CARBON AND IT’S

COMPOUNDS
 INTRODUCTION

Symbol – C
Atomic number – 6
Atomic mass – 12
Valency - 4
Electronic configuration – 2,4
• The earth’s has only 0.02% carbon in the form of mineral such as carbonates,
hydrogen carbonates, coal and petroleum, and 0.33% of carbon dioxide which is the
most important gas.
• Carbon is a non-metal. In nature, it occurs its pure form as diamond and graphite.
• Chemistry is called living chemistry. Carbon circulates through air, plants, animals and
soil by means of complex reactions. This is called carbon cycle.
Compounds of Carbon - Carbon forms a large number of compounds with hydrogen are known as
hydrocarbons. He number of compounds of carbon is more than three million which is much larger than the
compounds formed by all other elements put together.
In the beginning of 19th century, scientists classified the compounds of carton into two types, used in their source
of occurrence :
(i) Inorganic compounds (obtained from non-living matter).
(i) Organic compounds (obtained from living matter, such as plant and animal
sources).
Bonding in Carbon ( Covalent bond ) – The characteristic of carbon atom by virtue of which it forms four
covalent bonds is generally referred as tetra valency of carbon.
Covalent bond – A covalent bond is defined as the force of
attraction arising due to mutual sharing of electrons between
the two atoms.
Formation of Covalent Bond –
(i) The combining atoms should have non-metallic characte.
(ii) The combining atoms should contain 4 to 7 electrons in their outermost (valence) shell.
Exception : In hydrogen atom, there is only 1 valence electron, but it forms covalent bon.
(iii) The combining atoms need 1, 2, 3 or 4 electrons to complete their octet (but
hydrogen completes its duplet (2 electrons).
(iv) The combining atoms should contribute equal number of electrons to form pair electrons (●●) to shared.
(v) After the pair of electrons of each combining atoms it should attain stable electronic configuration (noble gas
configuration).
Types of Covalent Bond –
1. Single Covalent Bond – A single covalent bond is formed by the sharing of one pair of electrons between the
two atoms. It is represented by one short line (-) between the two atoms.
H2, Cl2, HCl, CH3-CH3
2. Double covalent Bond – A double covalent bond is formed by the sharing of two pairs of electron between
the two combining atoms. It is represented by putting (=) two short lines between the two bonded atoms.
O2, CO2, CH2 = CH2
3.Triple covalent bond – A triple covalent bond is formed by the sharing of three pair of electrons between the
two combining atoms. It is represented by putting three short lines (≡) between two bonded atoms.

