1. Define communication system. Elements of communication system.

A communication system is a system or setup used to transfer information (messages, data, signals) from
one place (the sender) to another (the receiver) through a medium (like air, cables, or optical fiber). The
goal is to accurately deliver the intended message with minimal distortion or loss.

Elements of a Communication System

A typical communication system consists of the following main components:

1. Information Source
a. This is where the message originates (e.g., a person's voice, a text message, a video).
b. It provides the data or signal that needs to be transmitted.
2. Transmitter
a. Converts the message from the source into a signal suitable for transmission.
b. May include processes like modulation, encoding, or amplification.
3. Transmission Medium/Channel
a. The physical path between the transmitter and receiver.
b. Examples: air (for radio waves), cables (for wired communication), optical fibers.
4. Receiver
a. Receives the signal from the channel and converts it back into a form understandable to the
destination.
b. Involves demodulation, decoding, and filtering.
5. Destination
a. The final recipient of the message.
b. It can be a person, a device, or another system.
6. Noise (optional but important to consider)
a. Unwanted signals that interfere with the transmission.
b. Can cause distortion or loss of data.

2. Types of communication system.

1. Based on Transmission Medium

a) Wired Communication System

• Uses physical cables or wires (like copper wires, coaxial cables, or fiber optics).
• Examples: Telephone networks, Ethernet (LAN), cable TV.

b) Wireless Communication System

• Uses electromagnetic waves (no physical connection).

• Examples: Mobile phones, Wi-Fi, satellite communication, radio, Bluetooth.
2. Based on Direction of Data Flow

a) Simplex Communication

• One-way communication only.

• Example: Television broadcast (only from the station to the viewer).

b) Half-Duplex Communication

• Two-way communication, but only one direction at a time.

• Example: Walkie-talkies.

c) Full-Duplex Communication

• Two-way communication simultaneously.

• Example: Mobile phones, landline phones.

3. Based on Technology

a) Analog Communication System

• Uses continuous signals to transmit information.

• Example: AM/FM radio, analog TV.

b) Digital Communication System

• Uses discrete digital signals (0s and 1s).

• Example: Email, digital phones, internet communication.

4. Based on the Number of Users

a) Point-to-Point Communication

• Direct communication between a single transmitter and a single receiver.

• Example: Phone call between two people.

b) Broadcast Communication

• One transmitter, multiple receivers.

• Example: Radio or TV broadcast.

3. Define noise and signal to noise ration.

Definition of Noise

Noise in a communication system refers to any unwanted or disturbing signal that interferes with the
original message or signal being transmitted. It can distort, reduce clarity, or even completely corrupt the
signal, leading to errors in communication.

• Sources of Noise: Electrical interference, thermal noise, atmospheric disturbances, or human-made

disturbances.
• Example: Static or crackling sounds in a phone call or radio.

Definition of Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

The Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) is a measure that compares the level of the desired signal to the level of
background noise.

Mathematically:

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑆𝑁𝑅 =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒

It is usually expressed in decibels (dB):

𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝑆𝑁𝑅(𝑑𝐵) = 10 log10 ( )
𝑃𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒

4. Define noise factor, noise figure and noise temperature.

1. Noise Factor (F)

Definition:
The Noise Factor is the ratio of the SNR at the input of a device to the SNR at the output.

𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝐹=
𝑆𝑁𝑅𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒

• A perfect (noiseless) device would have F=1.

• Real devices always have F>1, due to added internal noise.

2. Noise Figure (NF)

Definition:
The Noise Figure is simply the Noise Factor expressed in decibels (dB).

NF(dB)=10log10(F)

• A lower noise figure means better performance, as it indicates less added noise.

3. Noise Temperature (Te)

Definition:
The Noise Temperature is a way to express the noise power introduced by a device in terms of
temperature. It’s the temperature at which a resistor would generate the same amount of thermal noise
power.

Te =(F−1)T0

• Where:
o T0 = reference temperature (usually 290 K)
o F = Noise Factor

5. Define amplitude modulation. Mathematical analysis of amplitude modulation

wave.
Amplitude Modulation (AM) is a modulation technique where the amplitude of a high-frequency carrier
wave is varied in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal (also called the
modulating signal), while the frequency and phase remain constant.

