝐵 . 𝑑 𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼 + 𝜇0 𝜀0 ∬𝛴 𝜕𝑡 . 𝑑𝑆

This law describes:

(i) The magnetic field induced around a closed loop is proportional to the electric
current plus displacement current.

(ii) An electric current flowing through a wire generates a magnetic field

iv. Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction:

→
→ → 𝜕𝐵
General form: 𝛻 × 𝐸 = − 𝜕𝑡

→ →
→ 𝜕𝛣 →
Integral form: ∮𝜕𝛴 𝐸 . 𝑑 𝑙 = − ∬𝛴 𝜕𝑡 . 𝑑𝑆

This law describes how a changing magnetic field induces an electric field.

10. Give the statement of Planck’s quantum theory.

Planck’s quantum theory:

Max Planck's quantum theory, proposed in 1900, marked a revolutionary development in physics
and laid the foundation for quantum mechanics. His proposal is to explain black body radiation.
According to Planck’s quantum theory, light is propagated in the form of packets of light energy
called quanta. Each quantum of light (photon) has energy,

𝐸 = ℎ𝑓

where, h = 6.63 × 10−34 Js is called Planck’s constant

f = frequency of light.
11. Define the following terms. (i) Wavefront, (ii) Wave normal (iii) Wave surface.

i. Wavefront: A locus of all the points of the medium to which waves reach simultaneously
so that all the points are in the same phase is called wavefront.

ii. Wave normal: A perpendicular drawn to the surface of a wavefront at any point of a
wavefront in the direction of propagation of light waves is called a wave normal. In the
figure curve PQ, P'Q' and P"Q" represent wavefronts at different instants of time. SN1,
SN2 and SN3 represent wave normals.

iii. Wave surface: The surface of sphere with source as centre and distance travelled by light
wave as radius where each wave arrives simultaneously is called wave surface.

12. Distinguish between primary source of light and secondary source of light.

No. Primary source of light Secondary source of light

1 It is a real source of light It is a fictitious source of light

2 It sends out primary waves in all possible It sends out secondary waves only in the
directions forward direction

3 Primary wave is effective at every point on Secondary wave is effective only at the
its surface points where it touches the envelope

4 Primary source is situated in air Secondary source is situated on a wavefront

13. Give the statement of the law of reflection.

Law of reflection is defined as, when the light rays fall on the smooth surface,

i. Incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface all lie in the same plane.
 ii. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

Mathematically, this can be expressed as:

𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑖=𝑟

Here are the key components of this law:

 Incident Ray: The incoming ray of light, called the incident ray, travels towards the
reflecting surface.

 Reflected Ray: The ray of light that bounces off the reflective surface is called the reflected
ray.

 Normal Line: The normal is an imaginary line perpendicular to the surface at the point of
incidence. The angles of incidence and reflection are measured with respect to this normal
line.

14. Give the statement of the law of refraction.

Laws of refraction state that:

i. The incident ray, refracted ray, and the normal to the interface of two media at the point of
incidence all lie on the same plane.

ii. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is
constant. This is also known as Snell’s law of refraction.

𝑛1 sin 𝑖
= = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝑛2 sin 𝑟
 where:

n1 and n2 are the indices of refraction of the first and second media, respectively.

i is the angle of incidence, which is the angle between the incident ray and the normal (a line
perpendicular to the surface) in the first medium.

r is the angle of refraction, which is the angle between the refracted ray and the normal in the
second medium.

15. Define wave number. Write down its unit and dimensions.

Wave number:

Wave number is defined as number of waves per unit distance.

Or, reciprocal of wavelength of the light is called wave number.

1
It is given by, 𝑘=𝜆

Unit: m−1 in SI system and cm−1 in CGS system.

Dimensions: [L−1]
16. What is meant by polarisation? Mention the applications of polarization.

Polarisation:

The phenomenon of restriction of the vibration of light waves in a particular plane perpendicular
to direction of wave motion is called polarisation of light. It specifically describes the direction of
the electric field vector in an electromagnetic wave.