Formation of Single, double & triple Covalent Compounds –

H2 CCl4 C2H4

Cl2 HCl N2

H2O O2 C2H2

CH4 CO2
Non – polar and Polar covalent compounds-
1. Non-polar covalent bond - A covalent bond formed between two atoms of the same elements or with
same electronegativity is called non-polar covalent bond. Example : H2, O2 N2, Cl2, F2, etc.
2. Polar covalent bond - A covalent bond between the atoms of two elements having different
electronegativity is called a polar covalent bond. Molecules in which the atom is bonded by a polar covalent
bond are called polar molecules. Example : HCI, H2O, NH4+, etc.
Covalency - Covalency of the element in a covalent compound is equal to its total number of electrons
involved in the covalent bonding or number of unpaired elections available for covalent bonding.
Example - 1. H2 molecule, covalency = 1
2. H2O molecule, covalency (Oxygen) = 2
3. BF3 molecule, covalency (Boron) = 3
4. PCl3 molecule, covalency (Phosphorus, chlorine) = 3,1
5. PCl5 molecule, covalency (Phosphorus, chlorine) = 5,1
Characteristics of Covalent Bond and Covalent Compounds
Characteristics of Covalent Bond -
(i) Covalent bonds are formed by mutual sharing of electrons.
(i) Covalent bond is directional in nature because shared pair of electrons remains localised in a definite space between
the two atoms.
Characteristics of Covalent Compounds
(I) Physical State - The covalent compounds are generally gases or liquids but compounds with high molecular masses
are solid.
Solid : Urea, glucose and naphthalene
Liquids : Water, ethanol, benzene
Gases : Methane, chlorine, hydrogen, oxygen
(ii) Melting and boiling points - Covalent compounds have low melting and low boiling points because of
intermolecular forces in covalent compounds.
(iii) Solubility : Covalent compounds generally dissolve readily in organic solvents but they are less soluble in water.
(iv) Conductivity Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity because they contain neither ions nor free electrons
necessary for conduction. So they do not conduct electricity.
For example - glucose, alcohol, carbon tetrachloride do not conduct electricity.
Question – Differentiate between ionic & covalent bond.
Allotrope of Carbon – An element, in different structural forms, has different physical properties but similar chemical
properties. Such different forms are called ‘allotrope’ of an element or allotropic forms.
Diamonds and graphite are two crystalline allotropes of carbon. Diamond and graphite both are covalent crystals.
However, they differ considerably in their properties.
Structure of Diamond – In diamond, the carbon atoms are arranged tetrahedral. Each C atom is linked to its
neighbours by four single covalent bonds. Each carbon-carbon (C-C) bond length is 154 pm. Diamond is very hard, and
has high melting and boiling points. The electrons thus are held tightly between the nuclei, and there are no mobile
electrons to conduct electricity i.e., all the valence electrons of carbon are used to forming the covalent bonds. Hence,
diamond does not conduct electricity.
Density- 3.52 g cm-3
Properties of Diamond -
(i) Pure diamond is a transparent and colourless solid.
(ii) Polished diamond sparkles brightly because it reflects most of the light.
(iii) Diamond is not attacked by acids, alkalis and solvents like water, ether, benzene
or carbon tetrachloride but it is attacked by fluorine at 750°C.
C + 2F2 → CF4
(iv) The density of diamond is 3.51 g per cm 3 at 20°C.
Uses of diamond -
1. A saw fitted with diamond is used for sawing marbles.
2. A chip diamond is used for glass cutting
3. Black diamonds are used in making drill.
4. Diamonds are used for making dice for drawing very thin wires of harder metals.
5. Diamonds are also used for making high precision tools used in surgery such as for the removal of cataract.
6. Diamonds are used for making precision thermometers and protective windows for spacecrafts.
Structure of Graphite (Black lead) –
Graphein - Greek word – write
Graphite is an opaque and dark grey solid. In a crystal of graphite, the carbon atoms are arranged in hexagonal
patterns in parallel planes.
In a layer of graphite each carbon atom is strongly bonded to three carbon atoms by covalent bonds. Free electrons
make graphite a good conductor of electricity.
Properties of graphite -
1. Graphite is grayish-black, opaque material having metallic (shiny) luster.
2. It is soft and has a soapy (slippery) touch.
3. Graphite is lighter than diamond.
4.The density of graphite is 2.26 g per Cm3 at 20°C
5. Graphite is a good conductor of heat and electricity
6. Graphite has a very high melting point.
7. Graphite is insoluble in all common solvent.
Uses of graphite –
1. For making electrodes in dry cells and electric arc furnace.
2. Graphite is a good dry lubricant for those parts of machines where grease and oil cannot be used.
3. For making crucibles for melting metals
4. For manufacturing lead pencils.
5. Graphite is used as neutron moderator in nuclear reactors
6. For the manufacture of gramophone records and in electrotyping,
7. For the manufacture of artificial diamond.
Fullerenes – Fullerenes are allotropes of carbon that were discovered in 1985 by Robert F Curl Jr, Harold Kroto
and Richand E. Smalley.. They are large cage-like spherical molecules with formulae C32, C50, C60, C70, C76, C84
etc. The most commonly known fullerene is C60 which is named as Buckminster fullerene after the designer of
the geodesic dome, American architect Buckminster.
Structure of Fullerenes – In fullerene a fused-ring of aromatic system containing 20 hexagons and
12 pentagons of C atoms. It is a yellow powdery substance which turns on dissolution in solvents like toluene. It
polymerises on exposure to UV radiations.

Uses : Fullerenes are fascinating because they show unusual characteristics and applications like :
1. They are wonderful lubricants because the balls can roll between the surfaces.
2. Alkali compounds of C60 are super conducting materials even at high temperatures of the order of. 10-40
K.
AMORPHOUS FORMS OF CARBON –
Coal is formed in nature by the ‘carbonisation’ of wood. Conversion of wood to coal under the influence of
high temperature, high pressure, and in the absence of air is termed carbonisation.

