Intended learning outcomes

1. Define stress and distinguish different sources

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Stress

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•Stress
•Stress arises “when individuals perceive that
they cannot adequately cope with the demands
being made on them or with threats to their
well-being” (Lazarus, 1966)
•Stressors: sources of stress; demands on
people and threats to their well-being

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•Stressors
•Catastrophes: unpredictable large-scale events
that threaten many people at once (e.g., natural
disasters, terrorist attack)

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Posttraumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) is characterized by
flashbacks, avoidance of
reminders of the event,
recurrent dreams of the event,
and chronic physiological
arousal. Shown in the map is
the prevalence of PTSD among
New Yorkers after the 9/11
attack (Galea et al., 2002). 6
During the first year following the onset of a natural hazard,
the aggregated point prevalence of PTSD in the general
population was estimated at 26.0% (Kip et al., 2024). 7
•Stressors
•Traumatic events: events or situations in which
a person is exposed to actual or threatened
death or serious injury (e.g., military combat,
physical assaults, abuse, accidents)
•Major life events: typically have immediate
consequences that generally fade with time (e.g.,
loss of family member, loss of job)

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Respondents report whether each event has taken place in the
last 12 months. The number of events reported over the past
year predicts a variety of physical and psychological disorders
such as depression (e.g., Coyne, 1992). 9
•Stressors
•Occupational stress: stress due to exposure to
unpleasant, demanding, or unsafe working
conditions

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Some examples of occupational stress (Spielman et al., 2020) 11
•Stressors
•Hassles: everyday, minor annoyance or
nuisance that strains our ability to cope (e.g.,
nasty boss, relationship problems); may have
long-term ill effects

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Common daily hassles
reported by people
from different age
groups. 13
•Appraisals
•Stress is a subjective experience; not all people react
to the same event in the same way (Lazarus &
Folkman, 1984)
•Primary appraisal: decision regarding whether an
event is threatening
•Second appraisal: perceptions of one’s own ability to
cope with an event

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(Spielman et al., 2020) 15
Stress and health

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•Health effects
•Some stress is good: stress mobilizes the body
to confront or leave situation (fight-or-flight)
•Immediate effects: hormone secretions by the
adrenal glands, an increase in heart rate and
blood pressure, changes in skin conductance
•Prolonged exposure: decline of bodily
functioning, deterioration of body tissues,
decrease of immune functioning

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The model of general adaptation syndrome (Selye, 1956):
People’s responses to a prolonged stressor are typically
characterized by three stages: alarm reaction, resistance,
and exhaustion. 18
Participants were given nasal drops that contained respiratory
virus and followed 6 days to see whether they developed an
infection or symptoms. High-stress participants were more likely
to develop colds than did low-stress ones, even when variations
in personality and health were controlled for (Cohen et al., 1991).
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•Psychoneuroummunology
•The study of the relationship among
psychological factors, the immune system, and
the brain
•Multiple effects of stress: direct physiological
effects, harmful behaviors, indirect health-
related behaviors

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Coping

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•Coping strategies
•Avoidance-oriented coping
•Avoiding actions to solve problems (e.g.,
wishful thinking, direct escape, substance use,
overeating)
•Postponement of dealing with the situation
often worsens the problem, creating more
stress

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•Coping strategies
•Problem-focused coping
•Doing something to reduce the impact of the
situation or prevent its recurrence (e.g.,
consulting professionals, acquiring
information)
•More frequently used in modifiable or
controllable circumstances

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•Coping strategies
•Emotion-focused coping
•Managing or regulating emotions in the face
of stress; seeking a positive outlook (e.g.,
accepting sympathy, looking at the bright side
of things, diary writing)
•More frequently used in unchangeable or
uncertain circumstances

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•Coping strategies
•Coping flexibility
•Processes in which individuals flexibly deploy
different coping strategies in distinct stressful
contexts (Cheng, 2001)
•Problem-focused coping could elicit anxiety
in uncontrollable situations, while too much
focus on emotions may distract us from
solving problems

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•Stress reduction/management
•Relaxation exercises: calming down arousal and
intensity of negative emotions through
exercises and activities (e.g., meditation,
breathing, guided imagery, contact with nature)
•Biofeedback: a technique where the individual
is shown his/her bodily information (e.g., heart
rate) and taught strategies to alter this signal

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•Social connection
•Social integration: the size of social network, or
number of social roles (e.g., son, sister, student,
employee, team member)
•Social support: perception or actuality that
others can help us in times of need that may
take the form of tangible support, advice, and
emotional support

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(Holt-Lundstad et al., 2021) 29
The effect of social connection on mortality (based on
meta-analyses) is comparable or even exceeds that of
some known risk factors (Holt-Lundstad et al., 2017)
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