Applications of polarization:

i. Sunglasses and Eyewear

ii. LCD Screens

iii. Photography and Cameras

iv. 3D Glasses

v. Communication Devices

vi. Medical Imaging

vii. Material Stress Analysis

viii. Remote Sensing

 ix. Security and Authentication

17. How will you distinguish between polarized and unpolarised light?

Distinction between polarised and unpolarised light:

No. Polarised light Unpolarised light

1 The light in which vibrations of the The light in which the vibrations of the electric
electric field vectors are confined vectors are in all possible directions, which are
only to one plane is called polarised perpendicular to the directions of propagation,
light. is called as unpolarised light.

2 Polarised light has the electric Unpolarised light has electrical component in
component only in one direction at every direction at any time.
a given time.

18. State and explain Brewster’s law.

Or,

Show that when light is incident at polarising angle ip, then 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒊𝑷 = 𝝁, where μ is the R.I.
of the medium.

Statement of Brewster’s law:

The tangent of the polarising angle is equal to the refractive index of the refracting medium at
which partial reflection takes place.

According to Brewster’s law, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑃 = 𝜇.

Proof: Let XY be the interface of refracting media.

Which shows Brewster’s law.
19. Show that when the light is incident at polarising angle, the reflected and refracted rays
are mutually perpendicular to each other.

In the figure, AB = incident ray

BD = refracted ray

BC = reflected ray

We have to show BD ⊥ BC i.e., ∠DBC = 90°

In the figure, ip = r [from laws of reflection]

But ip + rp + ∠DBC = 180°

∴ 90° + ∠DBC = 180° [From equation (3)]

∴ ∠DBC = 90°

∴ BD ⊥ BC

Hence reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular at polarising angle.

20. Explain red and blue shift.

Red shift: When the source is receding away from the observer, then the frequency of light appears
to be decreasing or the wavelength of light appears to be increasing to the observer. Therefore, the
spectral line gets displaced towards red end, hence it is known as the red shift.

Blue shift: When the source is approaching the observer, then the frequency of light appears to be
increasing or wavelength appears to be decreasing, i.e., the spectral line in electromagnetic
spectrum gets displaced towards violet end, hence it is known as blue shift.

Mathematical Problems
1. What are the frequency and wavelength of an EM wave of energy 6.626×10-19 J?

𝐸 6.626×10−19
Answer: Frequency, 𝑓 = = = 10−15 𝐻𝑧.
ℎ 6.626×10−34
𝑐 3×108
Wavelength, 𝜆= = = 3 × 107 𝑚.
𝑓 6.626×10−34

2. What is the wave number of a beam of light in air if its frequency is 9 x 1014 Hz?

[Where: c = 3 x 108 ms-1]

Given: v = 9 × 1014 Hz,

c = 3 x 108 ms-1

To find wave number ()

Formula: 𝑣 = 𝜆
Calculation: From formula,

The wave number of the beam is 3 × 106m-1.

3. The refractive index of glass is 1.5. What is the speed of light in glass? [Speed of light in
vacuum is 3 x 108 ms-1]

Given: µ = 1.5,

c = 3×108 ms-1

To find: The speed of light in glass (vg)

𝑐
Formula: µ =
𝑣𝑔

Calculation: From formula,

The speed of light in glass is 2×108 ms-1.

4. Light of wavelength 4500 Å in water has a wavelength 4000 Å in glass. Find the R.I. of
glass w.r.t. water.

5. What is the Brewster angle for air-to-glass transition? [Refractive index of glass = 1.5]

Solution

Refractive index of glass, =1.5

Brewster angle = θ

Brewster angle is related to refractive index as:

Therefore, the Brewster angle for air to glass transition is 56.31°.

6. For a glass plate as a polariser with refractive index 1.633, calculate the angle of incidence
at which light is polarised.

Solution:

Given: μ = 1.633

To find polarising angle (ip)

Formula: 𝜇 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑃

Calculation: From formula we get,

𝑖𝑃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1.633)

∴ 𝑖𝑃 = 58°31′

The angle of incidence at which light is polarised is 58°31'.

Prepared by:
Mosfiqur Rahman
Sr. Lecturer (Physics)
Dept. of Textile Engineering
Uttara University, Uttara, Dhaka
Contact: 01773-101533
E-mail: [email protected]
[email protected]