Mathematical Analysis of AM Wave

Let’s define the signals:

1. Message Signal (Modulating signal):

m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt)

• Am: amplitude of the message signal

• fm: frequency of the message signal

2. Carrier Signal:

c(t)=Accos(2πfct)

• Ac: amplitude of the carrier

• fc: frequency of the carrier (usually fc ≫fm )

Amplitude Modulated Wave (AM Signal)

The AM signal is:

s(t)=[Ac+m(t)]cos(2πfct)

Substitute m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt):

s(t)=[Ac+Amcos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)

This is the standard equation of an AM wave.

Modulation Index (μ)

𝐴𝑚
𝜇=
𝐴𝑐

• It indicates the depth of modulation.

• For 100% modulation, μ=1
• For under-modulation, μ<1
• For over-modulation, μ>1 (can cause distortion)

6. Define different types of amplitude modulation spectrum.

Amplitude Modulation (AM), the spectrum refers to the frequency components present in the modulated
signal. Depending on how the carrier and sidebands are treated, AM can be categorized into different types
based on their spectral components.

1. Double Sideband Amplitude Modulation (DSB-AM)

Also called: Standard AM

• Spectrum Components:
o Carrier frequency fc
o Upper Sideband (USB): fc+fm
o Lower Sideband (LSB): fc−fm

Bandwidth:

BW=2fm

Characteristics:

• Most commonly used in commercial AM radio.

• Simple to demodulate.
• Carrier consumes power but carries no information.

2. Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC)

Spectrum Components:

• Only sidebands (USB and LSB) — Carrier is suppressed

Bandwidth:

BW=2fm
Characteristics:

• More power-efficient than DSB-AM.

• Requires synchronous detection (more complex receiver).
• Used in some military and data communication systems.

3. Single Sideband (SSB)

Spectrum Components:

• Only one sideband (either USB or LSB) is transmitted.

• Carrier is usually suppressed or reduced.

Bandwidth:

BW=fm

Types:

• SSB-SC: Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier

• SSB-RC: Single Sideband Reduced Carrier

Characteristics:

• Very bandwidth-efficient (half of DSB).

• Also power-efficient.
• Used in long-distance radio, amateur radio, and aviation communication.

4. Vestigial Sideband (VSB)

Spectrum Components:

• One sideband is fully transmitted.

• The other sideband is partially transmitted (a vestige).

Bandwidth:

BW≈fm+vestigial portion

Characteristics:

• Trade-off between SSB and DSB.

• Easier to implement than SSB.
• Used in TV broadcasting (e.g., NTSC).

7. Define bandwidth and waveform.

1. Bandwidth

Definition:
Bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies that a signal occupies or that a communication channel can
transmit. It is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies present in the signal.

Bandwidth=fhigh−flow

• Unit: Hertz (Hz)

• Bandwidth determines the data rate and quality of transmission.
• Higher bandwidth allows for higher data rates and better signal quality.

2. Waveform

Definition:
A waveform is a graphical representation of how a signal varies with time. It shows the shape of the
signal and helps identify its characteristics like amplitude, frequency, and phase.

• Can be sinusoidal (for pure tones) or complex (for speech, video, etc.)
• Used to describe both analog and digital signals

Common Waveform Types:

• Sine wave – smooth, periodic signal (common in analog systems)

• Square wave – used in digital systems (represents binary data)
• Sawtooth/Triangle wave – used in various electronics and modulation techniques

8. Define grid modulated, plate modulated and collector modulated.

1. Grid Modulation (used in vacuum tubes)

Definition:
In grid modulation, the modulating signal is applied to the control grid of a vacuum tube amplifier,
while the carrier is applied to the plate circuit.

• The grid controls the electron flow from cathode to anode.

• By applying the modulating signal to the grid, the amplitude of the output (RF carrier) is varied.

Features:

• Requires less modulating power.

• Not very linear (can cause distortion).
• Used in low-power transmitters.
2. Plate Modulation (used in vacuum tubes)

Definition:
In plate modulation, the modulating signal is applied to the plate (anode) circuit of a Class C power
amplifier along with the RF carrier signal.

• The modulating signal modulates the supply voltage of the tube’s plate.
• This causes the carrier amplitude to vary, creating AM.

Features:

• Good modulation depth and linearity.

• Requires a high-power audio amplifier (because it directly modulates the plate).
• Common in high-power AM transmitters.

3. Collector Modulation (used in transistors)

Definition:
In collector modulation, the modulating signal is applied to the collector of a transistor (usually Class
C amplifier) along with the DC supply and carrier signal.