Wood → Peat → Lignite → Bituminous coal → Anthracite

1. Wood Charcoal - When wood is heated strongly in a very limited supply of air, wood charcoal is obtained.
This process is called destructive distillation of wood. Charcoal is a black, porous and brittle solid. Charcoal
powder adsorbs colouring matter from solutions, and poisonous gases from the air. Charcoal is also a good
reducing agent.
2. Animal Charcoal - Animal charcoal (Bone charcoal) is obtained by destructive distllation of bones. It
contains about 10-12% of amorphous carbon.
3. Sugar Charcoal- It is obtained by heating sugar in the absence of air. Sugar Charcoal is the purest form of
amorphous carbon.
C12H22O11 → 12C + 11H2
4. Lamp black – Lamp black is manufactured when tar and vegetable oils are burned in an insufficient supply of air
and the resulting soot is deposited on wet blankets hung in a room. Lamp black is a velvety black powder. It is used
in the manufacture of India ink, printer’s ink, black paint and varnishes and carbon papers.
5. Carbon black – When natural gas is burned In limited supply of alr, the resulting soot is deposited
on the underside of a revolving disc. Carbon black is added to the rubber, used for making automobile tyres, and has
replaced the use of lampblack for many purposes.
6. Gas carbon and petroleum coke – Carbon scraped that is from the walls of the retort used for the
destructive distillation of coal is called gas carbon. During refining of crude petroleum. Petroleum coke is deposited
on the walls of the distillation tower. Both, gas carbon and petroleum coke are used for making electrodes in dry
cells and are good conductors of electricity.
Self linking property of carbon (catenation) – The property of self-linking with atoms of the same element is
known as catenation. In carbon, C-C bond energy is very high (347.3 kJ mol-l) causing catenation.
Note - Silicon can also make long chains within its compounds, but, since the silicon oxygen bond is much
stronger than that between two silicon atom, the chains typically contain –O-Si-O-Si- type links form compounds
with hydrogen is known as silanes.
Tetravalent nature – The atomic number of carbon is 6. Hence, its electronic configuration will be K L (2,4).
Carbon atom forms four covalent bonds by sharing valence electrons with other atoms. This is known as
tetravalency of carbon (means 4 valency of carbon). There four valencies of carbon directed towards four corners
of are tetrahedron and inclined to each other a atomic angle of 109°28’.

1. Formation of strong C-C covalent bonds – The single

bond formed between the carbon atoms is strong. This results
in the formation of stable compounds. Carbon atoms can also
form stable bonds with other atoms like H, Cl, Br, O, etc
2. Formation of C-C multiple bonds – Double and triple
bonds with not only carbon but with atoms of other elements
like oxygen, nitrogen etc.
Isomerism in Organic Compounds – The phenomenon of different structural formula of the same molecule,
giving rise to different properties of compounds, is called Isomerism.
Properties of Isomers : There are following important properties
of isomers given below:
(i) Isomers have same molecular formula but different structural
formula. (e.g., Isomers of butane, pentane)
(ii) They show similar properties when they exist same functional
group.
(iii) Two isomers can have different boiling points.
(iv) Isomers can have different functional groups.

(v) Alkanes having more than 3 carbon atoms could form isomer
(vi) Isomers have same atomic weight and same no. of atoms.
Organic Compounds – An organic compound is one containing carbon compounds. Hydrogen, nitrogen, and
oxygen atoms are the most common atoms that are generally attached to the carbon atoms. A German chemist.
Friedrich Wohler‘s synthesis demonstrated that organic matter could be synthesised from inorganic matter.
Wohler’s Synthesis – A synthesis of urea performed by Friedrich Wohler in 1828. He discovered that urea
[CO(NH2)2] was formed when a solution of ammonium cyanate (NH4CNO) was evaporated.

Though Wohler’s urea synthesis is famous, it was not the first organic compound to be made in the lab. In fact
Wohler himself had made oxalic acid [ (COOH)2 ] from an inorganic compound called cyanogens.
The Modern Definitions of Organic Compounds - The modern definition states that “the compounds of
carbon containing usually hydrogen and other elements. (oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, or phosphorus, as
well as several others) are called organic compounds and the branch of study of these organic
compounds are called organic chemistry”. This definition for organic compounds has several exceptions,
however these exceptions are carbonates (CO 3-2), cyanides (CN-), carbides (C2 2-), and oxides of carbon (CO2
CO). Even though these compounds contain carbon, do not contain any carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen bonds.
The exceptions, along with all compounds that do not contain carbon atoms, are classified as inorganic compounds.
 Classification of Organic Compounds : Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Compounds –
(i) Saturated Compound – Compounds of carbon and hydrogen whose adjacent carbon atoms contain only
one (carbon-carbon) bond are known as saturated hydrocarbons. These saturated hydrocarbons are called
as alkanes. The general formula of alkane is CnH2n+2 .
Example – CH4 , C2H6 .
Note -
Aliphatic hydrocarbons: The word aliphatic is derived from the Greek word aleiphar
meaning fat. Aliphatic hydrocarbons were named so because they were derived from fats
and oils. Hydrocarbons can be acyclic compounds, which are straight chain compounds, or
cyclic compounds which have rings of carbon atoms.
(ii) Unsaturated Carbon Compounds – Compounds of carbon and hydrogen that
contain one double covalent bond between carbon atoms (C- C) or a triple covalent
bond between carbon atoms (C= C) are
called unsaturated hydrocarbons.
(a) Alkenes - CnH2n
(b) Alkynes -