• It’s the transistor version of plate modulation (used in tubes).

• Modulating the collector voltage causes amplitude variation in the output.

Features:

• Common in solid-state AM transmitters.

• Similar in behavior to plate modulation.
• Needs modulating power almost equal to the RF output power.

9. Define FET balance modulator and ring diode modulator.

1. FET Balance Modulator

Definition:
A FET Balance Modulator is a circuit that uses Field Effect Transistors (FETs) to suppress the carrier
and produce a DSB-SC (Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier) signal. It works by balancing the circuit so
that the carrier cancels out, leaving only the sidebands.

How It Works:

• Two matched FETs act as electronic switches.

• The carrier signal is applied in such a way that it turns the FETs on and off alternately.
• The modulating signal is applied in a balanced configuration.
• The circuit is arranged so that the carrier cancels out at the output, while the modulated sidebands
remain.
Features:

• Low distortion
• Good carrier suppression
• Suitable for analog signal processing

2. Ring Diode Modulator

Definition:
A Ring Diode Modulator (also called a diode ring mixer) is a type of balanced modulator that uses four
diodes arranged in a ring configuration to produce a DSB-SC signal.

How It Works:

• The four diodes form a bridge (ring) circuit.

• The carrier signal is applied to the ring to switch the diodes rapidly.
• The modulating signal is applied to a transformer connected to the diodes.
• The switching action of the diodes mixes the signals and suppresses the carrier, leaving only the
sum and difference frequencies (i.e., the sidebands).

Features:

• Excellent carrier suppression

• High-frequency operation
• Widely used in RF and communication systems
• Can also be used as a mixer in superheterodyne receivers

10. What is phase shift method, filter method and third method.

1. Phase Shift Method

Definition:

The Phase Shift Method generates an SSB signal by creating two versions of both the carrier and the
modulating signal, each shifted by 90 degrees, and then combining them in such a way that one sideband
is canceled.

Working Principle:

• The modulating signal is split into two branches:

o One remains unchanged.
o The other is phase-shifted by 90°.
• The carrier is also split and similarly phase shifted.
• The two branches are multiplied and then algebraically combined to cancel out one of the
sidebands.
2. Filter Method

Definition:

The Filter Method generates an AM signal (with both sidebands) and then uses a bandpass filter to
remove one sideband.

Working Principle:

• Generate a DSB-SC signal.

• Use a highly selective bandpass filter to retain only the USB or LSB.

11. Introduction of ISB and VSB.

1. ISB – Independent Sideband Modulation

Independent Sideband (ISB) modulation is a technique in which both the upper and lower sidebands of
an amplitude-modulated carrier are used to carry different signals independently.

Applications:

• High-frequency (HF) communication systems

• Military and aeronautical communications
• Voice and telemetry transmission

Advantages:

• Efficient use of bandwidth.

• Can transmit two channels using the same carrier.

2. VSB – Vestigial Sideband Modulation

Vestigial Sideband (VSB) modulation is a form of amplitude modulation in which one full sideband is
transmitted along with a part of the other sideband (a "vestige").

Applications:

• Television broadcasting (e.g., NTSC)

• Systems where bandwidth saving and simple demodulation are both important

Advantages:

• Reduced bandwidth (less than DSB, more than SSB)

• Easier to implement than SSB
• Suitable for signals with low-frequency components like video

12. What is low level and high level modulator transmitter.

1. Low-Level Modulator Transmitter

In a Low-Level Modulator, amplitude modulation is performed at a low power stage of the transmitter
(before power amplification). After modulation, the signal is amplified to the required transmission power.

How It Works:

• The carrier and modulating signals are combined in a modulator circuit at low power.
• The modulated signal is then sent through linear amplifiers (to preserve modulation) to increase its
power.

Advantages:

• Needs less modulating power.

• Easier to design and adjust.
• Good for low- and medium-power transmitters.

2. High-Level Modulator Transmitter

In a High-Level Modulator, amplitude modulation is applied at the final (high-power) stage of the RF
amplifier. The carrier is already amplified, and the modulating signal modulates the high-power carrier
directly.

How It Works:

• The carrier signal is amplified first using a Class C amplifier.

• The modulating signal is applied to the power supply or plate/collector of the final RF amplifier
stage.
• This results in a high-power AM signal at the output.

Advantages:

• More efficient for high-power transmission.

• Does not require linear RF amplifiers (Class C can be used).